XII PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS (8) AND ACTIVITY(6) AS PER CBSE PRACTICALS REDUCED SYLLABUS-2021.

BYK.RATHINA,TA,ZIET,BBSR
Experiment -01
Aim To determine the resistivity of a given two or three wire by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
Apparatus/ Material Required
• A wire of unknown resistance ,Battery,Voltmeter,Milliammeter,Rheostat,Plug key
• Connecting wires ,Piece of sandpaper
Circuit Diagram

V�I and hence V = RI

Where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor. Resistance R depends on the
dimensions and material of the conductor. The relationship between the resistance of a material and its length and area of the cross-section
is given by the formula

R=ρlA’ =

Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is a characteristic of the material of the wire.
Procedure
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with the help of sandpaper to remove any insulating coating on them.
2. Connect the resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter, and ammeter as shown in the figure.
3. Make sure that the pointers in the voltmeter and milliammeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring scale. If not, adjust
the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided at the base using a screwdriver.
4. Note the range and the least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat to the end where the current flow is minimum.
6. Note the voltmeter and the milliammeter reading.
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool. Again insert the key and slightly increase the voltage by moving the rheostat. Note
down the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different adjustments of the rheostat. Document the readings in a tabular column.
Observations
Range of ammeters = 0 mA to 5 Ma , The Least count of ammeter = 10 mA
Range of voltmeter = 0_ V to _3 V ,The
Least count of voltmeter = _0.05 V The Least count of meter-scale = .1c m ,Length
of the given wire, l = 1 m
Table-1 for determining resistance

S. No The applied potential Current flowing through the wire R=V/I

difference(voltmeter reading V) (Milliammeter Reading A)

01 0.15 0.05 3.0

02 0.20 0.06 3.30

03 0.25 0.07 3.60

04 0.29 0.08 3.63

05 0.34 0.09 3.78

 Table-2 finding diameter of the wire using screw gauge

Sl.no Linear scale Circular scale reading Total reading

reading (N
in mm)
No.of circular Value Observed Corrected
scale division on [n×(L.C)] D0=N+n×(L.C)mm D=D0+c
reference line (n) mm

AӨB 0 21 21 x 0.01 0.21 D1(a)=0.21

=21

0 20 20 x 0.01 = 0.20 D1(b)=0.20

0.20

AӨB 0 21 21 x 0.01 0.21 D2(a)=0.21

=21

0 21 21 x 0.01 0.21 D2(b)=0.21

=21

Mean diameter(d)=0.21 x 10-3m

1. The resistivity =RA/L =R x 3.14 x (d/2)2/L =3.31 x 3.14 x(0.21x10-3/2)2 / 01m =0.11 x 10-6 ohm m-1
Calculations

2.
1. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire V and the current I flowing through the wire as shown
below.

2. Determine the slope of the graph. The resistance of the given wire is then equal to
the Reciprocal of the slope.
From the graph, R = BC/AB = Ω
3. Resistance per unit length of the wire = R/l = _3.62_____Ωm–1
4. The resistivity =RA/L =R x 3.14 x (d/2)2/L =3.31 x 3.14 x(3/2)2 / 01m =0.11 x 10-6 ohm m-1
Error
ΔRR=ΔVV+ΔII=….nil
Here, R is the resistance per unit length and ΔR is the estimated error. ΔV
And ΔI are the least count of voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
Result
1. The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the current.
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is ( R ± ΔR) =.........3.62 Ωm–1).
3. The resistivity of the given wire =0.11 x 10-6 ohm m-1
Experiment-02 Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.

Materials Required
1. A metre bridge A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator) ,A galvanometer ,A resistance box
2. A jockey .A one-way key ,A resistance wire ,A screw gauge ,A metre scale
3. A set square ,Connecting wires ,A piece of sandpaper
Theory
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform
cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:
XR=l(100−l)
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
X=Rl(100−l)
Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:
ρ=πr2XL
Where,
• L is the length of the wire ,r is the radius of the wire

Procedure
1. The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right gap between C and B without any formation of
loops.
3. The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
4. All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
6. The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end of the bridge.
7. The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in one direction then the circuit
connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer deflection.
8. Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of the jokey should be gentle from left to the right
of the galvanometer.
9. Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire, there
shouldn’t be any deflection.
10. Note the position of D to know the length of AD = l.
11. Four sets of observations should be taken by changing the value of 12.
12. Record the observations in a tabular form.
13. Stretch the resistance wire to find its length using a metre scale.
14. Using screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at four different places keeping it in a mutually perpendicular direction.
15. Record the observations in the table.

Observations
Length of given wire L =…….cm
Table for unknown resistance (X)

Resistance from box, R Length AB = l Length BC = (100-l) Unknown Resistance X = [R(100-l)]/L

(Ohm) (cm) (cm) (Ohm)

0.5 58.3 41.7 0.35

0.7 60.7 39.3 0.45

1 61.9 38.1 0.61

1.5 61.1 38.9 0.95

Least count of the screw gauge mean diameter=0.59 ohm

Pitch of screw gauge = ….01….mm
Total no.of divisions on the circular scale = 100………..

� L.C of the given screw gauge = pitch/no.ofdivisionsonthecircularscale = ….01mm Zero

error e = nil……mm
Zero correction c = -e = 0……mm
Radius of the resistance wire

Main scale reading Circular scale Total reading (diameter) Mean D Mean radius (D/2)
(mm) reading (mm) (mm) (mm)

0 43 0.43 0.42 0.21

Calculations
Calculation for X
The value of l is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of table 1. Find
length (100 – l) cm and write in column 4.
Calculate X and write in column 5,
MeanX=X1+X2+X3+X44=…0.59…ohm
Calculation for D
Mean corrected diameter = D1(a)+D1(b)+…..+D4(a)+D4(b)8=……mm=….cm
Calculation for specific resistance
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire, Length of unknown wire=1 m
ρ= x π (D 2/4L)=…..ohm-cm=……ohm-m

=0.59 x 3.14 ((0.59)2 /4)/1m =0.161 ohm-m

Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given wire, ρ0 =
…..ohm.m
Percentage error = ρ−ρ0ρ0×100 = ………%

Result
1. The value of unknown resistance X = …0.59 ohm….
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = …0.161 ohm-m.

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null point.
7. There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.
8. The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions that are mutual. Sources
Of Error
1. The screws of the instrument might be loose.
2. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
3. There might be backlash error in the screw gauge.
Experiment-03

Aim of Experiment

To verify the Laws of Combination (Series) of Resistances using a Metre bridge.

Apparatus/Materials Required

• A Meter bridge
• A Leclanche cell (Battery Emulator)
• A Galvanometer
• A Resistance Box
• A Jockey
• Two Resistance wires
• A Set square
• Sand Paper
• Connecting wires.
Theory

(i) The resistance (r) of resistance wire or coil is given by r = (100−l)/L×R,

Where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and L is the length of the Meter bridge wire from zero ends up to the
balance point.

(ii) When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given by Rs = r1 + r2.

Diagram

Law of combination series of resistances using Meter bridge

Series Combination of Resistances
Procedure

1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.

2. To find the value of r1 and r2, follow the same steps as Experiment 2. (if r1 and r2 unknown).
3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter bridge and find the resistance of this
combination, Take at least three sets of observations.
4. Record your observations as follows.
Observations

Value of r1:

Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) (100-l) (cm) [(100-l)*R]/l Mean r1

0.5 24 76 1.583

1 38 62 1.631 1.616

2 55 45 1.636

Value of r2:

Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) (100-l) (cm) [(100-l)*R]/l Mean r2

0.5 33 67 1.015

1 50 50 1 1.015

2 66 34 1.030

Value of rs:

Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) (100-l) (cm) [(100-l)*R]/l Mean rs

0.5 16 84 2.625

1 28 72 2.571 2.615
 Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) (100-l) (cm) [(100-l)*R]/l Mean rs

2 43 57 2.651

Calculations

Calculations for verification of laws r1 and r2 in series:

• The Experimental value of Rs = 2.615 ohm.

• The Theoretical value of Rs = r1+r2 = 1.616+1.015 = 2.631 ohm.
• Experimental Error (Difference if any) = [(2.615-2.631)/2.615]×100 = 0.6%.
Result

Within limits of Experimental Error, Theoretical and Experimental values of Rs are the same. Hence, the law of resistance in series is
verified.

Precautions

• The Connection should be neat, clean and tight.

• All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
• Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and don’t rub it.
• Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
• A low resistance rheostat should be used.
• The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).
Sources of Error

• Resistance box, Instrument screw and other plugs may be loose.

• Unavailable thickness connecting wires.
• Used high resistance rheostat in connection.
Experiment-04
Section B EXP-05
Experiment NO-6
 EXPERIMENT:-07

Aim of Experiment

To Find the Focal length of A Concave lens Using A Convex lens.

Apparatus/Material Required

• An Optical bench with four Uprights

• A Convex lens (less focal length)
• A Concave lens (high focal length)
• Two Lens holders
• Two Optical needles
• A Knitting needle
• A half Meter scale.
Theory

A concave lens always forms a virtual image, so its focal length cannot be found directly as like a convex lens. To find the focal length of a
concave lens, indirect method is used.

Indirect Method – An object needle O is placed on one side of a convex lens L1 and its real inverted image I is located on the other side
(by the image needle) as shown in the ray diagram.

The convex lens L2 is placed between the convex lens L1 and the image needle I. The concave lens diverges the rays and the image is
now formed at I’ as shown in the ray diagram.

For concave lens, I is the virtual object and I’ is the real image. Hence, O2I=u & O2I’=v, as shown in the ray diagram.

So, focal length can be calculated by using the formula: 1/f=1/v-1/u.

From lens formula, we have, f=uv/u-v ,

where f = focal length of concave lens L2, u = distance of I from optical centre of L2, v = distance of I’ from optical centre of L2.

(Note:- According to sign convention, u and v have positive values (being measured in direction of incident light. since v>u, u-v is negative.
Hence f comes negative).
Ray Diagram

focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

Procedure

To determine rough focal length of convex lens:

1. Mount the convex lens in lens holder.

2. Go outside and point the lens at a distant tree or building.
3. Get the image of the tree or building on a white colored wall (screen) and move the lens back and forth to get a sharp image on
the wall.
4. Now measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). it will equal rough focal length of the mirror.
To set the convex lens:

1. Clamp the holder with the lens to a stable upright and place the upright at the 50 cm mark.
2. Adjust the lens such that its surface is perpendicular to and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.
3. Keep the upright fixed throughout in this position.
To set the object needle:

1. Take the thin optical needle as the object needle (O). Mount it vertically upwards on the outer side near the zero end nearly 1.5
times the rough focal length of the lens.
2. Adjust the height of the object needle to make its tip on the horizontal line through the optical center of the lens.
3. Note the position of the index mark vertically at the base of the object needle.
To set the image needle:

1. Remove the convex mirror keeping it upright in its position.

2. An inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will appear, tip of the image should be at the center of the lens.
3. Place the thick optical needle (image needle) on the fourth end of the optical bench directly next to the other.
4. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip appears in line with the tip of the image when viewed with the right open eye.
5. Note the position of the index mark directly at the base of the image needle.
To set the concave lens:

1. Clamp the holder with the concave lens perpendicular to the I side of the convex lens.
2. Fix it upright at a distance from the convex lens.
3. Set the convex lens surface with the principal axes of the lenses in the same direction as the convex lens surface.
To set the image needle at I’:

1. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer laterally move- able upright near zero end.
2. Keep the upright fixed throughout in this position.
To get more observations:

1. Move the object needle 2 cm towards lens and the two cm away from the lens.
2. Repeat the experiment to get more observations.
Observations

• Rough focal length of the convex lens = _ cm.

• Actual length of the knitting needle, x = _ cm.
• Observed distance between the concave lens and image needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = _ cm.
• Index correction for u as well as v, (x-y) = _ cm.
• Observation Table for focal length of Concave lens:
Sr. O L1 at O1 I L2 at O2 I’ u=IO2 v=I’O2 u=IO2 v=I’O2 f=uv/u-v
No. (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (2d) (2e) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b) (5)

1. 34.5 50 86.8 72.5 91.2 14.3 18.7 14.3 13.8 -28.52

2. 32.9 50 91.4 78.7 94.8 12.7 16.1 11.7 11.2 -23.4

3. 32 50 95 82.8 98.7 12.2 15.9 11.8 11.3 -23.21

• Mean value of focal length, (Mean f) = f1+f2+f3/3 =-75.13/3 = -25.04 cm.

Calculations

1. Find difference of positions of L2 and I and write it as observed u in column 3a.

2. Find difference of positions of L2 and I’ and write it as observed v in column 3b.
3. Apply index correction and write corrected values of u & v in columns 4a and 4b.
4. Calculate f=uv/u-v and write in column 5.
5. Take mean of different values of as recorded in column 5.
Result

The focal length of given Concave lens using Convex Lens is, f = -25.04 cm.

Precautions

• The Concave & Convex lenses must be neat & clean.

• To make the combination is convex, the focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens.
• While removing the parallax, the eye should be kept at least 30 cm from the needle.
• Must be applied the index correction of u and v to get clear observations.
Sources of Error

• The upright may not be vertical.

• Parallax removal may not be perfect.
• The focal length of convex lens may not be small.
EXPERI,ENT{-08
 ACTIVITIES
SECTION -ACTIVITY-A1
Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery . eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible
connecting wire with red and black plastic covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel”
with mains. The switches are connected in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like,
bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air conditioner,
geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current
normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply
source.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively and connect each set of B-S in parallel with each
other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltage from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.
Utility

It is used for measuring an unknown resistance (see Experiment 2 : Section A).

ACTIVITY A2

Aim
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the
components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C.
voltmeter (0-3) V.

Theory

An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner that on closing the circuit no current is

drawn from the battery.

Diagram

Procedure
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery eliminator.

Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat). One

way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator. Correct
circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order)

ACTIVITY=A3
To Study The Variation in Potential Drop With Length of a Wire For a Steady Current

Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. Potentiometer:

Material: A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat, a voltmeter of range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3)
A, a one way key, a jockey, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness (cross-sectional area) carrying a steady current, potential drop is

proportional to the length of the wire.

where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradient.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the battery (eliminator) (a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the zero end (P) of the
potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the other end
(Q) of the potentiometer.
4. Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the potentiometer and the negative terminal to the
jockey.
5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
6. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection (3 V).
7. Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.
8. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire. Note the voltmeter reading in each case.
9. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead.
Observations and Calculations

Calculation from graph

Plot a graph choosing a suitable scale, for the values of potential drop V along y-axis and length l along x-axis as shown in figure.
Result

ACTIVITY:B-01

To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It
does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased and does not conduct
when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glow.
 3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See figure (UM 3482 IC Tone
Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased. (Infact there is no
forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or reverse biased. When a
capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It
is because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.

Procedure

1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC (integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor. To
differentiate proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The probe metal ends are inserted in terminal
marked on the multimeter as common and P (or + ve).
If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends
of probes.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is no light emission,
the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-versed and there is light emission,
the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a capacitor.
Observations

ACTIVITY B2
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab

Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to
denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since
refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).
Diagram

Procedure
Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary ABCD.
Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal. PQ will represent an incident ray. Fix two pins
at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between themselves.
See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more apart) such that these two pins cover the
images of first two pins, all being along a straight line.
Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.
Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU
perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d.
Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.

S.NO ANGLE OF INCIDENT(i) ANGLE OF EMERGENCE€ DIFFERENCE(i-e)

1 35 36 01

2 40 42 02

Conclusions

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

ACTIVITY:-B03
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit

Aim
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit. .

Apparatus
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic light (laser pencil) black paper and a glass plate.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the comers or edges of a fine opening or aperture. Diffraction takes place when
order of wavelength is comparable or small to the size of slit or aperture. The diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size of the
aperture or the obstacle is of the order of wavelength of the waves. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from
different symmetrical point of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit

consists of a central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity on both sides.

Procedure

1. Fix the black paper on the glass plate by using adhesive.

 2. Place two razor blades so that their sharp edges are parallel and extremely close to each other to form a narrow slit
in between.

3. Cut the small slit in between the sharp edges of blades and place at a suitable distance from a wall or screen of a dark
room.
4. Throw a beam of light on the slit by the laser pencil.
5. A diffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark bands is seen on the wall.

Conclusion
When light waves are incident on a slit or aperture then it bends away (spread) at the comers of slit showing the phenomena of diffraction
of light.

Precaution

1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely closed as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.

1.
A point source of monochromatic light like laser torch should