C02041: Functional Analysis

Chapter 1: Normed spaces. Banach spaces

Chapter 2: Fundamental Theorems

Chapter 3: Hilbert Spaces

Main Reference:

* H. Brezis, " Functional analysis, Sobolev spaces and partial

differential equations", Springer, New York, [2011].

Le Ba Khiet, Phd. Faculty of Mathematics & Statistics, TDTU January 8, 2025 1 / 12

C02041: Functional Analysis

Chapter 1: Normed spaces. Banach spaces

Chapter 2: Fundamental Theorems

Chapter 3: Hilbert Spaces

Main Reference:

* H. Brezis, " Functional analysis, Sobolev spaces and partial

differential equations", Springer, New York, [2011].

Le Ba Khiet, Phd. Faculty of Mathematics & Statistics, TDTU January 8, 2025 1 / 12

C02041: Functional Analysis

Chapter 1: Normed spaces. Banach spaces

Chapter 2: Fundamental Theorems

Chapter 3: Hilbert Spaces

Main Reference:

* H. Brezis, " Functional analysis, Sobolev spaces and partial

differential equations", Springer, New York, [2011].

Le Ba Khiet, Phd. Faculty of Mathematics & Statistics, TDTU January 8, 2025 1 / 12

Chapter 1: Normed spaces. Banach spaces

1 Vector spaces

2 Normed spaces

3 Banach spaces

4 Linear bounded operators

5 Normed Spaces of Operators. Dual Spaces

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1.1 Vector spaces
Definition 1 (Vector space)
A vector space (or linear space) is a nonempty set X of elements
x, y . . . (called vectors) together with two operations "+" and ".". For all
x, y ∈ X and any scalars α, β ∈ R, we have

x +y = y +x
x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z
α(βx) = (αβ)x
1x = x
α(x + y ) = αx + αy
(α + β)x = αx + βx
x + θ = x (θ is called the zero vector)
x + (−x) = θ

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1.1 Vector spaces

Example 1
1) Space Rn : The n-dimensional Euclidean space

2) Space `p : Let p ≥ 1 be a fixed real number. Then

n ∞
X o
`p = x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) : |xk |p < ∞ .
k =1

* p = 2: we have the Hilbert sequence space `2 .

* Minkowski inequality:
∞
X 1/p ∞
X 1/p ∞
X 1/p
|xk + yk |p ≤ |xk |p + |yk |p .
k =1 k =1 k =1

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1.1 Vector spaces

Example 1
n o
3) Space `∞ = x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) : sup |xk | < ∞ .
k
4) Space C[a, b]: the set of all continuous functions on [a, b].

5) Product space: Let X1 , . . . , Xn be vector spaces. Then the Cartesian

product
X = X1 × X2 × . . . × Xn
is also a vector space.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 2 (Subspace)
A subspace Y of a vector space X is a nonempty subset such that for
all y1 , y2 ∈ Y and all scalars α, β ∈ R, we have αx + βy ∈ Y .

Remark
Y is itself a vector space.

Definition 3 (Linear combination)

A linear combination of vectors x1 , x2 , . . . , xn of a vector space X is an
expression of the form

α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . + αn xn

where α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 2 (Subspace)
A subspace Y of a vector space X is a nonempty subset such that for
all y1 , y2 ∈ Y and all scalars α, β ∈ R, we have αx + βy ∈ Y .

Remark
Y is itself a vector space.

Definition 3 (Linear combination)

A linear combination of vectors x1 , x2 , . . . , xn of a vector space X is an
expression of the form

α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . + αn xn

where α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 2 (Subspace)
A subspace Y of a vector space X is a nonempty subset such that for
all y1 , y2 ∈ Y and all scalars α, β ∈ R, we have αx + βy ∈ Y .

Remark
Y is itself a vector space.

Definition 3 (Linear combination)

A linear combination of vectors x1 , x2 , . . . , xn of a vector space X is an
expression of the form

α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . + αn xn

where α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 4 (Span)
For any nonempty subset M of X , the set of all linear combinations of
vectors of M is called the span of M, written span M. Thus

span M = {α1 x1 + . . . + αn xn : x1 , . . . , xn ∈ M, α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R}.

Remark
Obviously Y = span M is a subspace of X and we say that Y is
spanned or generated by M.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 4 (Span)
For any nonempty subset M of X , the set of all linear combinations of
vectors of M is called the span of M, written span M. Thus

span M = {α1 x1 + . . . + αn xn : x1 , . . . , xn ∈ M, α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R}.

Remark
Obviously Y = span M is a subspace of X and we say that Y is
spanned or generated by M.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 5 (Linear independence)

Given a subset M = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } (r ≥ 1) in a vector space X , if the
equation
α1 x1 + . . . + αr xr = 0 (α1 , . . . , αr ∈ R)
has a unique solution α1 = α2 = . . . = αr = 0, then M is said to be
linearly independent; otherwise, it is called linearly dependent.

Example 2
Prove that the vectors x1 = (1, 0, 0), x2 = (0, 2, 0), x3 = (0, 0, 3) are
linearly independent in R3 .

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 5 (Linear independence)

Given a subset M = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } (r ≥ 1) in a vector space X , if the
equation
α1 x1 + . . . + αr xr = 0 (α1 , . . . , αr ∈ R)
has a unique solution α1 = α2 = . . . = αr = 0, then M is said to be
linearly independent; otherwise, it is called linearly dependent.

Example 2
Prove that the vectors x1 = (1, 0, 0), x2 = (0, 2, 0), x3 = (0, 0, 3) are
linearly independent in R3 .

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1.1 Vector spaces
Definition 6 (Dimension of a space)
A vector space X has its dimension n ∈ N, if X contains a linearly
independent subset of n vectors, whereas any subset of n + 1 or more
vectors is linearly dependent.

In this case, we write dim(X ) = n and we say that X is finite

dimensional.

If X is not finite dimensional, it is said to be infinite dimensional.

Remark
If X = {0} then dim(X ) = 0.

Example 3
Prove that dim(Rn ) = n.
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1.1 Vector spaces
Definition 6 (Dimension of a space)
A vector space X has its dimension n ∈ N, if X contains a linearly
independent subset of n vectors, whereas any subset of n + 1 or more
vectors is linearly dependent.

In this case, we write dim(X ) = n and we say that X is finite

dimensional.

If X is not finite dimensional, it is said to be infinite dimensional.

Remark
If X = {0} then dim(X ) = 0.

Example 3
Prove that dim(Rn ) = n.
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1.1 Vector spaces
Definition 6 (Dimension of a space)
A vector space X has its dimension n ∈ N, if X contains a linearly
independent subset of n vectors, whereas any subset of n + 1 or more
vectors is linearly dependent.

In this case, we write dim(X ) = n and we say that X is finite

dimensional.

If X is not finite dimensional, it is said to be infinite dimensional.

Remark
If X = {0} then dim(X ) = 0.

Example 3
Prove that dim(Rn ) = n.
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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 7 (Basis of a space)

If X is a vector space and B is a linearly independent subset of X such
that X = span B then B is called a basis of X .

Remark
If B is a basis for X , then every nonzero vector x ∈ X has a unique
representation as a linear combination of elements of B.

Example 4
Find a basis of Rn .

Theorem 1
Let X be an n-dimensional vector space. Then any proper subspace Y
of X has dimension less than n.

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1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 7 (Basis of a space)

If X is a vector space and B is a linearly independent subset of X such
that X = span B then B is called a basis of X .

Remark
If B is a basis for X , then every nonzero vector x ∈ X has a unique
representation as a linear combination of elements of B.

Example 4
Find a basis of Rn .

Theorem 1
Let X be an n-dimensional vector space. Then any proper subspace Y
of X has dimension less than n.

Le Ba Khiet, Phd. Faculty of Mathematics & Statistics, TDTU January 8, 2025 10 / 12

1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 7 (Basis of a space)

If X is a vector space and B is a linearly independent subset of X such
that X = span B then B is called a basis of X .

Remark
If B is a basis for X , then every nonzero vector x ∈ X has a unique
representation as a linear combination of elements of B.

Example 4
Find a basis of Rn .

Theorem 1
Let X be an n-dimensional vector space. Then any proper subspace Y
of X has dimension less than n.

Le Ba Khiet, Phd. Faculty of Mathematics & Statistics, TDTU January 8, 2025 10 / 12

1.1 Vector spaces

Definition 7 (Basis of a space)

If X is a vector space and B is a linearly independent subset of X such
that X = span B then B is called a basis of X .

Remark
If B is a basis for X , then every nonzero vector x ∈ X has a unique
representation as a linear combination of elements of B.

Example 4
Find a basis of Rn .

Theorem 1
Let X be an n-dimensional vector space. Then any proper subspace Y
of X has dimension less than n.

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Exercises

1. Let Y and Z be subspaces of a vector space X . Prove that Y ∩ Z

and αY + βZ := {αy + βz : y ∈ Y , z ∈ Z } are subspaces of X , where
α and β are given numbers.

2. Find the span of M = {(1, 1, 2), (0, 1, 3)} in R3 .

3. Let M = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xp } be a linearly independent subset of an

n-dimensional vector space, where p < n. Show that if x ∈ / span M
then M ∪ {x} is linearly independent in X . Show that there is a basis
for X containing M.

4. Show that {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }, where xk (t) = t k (k = 1, 2, . . . , n), is a

linearly independent set in the space C[a, b]. Deduce that C[a, b] is
infinite dimensional.

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Exercises

5. Show that in an n-dimensional vector space X , the representation of

any x as a linear combination of given basis vectors e1 , e2 , . . . , en is
unique.

6. Show that if dim(X ) = n then any linearly independent set of n

vectors of X is a basis for X .

7. Show that the set of all 2 × 2 matrices forms a vector space X .

What is the zero vector in X ? Determine dim(X ). Find a basis for X .
Do the set of all 2 × 2 symmetric matrices forms a subspace of X ? The
singular matrices?

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