DESIGN

PHILOSOPHY
The design for concrete employed in BS 8110 is
base on limit state philosophy.

Its object is to achieve an acceptable probability

that the structure being designed will not
become unfit for its intended purpose during its
expected life.

Therefore the various ways in which a structure

become unfit for use are examined
 The condition of a structure when it
becomes unfit for use or unserviceable is
called a limit state.
This can by definition be further
subdivided into the following two
categories:
Ultimate limit state (ULS)
 Serviceability limit state (SLS)
 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
If a ULS is reached, collapse of the member or
structure will occur.
Therefore the design must examine all the
ULSs likely to affect a particular member.
Some of the ULSs that may have to be
considered are as follow:
 ULS due to bending
 ULS due to shear
ULS due to direct compression or tension
 ULS due to overturning
 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
If an SLS is reached the appearance of
the member or structure will be
disrupted, while this will not cause
collapse it may render the member unfit
for its intended service use.

Some of the SLSs that may have to be

considered are as follows:
SLS due to deflection: This should not
adversely affect the appearance of the
structure.

SLS due to cracking: This should not adversely

affect the appearance or the durability of the
structure.
For example, excessive cracks would allow the
ingress of moisture with subsequent corrosion
and/ or frost damage.
 SLS due to vibration: This should not produce
structural damage or cause discomfort or alarm
to occupants of the building. Special
precautions may be necessary to isolate the
source of such vibration.

PLEASE NOTE: Other serviceability

consideration that may have to be taken into
account in the design of a particular member
or structure are durability, fire resistance and
lightning.
 LIMIT STATE BASIC DESIGN
PROCEDURE
When designing a particular concrete
element, it is usual to first ensure that the
ULS is not exceeded and then to check that
the relevant SLSs are also satisfied.

 In order to ensure that the ULS is not

exceeded, safety factors are applied as
discussed.
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The strength of the materials actually
used in construction can vary from the
specified strength for a number of
reasons.
Therefore in ULS design the basic or
characteristic strength of a material is
modified by a partial safety factor to give
the ultimate design strength.
This is explained in more detail below.
 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS
BS 8110 adopts the criterion that not
more than 5% of the sample batch
should have less than a specified
strength.
This strength is called the characteristic
strength, denoted by
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
The test results used for specifying the
characteristic strength of reinforced concrete
materials are the cube strength of concrete
and the yield or proof strength of steel
reinforcement.
Table 9 of BS 5328 Concrete Part 1, Guide to
specifying strengths for various grades of
concrete. These are in fact the cube strength
of the concrete at 28 days. The yield strength
of reinforcement is given in BS 8110 Table 3.1,
reproduce here as Table 3.3.
 Table 3.2 Concrete Compressive
strength (BS 5328 Part 1990 Table 9)
Concrete grade Characteristic compressive
strength at 28 days
(N/mm²=MPa
C7.5 7.5
C10 10.0
C12.5 12.5
C15 15.0
C20 20.0
C25 25.0
C30 30.0
C35 35.0
C40 40.0
C45 45.0
C50 50.0
C55 55.0
C60 60.0
 Table 3.3 Strength of reinforcement
(BS 8110 Part 1 1997 Table 3.1)
Designation Specified characteristic strength fy
(N/mm)
Hot rolled mild steel 250
High yield steel (hot rolled or cold 460
worked)
Partial Safety Factors for Materials
For the analysis of R.C elements the design
strength of the concrete and the steel
reinforcement is obtained by dividing their
characteristic strength by a partial safety factor
𝛾𝑚.
This factor is to take account of differences that
may occur bewteen laboratory and on –site
values. Such differences could be caused by any
of the following:
 CONCRETE:
 Segregation
 Dirty casting condition
 Inadequate protection
 Inadequate compaction
REINFORCEMENT
 Wrongly positioned reinforcement
 Distorted reinforcement
 Corroded reinforcement
 Values of 𝛾𝑚 for the ULS are given in BS 8110
Table 2.2, which is reproduced here as Table 3.4
 Table 3.4 Values of 𝜸𝒎 for ultimate
limit state (BS 8110 Part 1. 1997 Table
2) 1.05
Reinforcement

Concrete 1.50

Shear Strength without shear 1.25

reinforcement

Bond Strength 1.4

Others (e.g bearing) stress ≥ 1.5

Ultimate Design Strength of Materials
The ultimate design strength of a material is
obtained by dividing its characteristic strength
by appropriate partial safety factor referred to
in section 3.6.2:
 Ultimate design strength of concrete =
𝑓𝑐𝑢
=0.67𝑓𝑐𝑢
1.5
 Ultimate design strength of reinforcement =
𝑓𝑦
= 0.95fy
1.05
It is important to appreciate that the formulae
and design charts given in BS 8110 have been
derived with the relevant partial safety factors
for strength included.

Therefore it is only necessary for the designer

to insert the relevant characteristic strength
values 𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑦. In order to use the formulae
and charts.
 Practical consideration for durability
Before proceeding to the actual structural
design of considerations related to durability
are worthy of mention since they can
influence the size of members.
 Durable concrete should perform
satisfactorily in its intended environment for
the life of the structure. To achieve durable
concrete it is necessary to consider several
interrelated factors at different stages in both
the design and Construction phases.
Guidance is given in BS 8110 on various
factors that influence reinforced concrete
durability. They include :
(a) Shape and bulk of concrete;
(b) Amount of concrete cover to reinforcement;
(c) Environmental condition to which the
concrete will be exposed;
(d) Cement type;
(e) aggregate type;
(f) Cement content and water to cement ratio;
and
(g) Workmanship necessary to attain full
compaction and effective curing.
 Factor (a) and (b) must be considered at the
design stage because they influence the
member size and the location of the
reinforcement .
These are therefore discussed in more detail
below. The remaining factors listed may be
catered for by including suitable clauses in the
specification and by adequate site
management.
 Shape and bulk of concrete
If the concrete will be exposed when the
building is finished, adequate thought
should be given at the design stage to its
shape and bulk to prevent the ingress of
moisture.

The shape should be detailed to

encourage natural drainage and hence
avoid standing water.
 Concrete cover to reinforcement
 All reinforcement must be provided with
sufficient cover to avoid corrosion and guard
against distortion in the event of fire. The
amount of fire is discussed in section 3.7.3
 The amount of cover necessary to protect
reinforcement against corrosion depends on
both the exposure conditions that prevail and
the quality of concrete used. BS 8110 Table 3.2
defines exposure conditions, and Table 3.4
Gives the nominal cover to be provided with
respect to the concrete quality.
 FIRE RESISTANCE
The fire resistance of a reinforced concrete
member is dependent upon the cover to
reinforcement, the type of aggregate that is
used and the minimum dimensions of the
member.

Nominal cover provided for the protection

against corrosion may, in certain
circumstances, not suffice as fire protection.
Reference should be made to BS 8110 Part 1
Table 3.5 and Figure 3.2 for the amount of
cover and minimum member dimensions to
satisfy fire resistance requirements.

Further guidance on design for fire, including

information on surface treatment , is given in
section 4 of BS 8110 Part 2.