MODULE 5(A)

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

JOYAL JAIN PALAKULAM

MALABAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, DESHAMANGALAM
 • Superconducting phenomena
• Meissner effect and perfect
diamagnetism
SYLLABUS • Types of superconductors- Type I
and Type II
• BCS Theory(Qualitative)
• High temperature superconductors
• Applications of superconductivity
In 1911, the physicist Kammerlingh Onnes discovered the phenomenon of superconductivity.
He found that the resistivity of mercury suddenly dropped to zero at 4.2 K .

Superconductivity:
The property by which the resistivity of many metals and alloys suddenly falls to zero when they
are cooled at a particular temperature.

Superconductors:
The materials which exhibit the property of superconductivity and which are in the
superconducting state .
A number of elements and alloys exhibit superconductivity.

TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (TC)

• The temperature at which the material changes from its normal conducting
state to superconducting state.
• Superconducting transition is reversible. Normal conductor has some resistivity at very low
temperature; but for a superconductor, it
• Above the transition temperature, the material is in the normal state and suddenly falls to zero.
below the transition temperature, it is in the superconducting state.
 The Three Hallmarks of Superconductivity
Zero Resistance Macroscopic Quantum Effects
I Complete Diamagnetism Flux F

V
DC Resistance

Magnetic Induction T>Tc T<Tc

0
Tc Temperature Flux quantization F = nF0
0 Josephson Effects
Tc Temperature
MEISSNER EFFECT- PERFECT DIAMAGNET
In 1933 Meissner and Ochenfeld studied the properties of materials in the presence of magnetic field.
It is found that all the magnetic lines have been expelled from the interior of the specimen when it
is cooled below the transition temperature in the magnetic field.
J

MEISSNER EFFECT: The property of expulsion of magnetic flux density from the interior of a
superconducting material during the transition from normal state to superconducting state
When a specimen is placed in a magnetic field H, magnetic lines are passing
through it. When the specimen is cooled below the transition temperature, all
magnetic lines are cancelled from the specimen.
  
Since B=0
(
B = µ0 H + M = 0 )
Where,
B = flux density inside the specimen
μ0 = Permeability
M = magnetization
H = -M
Magnetic susceptibility χ = M/H = -1
Hence the superconductor becomes a perfect diamagnet at the transition temperature.
 PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. Effect of magnetic field - Critical field (Hc)
• Superconductivity vanishes if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is
applied.

• Minimum strength of a magnetic field required to destroy the

superconducting nature of a metal at a particular temperature is
called critical field Hc.

• When the applied field is below Hc material will be in

superconducting state and if it exceeds Hc, it gets converted into its
normal state.

• The variation of critical field Hc with temperature is represented by a parabolic curve as in fig. Hc is 0 at Tc and
increases when the temperature decreases .
 2. Effect of current density - Critical current (Ic) – Silsbee effect
• Consider a coil of wire wound on a superconductor. When a current is passed through a conductor, it
produced a magnetic field which changes it from superconducting state to normal state.
• The minimum current that can be passed through a superconducting material without destroying
its superconducting property is called critical current Ic.

Ic = 2r𝛑Hc
Where,
r is the radius of the superconductor , Hc is the critical field
• Critical current density ( Jc ) is the the minimum current density in a superconducting material
below which the material remains in a superconducting state. If critical current density exceeds this
critical value, the material converts into its normal state. This was discovered by Silsbee and it is
called Silsbee effect.
Jc = Ic /A where A is the area. I
Hc
3. Isotope effect
• It is found that transition temperature varies with isotopic mass.
• Larger the isotopic mass, smaller the transition temperature.
• This variation of transition temperature with isotopic mass is called isotopic effect.

Where M is the mass of isotope.

• When a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field H, the intensity of
magnetization M is induced in it. When H increases, M also increases. The
variation of M with H is shown in fig.
• Up to the critical field Hc , magnetization increases proportional to the applied field
and it abruptly drops to zero at the critical field.
• Above Hc it behaves as normal conductor.
• Below Hc, it is in the superconducting state.
• Up to Hc, it behaves like a diamagnet and strictly obeys Meissner effect.
 TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. Type I or Soft superconductor
• Type of superconductors for which M becomes zero abruptly when H = Hc are called Type 1
superconductors.
• The transition from superconducting state to normal state is very abrupt.
• The critical field Hc is very small in the order of 0 .1 or 0.2 Tesla.
• Therefore it is easy to change type I superconductor in to a normal conductor. Hence they
are also known as soft superconductors. The transition is reversible.

• Eg: Al, Pb, Indium and almost all pure metals.

 2. Type II or Hard superconductor
• In this type there are two critical field, Lower critical field Hc1 and upper critical fields Hc2.

• Up to Hc1 magnetism is proportional to the applied field and it behaves like Type 1
superconductors. It strictly obeys Meissner effect up to Hc1.

• In between Hc1 and Hc2 magnetization decreases gradually. At Hc2 , the magnetization
vanishes completely and external field penetrates, completely destroying the superconductivity

• Above Hc2 material behaves as normal conductor.

• Between Hc1 and Hc2 material is in a mixed state (it behaves partially conducting as well as
partially superconducting) known as vortex state.

• It does not strictly obey Meissner effect in this region.

• Transition from superconducting state to normal state is very slow and gradual. The field
Hc2 value is very high in the order of 10T to 20T.

• A strong magnetic field is required to convert it into a normal conductor. They are
known as hard superconductors. The transition is irreversible. Very strong magnetic field
can be produced using type II superconductors.

Eg: Niobium, Germanium and all alloys

 BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS)
• New theory to explain superconductivity of materials - BCS theory.
• According to this theory, superconductivity is mainly due to the interaction of
phonons and electrons.
• When an electron is advancing through a path in between 2 sets of positive ions in
the lattice, electron attracts nearby positive ions and lattice gets distorted.
• This produces a region of increased positive charge density and is called phonon.
• If a second electron approaches this region, this electron also attracted by the positive
region.
• Thus these 2 electrons are held together by force of attraction by phonon.
• Thus 2 electrons are coupled together at low temperature and this pair is called
cooper pair.
• Cooper pair behaves like single particle. Cooper pair has zero spin and zero linear
momentum.
• At absolute zero almost all electrons are coupled together as cooper pairs.

Cooper Pair

S =0
+ + + +
+ + v Spin singlet pair v + +
S
First electron polarizes the lattice Second electron is attracted to the concentration of positive
charges left behind by the first electron
Superconducting energy gap
• The net energy of electrons in a cooper pair is less than the total energy of these individual
electrons.
• There is an energy gap in the energy spectrum of electrons.
• All the Cooper pairs are occupying lower energy states and energy gap prevents them from
unpairing.
• The minimum energy required to break up cooper pairs is called superconducting
energy gap.
• When temperature increases ,energy gap decreases.
• At Tc energy gap becomes zero and cooper pairs are broken up and thus electrons are
separated.
 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
1. Superconductors are used to produce a very strong and powerful magnetic
field in the order of 20T at a low cost.
• To bend and guide the charged particles in particle
accelerators , cyclotrons etc.
• Used for controlling and focusing high temperature plasma for the
controlled nuclear fusion .
• Used in magnetic levitation –Maglev.
• Superconducting magnets are used to produce very efficient ore
separating machines.
 ü Superconductive Quantum Interference Device
ü capable of detecting extremely small magnetic fields inside brain
& elsewhere.
ü Noisy signals from minute changes in magnetic environment can
be detected.

PRINCIPLE:
Quantum effects of superconductors / flux Quantisation in superconductors.
(similar to superconducting rings which produces field)
APPLICATIONS:
Ø Protection of computers and defence arms & ammunitions from
extraneous fields.
Ø Detection of ore deposits and mineral oil deposits
Ø Used in refineries
Ø Signal detection purposes of navy.
2. Electronics and small devices

a) Squid : squid is used as a magnetometer to measure even a very feeble changing

magnetic field . It is used to explore the oil and minerals deposits from earth, to separate
ores, to study gravitons ,to detect submarines and in the study neuro physics .
b) Josephson effect : Frictionless bearings , magnetically controlled superconducting
switches ,superconductor fuses and breakers, superconducting transformers etc . are
very sensitive and more efficient devices.
3. Medical field

• MRI: The most important medical application of superconductivity is MRI.

• MRI is free from harmful effects of other radiations like X-rays.

• Superconducting magnetic field is used to remove tumor cells from the healthy cells
• A group of squids is used for the diagnosis of epilepsy

• Using superconducting susceptometer the iron content in the body can be estimated .
• Squids are used to measure minute magnetic fields produced from heart and brain very
accurately and used for pathological analysis of their functions.
4. Electric energy and power transmission

• Another important application of superconductors is in the manufacture of electrical motors,

generators and other machines using superconducting windings .

• The efficiency of such machines is higher . They are smaller, lighter ,more efficient and they
provide higher out put .

• The electric power can be transmitted through superconducting cables without any
transmission losses.

5. Computers and information processing

• If superconducting wires are used ,a large number of components and

circuits can be setup within a very smaller area .

• This reduces size of components. superconducting materials are used as

efficient storage devices in computers .
 HIGH TEMPERATURES SUPERCONDUCTORS –HTSC
• In 1977 a high transition temperature 23 K was achieved using metallic compound of
niobium and Germanium .

• But in 1986 Bedddnorz and Muller discovered La – Ba-CuO system of ceramic super
conductors with a Tc of 34 K.

• Such superconductors with high critical temperature are called High Temperature
Superconductors
• High Temperature Super conductors are ceramic super conductors with a high transition
temperature greater than 40 K.
 • In low temperature superconductors it is very difficult and expensive to maintain low
temperature for a very long period .
• It is very difficult to maintain the liquid helium temperature (4.2K).

• Nowadays it is replaced more efficient coolant liquid nitrogen.

ADVANTAGES OF HTSC
• It is very easy to maintain the temperature. The temperature Tc can be raised using
microwaves or laser radiations.
• Smaller isotopic effect and smaller coherence length.
• Here pressure raises the Tc of HTSC but lowers Tc of low temperature
superconductors.
 The High-Tc Cuprate Superconductors
• Layered structure – quasi-two-dimensional
• Anisotropic physical properties
• Ceramic materials (brittle, poor ductility, etc.)
• Oxygen content is critical for superconductivity

YBa2Cu3O7-d Tl2Ba2CaCu2O8
Two of the most widely-used HTS materials in applications
 MODULE 5(B)

PHOTONICS
PREPARED BY:
JOYAL JAIN PALAKULAM
SYLLABUS
• Introduction to photonics
• Photonic devices
• Light Emitting Diode
• Photo detectors
• Junction and PIN
photodiodes
• Solar cells-I-V
Characteristics
 Introduction to Photonics
• "Photonics" comes from "photon" which is the smallest unit of light just as an electron is the
smallest unit of electricity.
• "Photonics" is the generation, process and manipulation of photon to achieve a certain
function.
• The science of photonics include the generation, emission, transmission, modulation, signal
processing, switching, amplification, and detection/sensing of light.
• The term photonics thereby emphasizes that photons are neither particles nor waves – they
have both particles and wave nature.
• It covers all technical applications of light over the whole spectrum from
Ultraviolet (10nm – 400nm)
Visible region (380 nm – 700 nm)
Near infrared (0.75 -1.4µm)
Mid infrared (3-8µm)
Far infrared (8-15µm)
• Most applications, however, are in the range of the visible and near infrared light.
• Photonics is related to quantum optics, optomechanics, electro - optics, optoelectronics and quantum
electronics.
• The term photonics more specifically imply :
The particle properties of light,
The potential of creating signal processing device technologies using photons and
The practical application of optics.
Photonic Devices
• Photonic devices are electronic devices that manipulate and control light for various applications.
• They are based on the principles of photonics.
• Photonic devices utilize the properties of light, such as its intensity, wavelength, and polarization, to
perform functions in areas such as telecommunications, data transmission, sensing, imaging, and
more.
Lasers
• They are coherent light sources that emit a narrow and intense beam of light.
• They find applications in telecommunications, laser cutting, medical devices, and scientific research.
Photodiodes
• They are semiconductor devices that convert light into electrical current.
• They are used for light detection and sensing applications, such as in
optical communications, barcode readers, and photovoltaic cells.
Optical Fibers
• Thin, flexible, and transparent fibers that transmit light signals over long distances with minimal loss.
• They are the backbone of modern telecommunications systems, enabling high-speed data transmission
over long distances
 BASICS OF SOLID STATE LIGHTING
• Solid state lighting (SSL) is a technology in which the conventional light sources are
replaced by semiconductor diodes, organic light emitting diodes etc.

• SSL creates visible light with reduced heat generation and less energy dissipation.

• For SSL efficiency is high comparing to conventional light sources.

ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL LAMPS:
• SSL devices has long life span over conventional lamps.
• They do not emit ultraviolet radiations.
• It can work at lower temperature.
• Do not contain hazardous substance as in CFL.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• LED is a PN junction diode that gives off visible light when forward biased.
• Light-emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by using
elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic.
• By varying the quantities of these elements, it is possible to produce light of different
wavelengths with colours that include red, green, yellow and blue.
• Gallium arsenide - red LED. Gallium phosphide - green LED.
Theory:
• The electrons are in the conduction band (C.B) of n-type and at a higher state.
• The holes in the valence band (V.B) of p-type which are at a lower energy state.
• When forward biased electrons and holes recombine and the excess energy of electrons
is released in the form of light.
• Thus, when a LED is forward biased, the electrons from n-region and holes from
p-region combine to produce energy and that will be emitted as light radiation.
• Depending on the band gap light emitted will be in the IR region or visible region.
• LED band gap -1.8 eV to 2.8 eV.
• They are made from elements like Gallium, Phosphorus and Arsenic.
• By doping we can modify the band gap.
• The frequency of the emitted light is governed by the band gap of the semiconductor.

𝛎 = Eg/h
where Eg is the band gap energy
• Different coloured LED can be made by making suitable compounds of these elements.
PROPERTIES OF LED

⚫ It radiates very little heat

⚫ Fast on-off switching ability
APPLICATIONS OF LED
⚫ Low operational voltage and less power
Stage decorations (due to lack of heat)
⚫ They do not contain poisonous substances.
⚫ Small size and long life Eco-friendly - The amount of CO2 produced is
⚫ Available in all colours. comparatively much smaller than incandescent
light
Used for backlighting LCD televisions and laptops
In cameras and mobile phones as flash lamps
Indicator lamps and read out displays on devices
In optical communication systems
Seven segment display
 Advantages of LED Disadvantage of LED
1. It helps in saving energy.
1. A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the
2. Reduction in costs. device.
3. Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the 2. High initial price; LEDs are currently more
LED.
expensive (price/lumen) than most conventional
4. Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts. light sources.

5. The response time is very less, only about 10 3. Efficiency of LED decreases as the electric current
nanoseconds. increases.

6. The device does not need any heating and warm up

time.

7. Miniature in size and hence light weight.

8. Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand

shock and vibrations.
 PHOTO DETECTORS
● Functions: Detect optical signal
● It is based on semiconductor p-n junction devices .
Device can be operated either in photovoltaic mode or photoconductive mode.
1. Photovoltaic mode - Junction is treated as an open circuit to measure the voltage
across the junction.
2. Photoconductive mode - p-n junction is connected in the reverse bias and the
current is made to flow externally to complete the circuit between the junction.
● When the pn junction is connected in reverse bias a large depletion region is created.
● When the light with energy h‫>>ט‬Eg falls on the depletion layer of junction electrons
are excited to the conduction band leaving a hole in valence band.
● Thus electron- hole pairs are produced and hence electric current.
● The number of electron-hole pairs depends on the amount of incident light.
Commonly used photo detectors are,
● Photodiode
● PIN photodiode

PHOTO DIODE
● A silicon or germanium p-n junction.
● Works under reverse biased condition.
● Reverse current increases when light falls on the junction.

CONSTRUCTION
● Photodiode consist of a p-n junction mounted on an insulating substrate and sealed inside a
metal case.
● A glass window is provided at the top for allowing light to strike at the junction.
● Two terminals acts as anode and cathode.
WORKING
● When a small reverse voltage is applied a very small current flows through the diode.
This is due to minority charge carriers.
● At the same time majority charge carriers are prevented from crossing the junction.
● The current flowing through the reverse biased photodiode when no light is incident on
the junction is called ‘ dark current ‘ .
● The corresponding resistance is called ‘dark resistance’
Dark resistance = VR/Id
where VR is reverse voltage and Id the dark current.
● When light falls on the junction the energy of the photons produce more electron-hole
pairs.
● The number of new electron-hole pairs is proportional to the number of incident
photons.
APPLICATIONS
● Used in CAT scanner
● Climate control-sunlight detector
● Widely used in optical communication
● For brightness control and barcode scanning
● In security systems
 PIN PHOTODIODE
Convert optical signal into electrical signals.
CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of three regions:
● P region
● Intrinsic region (undoped)
● N region.
P and N regions are heavily doped.
The width of intrinsic region should be larger .
WORKING:
● PIN photodiode is operated in reverse
bias.
● Under reverse bias majority charge
carriers in n region and p region moves
away from the junction.

● So width of depletion region is very wide. i.e majority charge

carriers will not carry electric current under reverse bias.
● But the minority carriers will carry electric current
● When light is incident on the pin diode,most part of light energy
is absorbed in intrinsic region and a large number of electron
–hole pairs are generated.
● Free electron generated in the intrinsic region move towards
n-side whereas holes generated in the intrinsic region move
towards p side.
● When free electrons and holes reaches the n and p regions they
are attracted towards the terminals of the battery
ADVANTAGES
● Wide bandwidth
● High efficiency
● High response speed
They generate more electric current than PN junction photodiode
with the same amount of light energy.
 SOLAR CELL
● It is an LED operating in the reverse method.
● Also called photovoltaic cell.
● Produces electrical energy from light energy.
WORKING:
● Sunlight is absorbed at the p-n interface.
● It excites electrons from the valence band of p- type to the
conduction band of n-type .
● This leaves a hole in the valence band.
● Sunlight produces electron-hole pairs.
● The electric field at the junction pulls the electrons
towards the n-region and holes towards the p-region.
● As a result a current flows from p-terminal to the
n-terminal through an external circuit.
● The e.m.f of a silicon solar cell is 0.6V.
● Usually solar cells are grouped into modules and panels
so that any desired voltage can be made available .
● Storage batteries arranged together with them to store
up the excess electrical energy during daytime and it can
be used at night.
CONSTRUCTION:
● Made by depositing a thin layer of p-type silicon on a wafer of n-type
silicon.
● The semiconducting material must be very thin & transparent to
sunlight.
● Each photon carries an energy E=hν joules.
● If this photon energy is greater than the gap energy, the photons entering
the region can break the covalent bonds and produce electron hole pairs.
● The resulting carriers produce a photocurrent.
● Solar cells are added together into a unit called a module.

● Modules are linked together in units called arrays or panels .

V-I CHARACTERISTICS:
Determined by connecting a resistance box, a voltmeter and an ammeter.
● A source of light from a halogen lamp is made to fall
on a solar cell.
● The resistance of the circuit is varied by using a
resistance box and the corresponding values of
voltage and current are measured.
● A graph is drawn between voltage and current.

● The open circuit voltage Voc and the short circuit current Isc is noted.
● Their product gives the ideal power of the solar cell.
● From Fig, the max.useful power is given by the largest rectangle that can be
formed inside the V-I curve.
Fill factor:
● Ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power, to
the product of the open circuit voltage and short
circuit current.
● Range of fill factor: 0.3 to 0.7.

F.F = Pmp/(Voc X Isc)

Fill factor= Max. power output/ (open circuit voltage x short circuit current)
Efficiency:
● Ratio of the electrical power output of the solar cell to the incident sunlight energy.
● This is calculated by dividing a cell’s power output at its maximum power by input light intensity
and surface area of solar cell.
● The efficiency of solar cell various from 10 to 20%.
USES OF SOLAR CELLS:
● Source of power in spacecrafts and satellites.
● Widely used in applications like watches calculators etc.
● Used as electric power generators
● In remote villages solar panels are used for street lighting, solar
water pumps and solar cookers
● In remote areas houses can be electrified with solar cells
● Solar cells are used for providing electricity for light houses in
sea and offshore drilling platforms.
 FIBRE OPTICS
Optic fibre-Principle of propagation of light, Types of fibres-Step index and Graded index fibres, Numerical aperture
–Derivation, Fibre optic communication system (block diagram), Industrial, Medical and Technological applications of
optical fibre, Fibre optic sensors-Intensity Modulated and Phase modulated sensors.
● A phenomenon in which light propagates through very fine cylindrical hair like transparent fibres
like glass is called Fibre optics.
● Optical fibres are very fine narrow long and cylindrical transparent fibres like glass or plastic
through which light signals are transmitted.
● The idea of fibre optics was put forward by John Tyndall in 1870.
● BASIC PRINCIPLE: MULTIPLE TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

● When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it is bent away from the normal.
● For a particular angle of incidence in the denser medium refracted ray is grazing along the surface
of separation of media.
● The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray is grazing along the
surface of separation of the media is called critical angle.
● When the ray incidents at an angle of incidence greater than critical angle, the ray is reflected
into the same denser medium. This is called total internal reflection.
Conditions for TIR:
1. Ray must travel from denser to rarer medium.
2. Angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than that of the critical angle.
 STRUCTURE OF OPTIC FIBRE
1. CORE
● Innermost cylindrical region.
● Made of glass or plastic.
● Refractive index of the core is made higher.
● Act as a denser medium.
● Light waves are propagated through the core and it acts as a wave guide.
2. CLADDING
● Core is surrounded by cladding.
● Made up of glass or plastic.
● Refractive index of cladding is made smaller
● Act as a rarer medium.
● At the core-cladding interface TIR takes place.
● Cladding is mainly responsible for propagation of light through the fibre.
3. SHEATH
● Outermost cylindrical jacket.
● Made up of opaque and coloured plastic.
● Provides mechanical strength to the core.
● Protects core and cladding from scratches, crushing ,pulling..etc.
DIMENSIONS
● Core Diameter = 50m
● Cladding Diameter = 125m
● Sheath Diameter = 150m.
● Usually optic fibre is 1 km in length.
● Such fibres are connected end to end using suitable connectors.

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT WAVES THROUGH AN OPTIC FIBRE

● When a ray of light is incident from core to the
cladding at an angle of incidence(i) greater than the
critical angle at A, it undergoes total internal reflection
at the core - cladding interface.
● So the ray rebounds along AB.
● It is again incident at B at an angle greater than the critical angle on the core - cladding interface.
● So it again undergoes total internal reflection and the ray is travelling along BC.
● The ray is undergoing successive total internal reflections at points on the core- cladding
interface.
● Thus the wave is propagated through the optical fibre in a zig-zag manner by the multiple total
internal reflection principle without any loss of energy.

Acceptance angle (θa):

● The light rays which are incident within a
particular angle with the axis of core alone
are allowed to propagate through the fibre
by multiple total internal reflections.
● The maximum of this particular angle is called the acceptance angle .
● Definition: Maximum angle with the axis of core so that all the rays which are incident within this
angle will be accepted and propagated through the fibre by multiple total internal reflections.

Acceptance cone:
● A cone at the end of the fibre with the acceptance angle as a semi-vertex angle with axis of core.
● All the light rays which incident within this cone will be accepted and transmitted.
● If the ray incident at angle greater than acceptance angle ,it gets refracted out through the
cladding and that light energy is lost.
● Larger the diameter of the core, higher the acceptance angle and more the propagation of the
light waves.

Where, θa = Acceptance angle, n1= Refractive index of core, n2 = Refractive index of cladding
 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA):
● The sine of acceptance angle θa.

NA = Sin θa
● NA depends on the acceptance angle.
● If θa is larger, NA will also be higher.
● Numerical aperture is also the light gathering power of the fibre and it measures the amount of
light accepted by the fibre.
● NA is between 0.13 and 0.5.
● If NA is larger, fibre can accept more light from the source.
● NA depends on the refractive indices of core and cladding.

PROOF
Consider a light ray AB incident at B at the edge
of the core of an optic fibre from air. It is
incident at the acceptance angle θa with the axis
of the core. Since it travels from air to core, it is
refracted along BC at an refracted angle θr . This
refracted ray is now incident at C at the core-cladding interface with an angle slightly greater than
the critical angle θc . Hence the ray is undergoing TIR and it is travelling along CD. Thus the ray is
propagated through the fibre by multiple TIRs.
At C , CN is drawn normal to the axis. The angle at C is taken as the limiting angle θc . Let n0 be the
refractive index of air, n1 that of core and n2 that of cladding.
FRACTIONAL REFRACTIVE INDEX CHANGE (RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX DIFFERENCE):
● Fractional difference between the refractive indices of core and cladding.
● It is the ratio of change of refractive indices to the refractive index of core.
● It is always positive.
 V-NUMBER OR NORMALISED FREQUENCY:
● V- number is an important parameter of optic fibre.
● It is also called normalised frequency.

● If V≤ 2.405, the fibre can support only one mode.

● If V> 2.405 , the fibre can support many modes.

MODES OF PROPAGATION:
● The light rays which are incident in the particular directions within the acceptance angle alone are
allowed to propagate through the fibre by multiple total internal reflections.
● These directions through which the light rays are propagated through the optic fibre are called
modes of propagation.
● Thus modes represent the number of paths of light rays in an optic fibre along which they are
travelling in the same phase.
● INDEX PROFILE: A graph drawn with refractive index on y axis & the distance from the axis of the
core on x axis.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTIC FIBRE:

1. STEP INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER
● The refractive index of core and cladding (n1 & n2) are
constants; n1 > n2.
● There is a sudden decrease of refractive index at the
core- cladding interface.
● The refractive index profile is in the shape of a step and hence it is called step index fibre.
● This is reflective type fibre.
● Since the core is thin it supports only one mode for propagation. So this is called single mode
fibre.
● The light is propagated almost along the axis of the core. This is called zero order mode of
transmission.
2. GRADED INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER
● Refractive index of core (n1) is not constant. But n2 is a
constant. n1 > n2 .
● n1 is varying. It is maximum along the axis of the core, it
decreases radially outwards with the distance from the axis
and it is minimum at the core boundary.
● Refractive index is graded.
● Index profile is in the shape of a parabolic curve
● Graded index fibre has a very thick core. Since the core is thick, it permits a large number of
modes and hence it is a multi mode fibre.
● This is refractive type fibre.
STEP INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER STEP INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER

● Refractive index of core and cladding ● Refractive index of the core is not
are constants. constant. But n2 is a constant
● The refractive index profile is in ● Index profile is in the shape of a
shape of a step parabolic curve
● The core is thin. The light is ● The core is thick. A large no. of rays
propagated almost along the axis of are travelling along smooth
the core parabolic curves.
● It permit only one mode ● Maximum number of modes that
can be propagated is V2/4
● There is no pulse broadening effect ● No pulse broadening effect
and no intermodal dispersion.
● This is reflective type ● This is refractive type
● Rays are travelling in zig-zag manner ● Rays are travelling along smooth
parabolic curves
● Less expensive ● Highly expensive
● Band width is high and used for lar ● Band width is high and used for
distance communication large
● distance communication
OPTIC FIBRE COMMUNICATION:
● One of the important applications of optic fibre is in the field of communication systems.
● It is basically consists of 3 sections

1. Transmitter: Converts electrical signal into optical signal. The message origin, modulator, carrier
source, input channel coupler together constitute the transmitter.
2. Information channel: Provides a path or passage to transmit the optical signals from transmitter
to receiver. Optic fibres are used as the information channel.
3. Receiver: Receives optical signals and converts back into electrical signals. Output channel
coupler, detector, signal processor and message output constitute the receiver.
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND FUNCTION OF EACH COMPONENT:
1. MESSAGE ORIGIN
● Converts all non-electrical messages to electrical signals using a transducer.
● Eg; microphone converts sound energy to electrical energy
2. MODULATOR
● Imposing a message on a carrier wave for propagations
I. At first it converts electrical messages into proper format.
II. Secondly it imposes this format on a carrier wave for propagation.
● There are 2 types of modulation.
a. In analogue modulation message is transmitted in a continuous manner and in digital modulation
message is transmitted in discrete manner with the help of binary digits.
b. Digital modulation is preferred for long distance communication.
3. CARRIER SOURCE
● Produces carrier waves on which the
messages are transmitted.
● In fibre communication systems light waves
are the carrier waves.
● LED or Laser diodes are used to generate
stable and monochromatic waves .
● The information is imposed on light waves.
 4. INPUT CHANNEL COUPLER
● This directs modulated light waves into the information channels.
● In the case of radio or television broadcasting systems, the antenna delivers radio frequency waves into the
atmosphere for propagation.
● Here antenna behaves as input channel coupler
5. INFORMATION CHANNEL
● This is a path to transmit the information from transmitter to receiver.
● Here very fine and long optic fibres are used as an information channel.
● Modulated light signals are transmitted through optic fibre by principle of total internal reflection.
6. OUTPUT CHANNEL COUPLER
● This directs the modulated light signals
from the information channel to the
detector .
● Eg. Antenna in radio and television
broadcasting systems.
7. DETECTOR
● This detects and separates the
messages from the modulated signals.
ie, demodulation takes place.
● Here light signals are converted into
electric current using a photo detector.
8. SIGNAL PROCESSOR
● This filters and selects the required frequency from waves.
● The selected frequency is amplified.
● The unwanted frequency is filtered out.
9. MESSAGE OUTPUT
● Here the original message is reproduced from the signals.
● Electrical pulses are converted into sound waves in the case of audio systems.
● Cathode ray tubes and proper transducers are used for this.

OPTIC FIBRE SENSORS:

● Very sensitive devices used to measure physical quantities like temperature ,pressure, displacement
..etc very accurately with the help of optic fibres.
Sensor Has 3 Components:
A source of light, A fibre coil, Detector
Principle:
Modulation of light takes place when light is transmitted through the fibre when subjected to the
physical quantity.
Types Of Sensors :
1. In passive sensors (extrinsic sensor) modulation takes place outside the fibre.
2. In active sensors (intrinsic sensor) modulation takes place inside the fibre.
● This modulation is based on the variation of intensity, phase, polarisation, wavelength etc.
● Depending on that we can classify into different types.
INTENSITY MODULATED SENSORS
● PRINCIPLE : optical intensity modulation
● These are based on the variation of intensity of light either inside or outside the fibre.
WORKING: PRESSURE SENSOR
● An optic fibre is mounted between a pair
of plates P and Q containing a parallel
groove .
● In the absence of pressure the fibre will be
straight and all the light is transmitted
through the fibre producing maximum
output intensity in the detector.
● But when pressure is applied on the plates, they are pushed closer to each other and fibre is bent
with a large number of microbendings .
● A part of light is leaked out from these bends and output intensity gets decreased .
● Noting the reduction of output intensity from the detector the pressure applied can be exactly
estimated.
PHASE MODULATED SENSORS
● The most sensitive fibre optic sensing
method
● PRINCIPLE : optical phase modulation.
● The phase of the light along an optical
fibre depends on the properties like the length, geometrical dimension and refractive index of the
fibre.
● The physical length and refractive index of an optic fibre varies with temperature, pressure and
 longitudinal strain.
WORKING:
● Light from a laser is divided equally by a coupler and sent through the sensor arm and the
reference arm.
● The output from the fibres are recombined at the second coupler.
● The sensor arm is in direct contact with the measure (temp,pressure) and the reference arm is
isolated from external perturbations.
● The external perturbations produce change in length or ref. index. in the sensor arm.
● This will change the phase of light passing through the sensor arm.
● No change in the reference arm. Thus a phase difference occurs b/w the two light waves.
● Since the intensity varies with the phase difference, the external perturbations like temperature,
pressure can be studied.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTIC FIBRES: