WAVES

TYPES OF WAVES
A wave transfers energy from one point to another. There are two types of wave viz.

(i) Mechanical waves (ii) Electromagnetic waves

(i) Mechanical waves. The waves which require material medium for their transmission are called mechanical waves
or elastic waves. For example, sound waves, ripples on water surface, vibration in a string etc. are mechanical
waves.

(ii) Electromagnetic waves. The waves which do not require material medium for their transmission are called
electromagnetic waves. They can travel through vacuum also.

MECHANICAL WAVES
Mechanical wave is a form of disturbance that travels through a medium due to the repeated periodic motion of the
particles of the medium about their mean positions; the motion being transferred from particle to particle without the
transfer of matter.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES

1. Transverse waves
2. Longitudinal waves

1. Transverse waves. In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position at right
angles to the direction of propagation of the wave. The examples of transverse wave are :
(i) Ripples produced on the surface of water when stone is dropped into it.

(ii) Waves produced in a rope fixed at one end when the free end is moved up and down rapidly.

(iii) Waves in the stretched strings of musical instruments when the string is plucked.

2. Longitudinal waves. In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium move back and forth about their mean
positions along the direction of propagation of the wave. The examples of longitudinal waves are:

(i) Sound waves travel through air in the form of longitudinal waves.

(ii) When a spring is alternately expanded and stretched, longitudinal waves are set up.

(iii) Vibrations of air column in organ pipes are longitudinal.

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COMPARISON OF TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Below is given the comparison between transverse and longitudinal waves in a tabular form.

S. NO. Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

The particles of the medium vibrate
The particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the in the same direction in which the
1. direction in which the wave advances. wave advances
It is formed of a series of
2. It is formed of crests and troughs. compressions and rarefactions.
It can propagate in all types of media
3. It can propagate only in solids and at the surface of liquids. (solid, liquid and gas).
The pressure and density are
4. There is no pressure variation. maximum at compressions and
minimum at rarefactions.

WAVE TERMINOLOGY
(i) Amplitude. It is the maximum displacement of the medium from its equilibrium state when a mechanical
wave passes through the medium. The amplitude of wave in Fig. is a. Note that it is only half the total vertical
distance of the string.
(ii) Wavelength. It is the distance travelled by the wave
during the time any particle of the medium completes
one vibration or cycle about its mean position. It is
denoted by λ (Greek letter lambda).
(iii) Time period. The time period of wave is the time
taken by the wave source to complete 1 vibration or
cycle. It is denoted by T.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance travelled by
the wave in time period T of the wave.

(iv) Frequency. The frequency of a wave is the number of complete cycles that pass a given point in one second.
It is denoted by f. Thus frequency is equal to the number of wave crests passing through point P each second.
As for a harmonic oscillator, the frequency of the wave is related to its time period as:

(v) Wave velocity. The distance covered by a wave in one second is called wave velocity. It is denoted by v and
is measured in m in SI units.

Wave velocity,

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RELATION BETWEEN WAVE VELOCITY, FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Consider a mechanical wave passing through a medium possessing the properties of elasticity and inertia. [See Fig.]
Let

By definition, wavelength (λ) is the distance travelled

by the wave in time T (i.e., one time period)

Wave velocity,

( )

Wave velocity = Frequency × Wavelength

This simple relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength is valid for all kinds of waves regardless of
their physical nature and the mechanism by which they are generated or propagated. A mechanical wave travels at
different speeds in different media. Note that in SI units, v is measured in ; f in hertz (Hz) and wavelength

Illustration 1. A wave pulse on a string moves a distance of 10m in 0.05 s. (i) What is the velocity of the pulse? (ii)
What is the frequency of a periodic wave on the same string if its wavelength is 0.8 m?

Solution. (i) Velocity of pulse,

(ii) The periodic wave has the same velocity i.e., 200 . Using the relation , the frequency of the periodic
wave is given by ;

Illustration 2. The audible frequency range of a human ear is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Convert this into corresponding
wavelength range. Take the speed of sound in air at ordinary temperature to be 340 .

Solution.

Wavelength corresponding to 20 Hz frequency is

Wavelength corresponding to 20 kHz ( ) frequency is

Corresponding wavelength range is 17m to 17 mm.

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Illustration 3. A body vibrating with a certain frequency sends waves 2 m long through a medium A and 1.5 m long
through medium B. The velocity of wave in medium A is 10 . What is the wave velocity in medium B?

Solution. The frequency of source is the same in the two media.

In medium A:

Frequency,

In medium B:

Illustration 4. A source of sound produces waves of wavelength 0.80 m in air. The same source of sound produces
waves of wavelength 4.0 m in water. If the velocity of sound in air = 332 , find the velocity of sound in water:

Solution. Since the source of sound is the same, the frequency of sound in the two cases is the same.

For what, For air,

or

Illustration 5. A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a tissue. What is the wavelength of sound in
the tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 km ? The operating frequency of scanner is 4.2 MHz. (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Given

λ .

SPEED OF WAVES IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

(a) Speed of Transverse Waves

(i) On a string

√ ……… (i)

Where, T is the tension in the string and μ is the mass per unit length.

(ii) In a solid

√ ……… (ii)

Where, B is the bulk modulus of elasticity, is the modulus of rigidity and ρ is the density.

(b) Speed of Longitudinal Waves

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 (i) In a solid medium

√ ……… (iii)

Where, B is the bulk modulus of elasticity, η is the modulus of rigidity and ρ is the density.

(ii) In a rod of small thickness

√ ……… (iv)

Where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material of the rod.

(iii) In liquids

√ ……… (v)

Where, B is the bulk modulus of elasticity and ρ is the density.

(iv) In gases

√ ……… (vi)

Where, B is the bulk modulus of elasticity and ρ is the density.

Illustration 6. A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N. The length of the stretched string is 20.0 m. If the
transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string, how long does the disturbance take to reach the other end? (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Here, ,

Mass of the string,

Mass per unit length,

We know that velocity, √ √

The time taken by the disturbance to reach the other end

Illustration 7. A stone dropped from the top of a tower of height 300 m high splashes into the water of a pond near the
base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the top given that the speed of sound in air is 340 m ?
(g 9.8 ) (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Journey of stone from the top of tower to the water surface.

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 .

Applying the splash, the sound produced moves towards the top of tower with a speed of .

Total time .

Illustration 8. A steel wire has a length of 12.0 m and a mass of 2.10 kg. What should be the tension in the wire so that
speed of a transverse wave on the wire equals the speed of sound in dry air at . (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. √ Hence,

( ) ( ) .

Illustration 9. A steel wire 0.72 m long has a mass of 5.0× kg. If the wire is under a tension of 60 N, what is the
speed of transverse waves in the wire?

Solution. Length of wire, ; Mass of wire, kg

Mass per unit length,

Tension in the wire,

The speed of transverse waves in the wire is given by ;

√ √

Illustration 10. One steel pipe of length 660 m is struck a blow which produces loud sound. A listener at the other end
hears two sounds at an interval of 1.89 sec; one from the wave that has travelled along the metal portion of the pipe and
the other from the wave that has travelled through air. If the density of steel is 8 × kg/ , what is the bulk
modulus of elasticity of steel?

Solution. Let and be the time taken by sound to cover a distance of 660 m ( ) in steel pipe and air respectively.

Speed of sound in steel, √

Where K is bulk modulus of elasticity of steel and ρ is its density.

Also

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It is given :

√ or ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )

Illustration 11. A long wire PQR is made by joining two wires PQ and QR of equal radii. PQ has length 4.8 m and a
mass 0.06 kg while QR has length 2.56 m and mass 0.2 kg. The wire PQR is under a tension of 80 N. A sinusoidal
wave pulse is sent along the wire PQ from the end P. Calculate the time taken by the wave pulse to reach the other end
R of the wire.

Solution. Fig. shows the conditions of the problem. Let and be the velocity of the sinusoidal wave through wires
PQ and QR respectively. Then total time t taken by the wave to travel from P to R is

For wire PQ,

√ √

For wire QR,

√ √

NEWTON’S FORMULA AND LAPLACE’S CORRECTION

The velocity of sound in a gas ( ) is given by ;

√ Bulk modulus of gas

Density

Newton assumed that when sound waves travel through a gas, the compressions and rarefactions are formed so slow
that the temperature of the medium remains the same.

Thus according to Newton, the propagation of sound waves in a gas takes place under isothermal conditions.

Differentiating with respect to V, we have

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 √ As ……… (vii)

Atmospheric pressure P is equal to Pa, and the density ρ is equal to . Hence, the velocity of
sound in air is given by

√ √ .

Since the velocity of sound in air is 332 m .

Error = ( ) could not be considered an experimental one.

The error was corrected by Laplace, a French physicist. Laplace assumed that as sound travels in air, the pressure and
temperature change occur under adiabatic conditions. This is because:

(a) Air is a bad conductor of heat

(b) The compression or rarefaction are formed for a very short interval of time (a small fraction of second). There
is not enough time for heat transfer.
Under adiabatic condition, the bulk modulus of elasticity of gas is calculated differentially as shown in below.
In an adiabatic process,

……… (viii)

Hence, under adiabatic conditions the bulk modulus of elasticity of a gas equals P, where is the ratio
which has a value of approximately 1.41 for air. Hence, eqn. (vi) can now be written as

√ ……… (ix)

Substituting the already known values of and ρ in eqn. (ix) we have

The value now obtained is in reasonable agreement with the experimentally obtained value.

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EFFECT OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR
(i) Effect of Pressure.

As √ ………… (i)

Also ………… (ii)

Hence,

……… (iii)

Substituting in (i), we have

√ ……… (iv)

As per Eqn. (iv), it becomes clear that the speed of sound waves is dependent on temperature T. Hence, if we
change pressure P, keeping temperature constant the velocity of sound in air does not change. In fact, when we

increase pressure at constant temperature, the density of the gas also increases such that .

(ii) Effect of Density. √

For two different gases at same pressure and same value of , i.e., the speed of gas is more in that gas
√

which has low density and vice-versa.

(iii) Effect of Temperature. As per Eqn. (iv), the velocity of sound in air is directly proportional to square root of the
absolute temperature T, i.e.,
√
At STP, let the speed of sound in air be and let the speed of sound at temperature t be v. Now
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 √ ……… (v)

And √ ……… (vi)

Dividing eqns. (vi) by (v), we get

( )

* + ……… (vii)

Special Case: If we can apply binomial approximation.

Hence, * +

We know that . Hence

( )

……… (viii)

Hence, the velocity of sound in air increases by 0.61 m for every 1 rise in temperature. It must be remembered,
however, that Eqn. (viii) is valid only for small values of t. for large values of t, it is recommended that Eqn. (vii) is
used.

(iv) Effect of Humidity. Increase of humidity in air increases the speed of sound. This is because the gram molar
mass M of air decreases with the increase in water vapour.

Note. If however, water vapour is added to pure hydrogen, the velocity of sound decreases (because of increase in
the value of M).

(v) Effect of Wind. In case the wind is blowing and θ is the angle between
speed of wind (W) and speed of sound (v) (Fig.), then the resultant speed
of sound is
θ ……… (ix)

Special case: (a) if θ then

(b) if θ then

Illustration 12. The velocity of sound in air at NTP is 331 . Find the velocity when the temperature rises to 91
and its pressure is doubled.

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Solution. Hence,
Since velocity of sound is not affected by the change in pressure, therefore, we have to see the effect of temperature
alone.

As √

√ √

√ .
√

Illustration 13. At normal temperature and pressure, the speed of sound in air is 332 . What will be the speed of
sound in hydrogen, (i) at normal temperature and pressure, (ii) at temperature and 4 atmospheric pressure?
Given air is 16 times heavier than hydrogen.

Solution. (i) Let and represent the speed of sound in air and hydrogen respectively.

√ and √

Now, √ But

√ or

(ii) Pressure has no effect on the velocity of sound.

√ √ √

EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC TRAVELLING WAVE

Suppose a plane simple harmonic wave starts from the origin O and travels with velocity v along the positive direction
of X-axis (i.e., from left to right). Fig shows the displacement curve of the wave at any time t. Let the time be counted
from the instant when the particle at the origin O just passes through its mean position in the positive direction (i.e.,
upwards). The displacement y of the particle at O at
any time t is given by ;

Where Amplitude of S.H.M.

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 Angular frequency of S.H.M.

Since the particle to the right of O start vibrating after definite time intervals from the instant particle at O starts
vibrating, the phase lag goes on increasing in this direction. Let us find the displacement of the particle at point P
situated at a distance x from the origin at any time t.

( ) …… (i)

( )

( ) as

( )

( )

( ) velocity of wave ……… (ii)

Equation (ii) a plane progressive simple harmonic wave travelling along the positive direction of X-axis. The negative
sign in the bracket indicates that since the wave moves from left to right, the vibration at points such as P to the right
of O will lag on that at O. A wave travelling in the opposite direction (i.e., along the negative direction of X-axis), from
right to left, arrives at P before O. Thus the vibration at P leads that at O. Consequently, the wave travelling in the
opposite direction is given by ;

Also ( ). …… (iii)

Discussion.

Wave number, Coefficient of x in wave equation

Note that k gives the rate of change of phase with distance.

Now ( )

( ) ( ).

(i) The acceleration of the wave is zero because speed of wave v ( ) is constant.

PARTICLE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

(i) Particle velocity. The particle velocity (V) is different from the wave velocity (v). It is the velocity with which the
particles of the medium vibrate about their mean positions.
The equation of a plane progressive wave travelling in the + X direction is
( ) ……… (i)

This is the displacement at position x in the time t. Differentiating eq. (i) w.r.t. time (t) keeping x constant, we get,
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 [ ( )]

( )
( ) ……… (ii)

Where Maximum particle velocity

Note that particle velocity varies simple harmonically with time t. However, wave travels with a constant velocity
in a medium. The following points may be noted:

(a) The particle velocity (V) is a varying quantity whereas the wave velocity (v) is a constant for a medium.
(b) The velocity amplitude is times the displacement amplitude (a).
(c) It is clear that graph of V against x is out of phase with the graph of y against x.

(ii) Particle acceleration

[ ( )]

[– ( )]

( )

( ) ……… (iii)

Where acceleration amplitude

The negative sign in eq. (iii) shows that the acceleration is directed towards the mean position.

PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

(i) Variation of phase with time. At a given position (i.e., for the fixed value of x), the phase changes periodically
with time. For a given position, let and be the phases of a particle at times and respectively. Then,

( )

And ( )

( ) ( )

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 When (time period), .

(ii) Variation of phase with distance. At a given (i.e., for fixed value of t), phase changes periodically with distance
x. At a given time, let and be the phases of the two particles at distances and from the origin
respectively. Then,

( )

And ( )

( ) ( )

The negative sign indicates the phase lag. As x increases, the phase lag also increases. In other words, when a
particle is at larger distance from the origin, its phase lag is greater.

When (wavelength) ;

Thus wavelength may be defined as the distance between two consecutive points having a phase different of 2 .

Illustration 14. A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by ( ) ( )

Where, x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right. (N.C.E.R.T)

(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave?

If it is travelling, what are the speed and direction of its propagation?

(b) What are its amplitude and frequency?

(c) What is the initial phase at the origin?
(d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave?

Solution. ( ) [ ]

(a) The equation is of a travelling wave. Comparing it with the equation

( )

We get

And .

The equation represents a travelling wave propagation from right to left is in – direction.

(b)

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 .

(c) Initial phase .

(d) The least distance between two consecutive crests ( ) is

Illustration 15. For the wave described in question 8, plot the displacement (y) versus (t) graphs for 2 and 4
cm. What are the shapes of these graphs? In which aspects does the oscillatory motion in travelling wave differ from
one point to another: amplitude frequency or phase (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. For ( )

The graph is a sinusoidal curve with amplitude 3 cm and time period,

When
√ √

With increase in the value of t, the value of y increases, reaches

maxima, when

( )

Therefore, the graph is as shown in the figure. The cycle is completed in T seconds.

Similarly , we can draw graph for and .

The amplitude and the frequency remains the same. But there is a phase difference between the particles at
and .

The amplitude and the frequency remains the same. But there is a phase difference between the particles at
and cm.

For a path difference of , the phase difference is

For a path difference of 2 cm, the phase.

Difference is rad.

Illustration 16. For the travelling harmonic wave

( ) ( )
Where x and y are in cm and t in s. Calculate the phase difference between oscillatory motion of two points
separated by a distance of (N.C.E.R.T
(a) 4 m,
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 (b) 0.5 m,
(c) ,
(d)

Solution. The given equation is

[ ( )]

Comparing it with ( ), we get

(a) For a path difference of , the phase difference is

For a path difference of 400 cm, the phase

Difference is .

Similarly, we can find for other values.

(b) . (c) (d) ( ) .

Illustration 17. A simple harmonic wave-train is travelling in a gas in the positive direction of X-axis. Its amplitude is
2 cm, velocity 45 and frequency is 75 per second. Find out the displacement of the particle of the medium at a
distance 135 cm from the origin in the direction of the wave at the instant seconds.

Solution. The equation of a plane progressive wave travelling in the direction is

( ) ……… (i)

Here ;

Substituting the values of a, T, λ and x in eq. (i), we have,

( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )

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Illustration 18. A displacement wave is represented by ;

( )

Where y, t and x are in cm, s and cm respectively. Determine (i) the amplitude (ii) the period (iii) the angular frequency
(iv) the wavelength (v) amplitudes of particle velocity and acceleration.

Solution. ( )

Compare it with the general equation of wave motion :

( )

(i) Amplitude,

(ii)

(iii) Angular frequency,

(iv)

Wavelength,

(v) Amplitude of particle velocity

Amplitude of particle acceleration ( )

Illustration 19. The equation of a transverse wave travelling along a coil spring is

( )

Where x and y are in cm and t in s. Find (i) the amplitude (ii) the wavelength (iii) the initial phase at the origin
(iv) the speed and (v) the frequency of the wave.

Solution. ( ) ……… (i)

The general equation of a travelling harmonic wave is

* ( ) + ……… (ii)

Comparing eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

(i) Amplitude,

(ii) λ

(iii) Initial phase,

(iv)

(v) Frequency,

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EXERCISE I.
1. The equation for a progressive wave in a wire is given by ;

( )

Where the distances are in metre and time in second. Determine (i) amplitude (ii) frequency
(iii) wavelength. [(i) 0.15 m (ii) 15 Hz (iii) 10 m]

2. A source of sound of frequency 50 Hz is producing longitudinal waves in air. The amplitude of vibrations of
air particles is 5 mm and the speed of wave is 330 m . Find the distance-displacement equation for the

wave. * ( ) +

3. The equation of a simple harmonic progressive wave is given by ;

( )

Where x and y are in cm and t in second. Calculate the amplitude, frequency and speed of the wave and the
phase difference between two particles at a distance of 2.0 cm apart at any instant.
[ ]
4. The equation of motion of a particle is given by ;
( )
Where distances and time are respectively in metre and second. Determine the amplitude, frequency and
maximum velocity of the particle.

[ ]

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SUPERPOSTION PRINCIPLE
When two or more waves pass through the same medium at the same time, the net displacement at any point is equal to
the vector sum of their individual displacement at that points.

In general, if ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are the displacements at a point in a medium where n waves superpose on each other,
then the resultant displacement ⃗⃗⃗ at that point is given by ;

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Reflection of Waves at Boundaries

Reflection at rigid boundary: Let us consider a string fixed at one end to a rigid support and kept taut by tension at
the other end. We give a single vertical jerk at the other end so that a wave pulse starts moving towards the fixed end.
When the pulse reaches the fixed end, it exerts a force in the upward direction at this end. As the end is fixed, it cannot
move up. The fixed end also exerts an equal and opposite force on the string.
This force may be termed as the reaction force according to Newton’s third law.
This reaction force produces an inverted pulse which then moves in opposite direction.
We say that the reflected pulse has suffered a phase change (in displacement and
velocities) of .

If ( )

Is the equation for incident wave, then the equation of the reflected wave is

( )

( )

Note: When a sound wave travelling in a bounded medium like an closed organ pipe reaches the closed end, the
compression is reflected as compression and the rarefaction as rarefaction.

Reflection at open boundary: Let us consider a string at one end of which a

smooth light ring is fixed which is free to move along a vertical smooth bar (Fig).
The other end of the string is kept taut by pulling it by hand. A wave pulse is
generated, which moves towards the ring end. As the wave pulse reaches the end, it
exerts a force on the ring in the upward direction and pulls the ring upwards. The
ring reaches a maximum height (double the amplitude of the pulse) and then comes
back due to tension of the string. In this way, the reflected wave is not inverted.
Thus, there is no phase change (in displacement and velocities) in the reflected
pulse.
If ( ) Is the equation for incident wave, then the equation of
the reflected wave is ( )

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STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVES
When two sets of progressive waves having the same frequency and amplitude travelling along the same path in
opposite directions superpose, the resultant wave formed only expands and shrinks, but do not proceed in any direction.
These waves are called standing (or stationary waves). In these waves, there is no propagation of energy.

Consider a wave travelling along the positive direction of x – axis and a reflected wave of the same amplitude and
wavelength in the negative direction of x-axis.
Let

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

The resultant wave on the string is, according to the principle of superposition:

( ) ( ) ( )

[ ( ) ( )]

Using ( ) ( ) we get,

( ) ……… (i)

The amplitude of this wave is . Thus in this wave pattern, the amplitude varies from point to point, but each
element of the string oscillates with the same angular frequency ω or time period.

The amplitude is fixed at a given location but as remarked earlier, it is different at different locations. The points at
which the amplitude is zero (i.e., where there is no motion at all) are nodes; the points at which the amplitude is the
largest are called antinodes.

Position of nodes
(Where the amplitude is zero) are given by

Which implies

Since , we get

……… (ii)

Clearly, the distance between any two successive nodes is . In the same way,

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Positions of antinodes
(Where the amplitude is the largest) are given by the largest value of :

| |

When

( )

( )

( ) …… (iii)

Again the distance between any two consecutive antinodes is .

 Nodes are completely at rest. Antinodes are oscillating with maximum amplitude ( ). The points between a
node and antinode have amplitude between 0 and 2A.

 Separation between two consecutive (nodes or antinodes) .

 Separation between a node and the next antinode .

 Nodes and antinodes are alternately placed.

 are nodes and hence remain at rest. The segment of the string between and move up and down.
The figure show the positions of this segment at where T is time period of the
wave.
 The portion between two consecutive nodes is often called as a loop.

 It is clear from the figure that since nodes are at rest they don’t transfer energy. In a stationary wave, energy is
not transferred from one point to the other.

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Standing waves on strings
Taking one end to be at , the boundary conditions are that and are positions of nodes. The
condition is already satisfied. The node condition requires that the length L is related to λ by relation given
below

……… (iv)

Possible wavelength

Possible frequencies

……… (v)

or first harmonic

for n = 2

for n = 3

√ Where √

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Laws of Transverse Vibrations of a String : SONOMETER
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string fixed at both ends is given by equation. From this equation, one can
immediately write the following statements known as “Laws of transverse vibrations of string”

(a) Law of length – The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string (fixed at both ends) is inversely
proportional to the length of the string provided its tension and its mass per unit length remain the same.
if F and m are constants. ( Fundamental frequency)
(b) Law of tension – The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string (fixed at both ends) is inversely
proportional to the length of the string provided its tension and its mass per unit length remain the same.
√ if L and m are constants.

(c) Law of mass – The fundamental frequency of a string is inversely proportional to the square root of the linear
mass density, i.e., mass per unit length provided the length and the tension remain the same.

if L and F are constants.

√

These laws may be experimentally studied with an apparatus called sonometer.

Standing wave in organ pipe

Let us next consider normal modes of oscillation of an air column with one end closed and the other open. A glass tube
partially filled with water illustrates this system. The end in contact with water is a node, while the open end is an
antinode. At the node the pressure changes are the largest, while the displacement is minimum (zero). At the open end
–the antinode, it is just the other way-least pressure change and maximum amplitude of displacement. Taking the end
in contact with water to be , the node condition is already satisfied. If the other
end x = L is an antinode, equation (iii) gives

( ) for ……

The possible wavelengths are then restricted by the relation:

……… (vi)

The normal modes – the natural frequencies – of the system are

( ) ……… ……… (vii)

second overtone or fifth harmonic

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For an air column with one end closed and other open only odd harmonic are presents

For an air column open at both ends, each end is an antinode. It is then easily seen that an open air column at both ends
generates all harmonics

For open organ pipes (open an both ends )

……… (viii)

Possible wavelength

Possible frequencies

…… (ix)

or first harmonic

for n 2

for n 3

Illustration 20. The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its both ends) is given by (N.C.E.R.T)

( ) ( ) ( )
Where x and y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is .

Answer the following

(a) Does the function represent a travelling wave or a stationary wave?

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 (b) Interpret the wave as a superposition of two waves travelling in opposite directions. What is the
wavelength, frequency, and speed of each wave?
(c) Determine the tension in the string.

Solution. ( ) ( )

Given, .

Therefore, μ .

(a) The above equation represents a stationary wave because it involves harmonic functions of x and t
separately.

(b) * ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

( ) ( )

In both the waves

From the given equation, it is clear that

(c) √

Illustration 21. (i) For the wave on a string described in question.11, do all the points on the string oscillate with the
same , (a) frequency, (b) phase, (c) amplitude? Explain your answer. (N.C.E.R.T)

(ii) What is the amplitude of a point 0.375 m away from one end?

Solution. The equation can be rewritten as [ ( ) ]

Where ( )

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 (i) Clearly, the amplitude is different for different values of x.
The frequency is the same and is equal to 60 Hertz (except for nodes which are not oscillating).
The phase of all positives in the segment is same. The phase is exactly opposite in the next segment and so
on.

(ii) For ( )

Illustration 22. Two waves travelling in opposite directions produce a standing wave. The individual wave functions
are given by ;

( ) ( )

Where x and y are in cm.

(i) Find the maximum displacement of the motion at .

(ii) Find the positions of nodes and antinodes.

Solution. When the two waves are summed up, the result is a standing wave whose wave function is given by ;

( )

(i) Here

( ) ( )

The maximum displacement of motion at is given by ;

( )

(ii) Nodes exist at those positions for which the amplitude is zero. This means that is an integral
multiple of . Therefore, nodes come at positions :
where

( )

Antinodes exist at those positions for which the amplitude is maximum i.e., . This means that
is an odd multiple of . Therefore, antinodes come at positions:
where

or ( )

Illustration 23. A standing wave on a string has nodes at ; cm ; cm and cm. What is the
wavelength of the travelling waves that combine to make this standing wave?

Solution. We know that the separation between two adjacent nodes of a standing wave is where is the
wavelength of the travelling waves.

Wavelength of travelling waves is

(separation between two adjacent nodes) = 2 (4) = 8 cm.

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Illustration 24. A wire of length 140 cm and mass kg is stretched by means of a load of 16 kg. Calculate
the frequency of the fundamental note.

Solution. The frequency of fundamental note is

Here

Illustration 25. Given below are some functions of x and t to represent the displacement (transverse or longitudinal) of
an elastic wave. State which of these represent (i) of travelling wave, (ii) a stationary wave or (iii) none at all

(a) ( ) ( )

(b) √

(c) ( ) ( )

(d) . (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. (a) Represents a stationary wave.

(b) It is not an equation of a wave.

(c) It represents a progressive harmonic wave.

(d) It represents a superposition of two stationary waves.

Illustration 26. A wire stretched between two rigid supports vibrates in its fundamental mode with a frequency of 45
Hz. The mass of wire is kg and its linear mass density is . What is (a) the speed of a
transverse wave on the string, and (b) the tension in the string (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Given, , μ ,

..

Also,

(a) [ ]

( )

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 (b) Also, √

( )

Illustration 27. A metre-long tube open at one end, with a movable piston at the other end, shows resonance with a
fixed frequency source (a tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz) when the tube length is 25.5 cm or 79.3 cm. Estimate the
speed of sound in air at the temperature of the experiment. The edge effects may be neglected.
(N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. The tube behaves as a closed organ pipe.

Now, *( )
+

For and

*( )
+

Illustration 28. A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of longitudinal vibrations
of the rod are given to be . What is the speed of sound in steel (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. It is given that the rod is clamped in the middle. In this case during
fundamental mode of vibration, a node is formed at the middle of the rod. Also
antinode are formed at the ends as shown in figure.

Here, ( )

( )

Illustration 29. A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is resonantly excited by a
430 Hz source? Will the same source be in resonance with the pipe if both ends are open? (speed of sound in air 340 m
). (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Given, ,

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 For closed organ pipe

( )

( )

≈ .

Therefore, the closed organ pipe is resonantly excited by fundamental mode of vibration of first harmonic.

For open organ pipe,

Here, ρ is not an integer. Therefore, it can be concluded that open organ pipe will not be in response with
source.

BEATS
The periodic variations in intensity at a given point due to the superposition of two sound waves of slightly different
frequencies travelling in the same direction are called beats.

Analytical Treatment of Beats. Let the equations of the sound waves reaching the point O be

( )

( )

According to the principle of superposition, the equation of the resultant wave is

( ) ( )

[ (( )) ( )]

( ) ( )
* +

* ( ) ( ) +

( ) ……… (i)

Where, ( ) is the wave amplitude of the resultant wave ……… (ii)

Clearly ( ) i.e., the amplitude of the wave depends on t.

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Also from the Eqn. (t), we may conclude that the frequency of the resultant

Wave is ( ), i.e., average of the frequencies of the superposing waves.

Maxima of Amplitude
(From Eqn. (ii), we conclude that the amplitude is maximum when

( )

i.e., ( ) or

Thus, the instant of time for maximum amplitude are

Therefore, the time interval between the successive maxima

Minimum Amplitude
From Eqn. (ii), we conclude that the amplitude is minimum when

( ) ( )

i.e., ( )

The instants of time for minimum amplitude are

( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, time interval between two successive minima

It is clear that the time interval between two successive maxima is equal to the time interval between the successive

minima. In other words, we can say that the time period of beats

Therefore, Beat frequency ( )

Beat frequency | |

This means that if the two tuning forks have frequencies of 252 Hz and 256 Hz, then the beat frequency
.

Note. That | | must be small ( )

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Illustration 30. Two sitar strings A and B playing the note ‘Ga’ are slightly out of tune and produce beats of frequency
6 Hz. The tension in the string A is slightly reduced and the beat frequency is found to be reduced to 3 Hz. If the
original frequency of A is 324 Hz, what is the frequency of B? (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. During original adjustment

As the number of notes heard per second

( ) .

i.e., or

After adjustment when the tension in the string A is reduced, the frequency also reduces. Now, the beats frequency
is 3 Hz. This is only possible when .

Graphical Representation of Beats

Let us consider a particular point in the medium where the two waves superpose
Fig. (a) shows two waves overlapping as displacement versus time for that
particular point. Fig. (b) shows the resultant wave at the same particular point at
different instant of time in accordance with the principle of superposition.

At certain instant of time, the two waves are in phase and lead to maxima. At
certain other instants of time, the two waves are out of phase and lead to minima.
Between these instants, the phase difference varies regularly with time leading to
different displacements and hence different intensities of sound.

DOPPLER EFFECT
The apparent change in the observed frequency of a wave due to the relative motion
between the source of waves and the observer is called Doppler effect.

CALCULATION OF APPARENT FREQUENCY

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(i) Source moving towards stationary observer. It the source S were stationary, then f waves sent out in one second
towards the observer O would occupy a distance V and the wavelength would be V/f as shown in Fig. (i). If S
moves with a velocity towards O, then f waves sent out occupy a distance ( ) because S has moved a
distance towards O in one second as shown in Fig.
(ii). Thus wavelength of the wave reaching O is
now

But velocity of sound waves

Apparent frequency,

( )

……… (i)

Since ( ) is less than V, is greater than . Therefore, the apparent frequency increases when the source of
sound moves towards the stationary observer.

(ii) Source moving away from stationary observer. In this case, the f waves sent out towards O in one second
occupy a distance ( ) as shown in Fig. Therefore, the wavelength of the waves reaching O is

Apparent frequency, ( )

( )
……… (ii)

Since ( ) is greater than is less than . Therefore, the apparent frequency decreases when the source of
sound moves away from the stationary observer.

(iii) Source stationary and observer moving towards it. Since the source is stationary, the f waves sent out by S
towards the moving observer O occupy a distance V as shown in Fig. Therefore, the wavelength of the waves
reaching O is V/f. Note that unlike the cases already discussed, the wavelength is unaltered.

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 The velocity of the sound waves relative to O is not V because O is moving relative to the source. In this case, the
velocity of sound waves relative to O is ( )

Apparent frequency,

……… (iii)

Since ( ) is greater than is greater than f. Thus when the observer is moving towards a stationary
source of sound, the apparent frequency is increased. Note that motion of the observer has no effect on the
wavelength. An observer moving towards a stationary source hears an increase in frequency because he intercepts
the crests more frequently than he would if he were stationary.

(iv) Source stationary and observer moving away from it. This case is shown in Fig. As in the case just considered,
the wavelength of the waves reaching O is unaltered and is equal to V/f.

The velocity of sound waves relative to O is ( ).

Apparent frequency,

………… (iv)

As ( ) is less than is less than f. Thus when the observer is moving away from a stationary source of
sound, the apparent frequency is decreased.

(v) Source and observer both moving. If the source and the observer are both moving, the apparent frequency can
be found from the formula:

Where

This formula can be used to find the apparent frequency in any of the cases considered before.

(a) When source and observer are moving in the same direction. Suppose that the observer has a velocity
the source a velocity and that both are moving in the same direction. Then,

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 and ( )

Note that has already been deduced in eq. (i) above.

( )

……… (v)

In this case may be greater or less than f depending upon is less than or greater than μ . In case (i.e.,
both observer and source are moving with the same velocity) then,

(b) When source and observer are moving towards each other. In this case,
and ( )

( )

……… (vi)

(c) When source and observer are moving away from each other. In that case,

and ( )

( )

……… (vii)

Note. (i) It should be noted that the motion of the observer affects only , the velocity of the sound waves relative to
the observer. However, the motion of the source affects only , the wavelength of the waves reaching the observer.

(ii) Suppose the wind is also blowing with a velocity . If the wind is blowing in the same direction as sound waves,
then change V to in all the above formulas. If the wind is blowing in a direction opposite to the direction of
sound waves, then change to in all the above formulas.

Illustration 31. A train, standing at the outer signal of a railway station blows a whistle of frequency 400 Hz in still air.
(i) What is the frequency of the whistle for a platform observer when the train (a) approaches the platform with a speed
of , (b) recedes from the platform with a speed of 10 (ii) What is the speed of sound in each case?
The speed of sound in still air can be taken as .
(N.C.E.R.T)

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Solution. (i) (a) Given, ,

* +

* + .

(b) * +

* +

(ii) in each case.

Illustration. 32. A train, standing in a station-yard blows a whistle of frequency 400 Hz in still air. The wind starts
blowing in the direction from the yard to the station with a speed of 10 m . What are the frequency, wavelength and
speed of sound for an observer standing on the station’s platform? Is the situation exactly identical to the case when
the air is still and the observer runs towards the yard at a speed of 10 ? The speed of sound in still air can be
taken as 340 . (N.C.E.R.T)

Solution. Speed of sound in still air,

True frequency,

Speed of wind,

Since the wind blows in the direction of sound,

Sound speed,

There is no relative motion between source of sound and the observer. Therefore, the frequency remains unaltered.

Observed frequency

Wavelength of sound,

This is a case in which the source is stationary and the observer is moving towards it.

Velocity of sound relative to the observer is

Wavelength of the waves reaching the observer

Apparent frequency,

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Since the motion of the observer has no effect on the wavelength, the wavelength remains unchanged.

Note that situations (i) and (ii) are not equivalent.

Illustration 33. A SONAR system fixed in a submarine operates at a frequency 40.0 kHz. An enemy submarine moves
towards the SONAR with a speed of 360 km . What is the frequency of sound reflected by the submarine? Take the
speed of sound in water to be 1450 .

Solution. Here, .

The frequency reaching the enemy submarine

* +

* +

This frequency is reflected from the enemy submarine, the reflected frequency acts as a source which now moves
towards the submarine, the frequency as reached by the observer in s is

* +

* +

Illustration 34. A bat is fitting about in a cave, navigation via ultrasonic beeps. Assume that the sound emission
frequency of the bat is 40 kHz. During one fast swoop directly towards a flat wall surface, the bat is moving at 0.03
times the speed of sound in air. What frequency does the bat hear reflected off the wall?

Solution.

The frequency of wall as received by the wall

* +

* +

The frequency of sound as heard by bat after the reflection of sound by the wall is

* +

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 * +

Illustration 35. A cyclist and a railway train are approaching each other. The cyclist is moving at 10 m
and the train at 20 m . The engine driver sounds a warning siren at a frequency of 480 Hz. Calculate the
frequency of the note heard by the cyclist (i) before and (ii) after the train has passed by. Speed of sound in
air = 340 .

Solution. Here

(i) Before, train has passed

Velocity of sound relative to observe,
Wavelength of waves reaching observer,
(ii) After the train has passed
Velocity of sound relative to observer,
Wavelength of waves reaching observer,

Illustration 36. A policeman on duty detects a drop of 10 % in the pitch of the horn of a motor car as it
crosses him. If the velocity of sound is 330 , calculate the speed of the car.

Solution. Here
Velocity of sound relative to the policeman is

Wavelength of the waves reaching the policeman is

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