Computer Architecture

Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer

• Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and
calculations called for by the computer program.

• A computer consists of following components namely

1. Input unit, Memory unit
2. Arithmetic & logical unit
3. Control unit
4. Output unit.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Input Units
• Input units are used by the computer to input information or
instruction into the computer system.
• It is the medium of communication that takes data from us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing,
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
• Input Units
• The most well-known input device is a keyboard.
• Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is
automatically translated into its corresponding binary code and
transmitted over a cable to either the memory or the processor.
Examples : keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones,
scanners, etc.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Central processing unit can be referred as an electronic circuitry within
a computer that carries out the instructions given by a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/0) operations specified by the instructions.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer

Memory Unit

• The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which

programs are kept which are running, and that contains data needed by
the running programs.

• Memory unit can be categorized into primary memory and secondary

memory.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Memory Unit
Primary Memory :
• It enables a processor to access running applications and services that
are temporarily stored in a specific memory location.
• Primary storage is the fastest memory that operates at electronic speeds.
• Primary memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage
cells, capable of storing a bit of information.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Memory Unit
Primary Memory
• The word length of a computer is between 16-64 bits.
• It is also known as the volatile form of memory, means when the computer is
shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost.
• Cache memory is also a kind of memory which is used to fetch the data very
soon. They are highly coupled with the processor.
• Example: RAM and ROM
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Memory Unit
Secondary Memory :
• Secondary memory is used when a large amount of data and programs
have to be stored for a long-term basis.
• It is also known as the Non-volatile memory since the data is stored
permanently irrespective of shut down.
Example: magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, and optical disks.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Arithmetic & Logical Unit
• Most of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are
executed in the ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor

• It performs
1. arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
2. logical operations like AND, OR, NOT
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Control Unit
• The control unit is a component of a computer's central processing unit
that coordinates the operation of the processor.
• It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and
output devices how to respond to a program's instructions.
• The control unit is also known as the nerve center of a computer
system since it controls all the activities and operations of the
computer.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Control Unit
• The control unit acts like the supervisor which determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed.
• It retrieves instructions from memory, decodes the instructions,
interprets the instructions and understands the sequence of tasks to be
performed accordingly.
• It further transmits the instructions to the other parts of the computer
system to execute them. In short, the control unit determines the
sequence of operations to execute the given instructions.
Functional Units (Hardware) of a Computer
Output Unit
• The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results
to the user:.
• Output devices display information in a way that the user can
understand.
• Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to generate
information or any other response processed by the computer.
• These devices display information that has been held or generated
within a computer.
Examples : Monitor, Printer, Speakers, etc.
Von Neumann Architecture

There have been 2 types of computers:

1. Fixed Program Computers: Their function is very specific and they

couldn't be programmed. Example: Calculators.

2. Stored Program Computers : These can be programmed to carry out

many different tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the
name. Example: Computer.
Von Neumann Architecture
• It is a design model for modern computers which has a Central Processing
Unit(CPU) and the concept of Memory which is used for storing both data
and instructions.

• This architecture implemented the stored program concept in which the data
and instructions are stored in the same memory.

• This architecture consists of a Control Unit, CPU, Arithmetic and logic

unit(ALU), Register, I/0(Input Output Devices), and Memory unit.
Von Neumann Architecture
Main functions of Von Neumann architecture.
• In this architecture, one data path or bus exists for both instruction and data. As a
result, the CPU does one operation at a time and Uses a single processor only.
• Executes programs in the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.

• It either fetches an instruction from memory or performs read/write operation on data, one at a
time and in order (serially).

• The processor decodes and executes an instruction, before cycling around to fetch the next
instruction

• The cycle continues until no more instructions are available

Von Neumann Architecture
Main functions of Von Neumann architecture.

An instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur simultaneously

because of sharing a common bus
Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture
Registers
• It is high speed storage area in the CPU.
• The data is processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers.

AC – Accumulator
PC – Program Counter
CIR – (Current Instruction Register)
MDR – (Memory Data Register)
MAR – (Memory Address Register)
Von Neumann Architecture
Buses:
• A communication system that is used to connect the computer
components
• Buses are the means by which information is shared between the
registers in a multiple Register configuration system.
• A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a
register, through Which binary information is transferred one at a time.
Von Neumann Architecture
Buses:
• Control signals determine which Register is selected by the bus during
each particular register transfer.
• Von Neumann Architecture comprises 3 major bus systems for data
transfer:
1. Address Bus

2. Data Bus

3. Control Bus
Basic Operational Concepts
• To perform a given task an appropriate program consisting of a list of
instructions is stored in the memory.
• Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the
processor, which executes the specified operations.
• Data to be stored are also stored in the memory.

• Example: Add LOCA, R0

• ADD R1, R0
Basic Operational Concepts
• Operating Steps are
1. Programs reside in the memory and usually get these through the
Input / Output Unit.
2. Execution of the program starts when the PC is set to point at the first
instruction of the program.
3. Contents of PC are transferred to MAR and a Read Control Signal is
sent to the memory.
4. After the time required to access the memory elapses, the address
word is read out of the memory and loaded into the MDR.
Basic Operational Concepts
• Operating Steps are
5. Now contents of MDR are transferred to the IR and now the instruction is
ready to be decoded and executed.
6. If the instruction involves an operation by the ALU, it is necessary to
obtain the required operands.
7. An operand in the memory is fetched by sending its address to MAR and
Initiating a read cycle.
8. When the operand has been read from the memory to the MDR, it is
transferred from MDR to the ALU.
9. After one or two such repeated cycles, the ALU can perform the desired
operation.
Basic Operational Concepts
• Operating Steps are
10. If the result of this operation is to be stored in the memory, the result
is sent to MDR.s
11. Address of location where the result is stored is sent to MAR and a
write cycle is initiated.
12. The contents of PC are incremented so that PC points to the next
instruction that is to be executed.
Bus Structure
Multiprocessor
Multicomputer