Notes on English Grammar For HSSC-I & HSSC-II

(According to the syllabus of FBISE, Islamabad)

These notes include parts of speech, kinds of sentences, kinds of phrases & clauses, gerund, participle, infinitive, direct & indirect object,etc.

Parts of Speech: The nouns that cannot be counted are

There are nine parts of speech in English Example: Melbourne (it refers to only one called non-countable nouns.
Grammar. They are listed below: particular city), Steve (refers to a particular
1. Noun person), Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. (you
2. Pronoun cannot say “1 water, 2 water, 3 water”
3. Verb Australia (there is no other country named because water is not countable)
4. Adjective Australia; this name is fixed for only one
5. Adverb country). Abstract nouns and proper nouns are
6. Preposition always non-countable nouns, but common
7. Article More Examples of Proper Noun nouns and concrete nouns can be both
8. Conjunction Common Noun: count and non-count nouns.
9. Interjection
Now, we shall discuss these parts of speech A common noun is a name for something Non-countable Noun examples in
one by one in detail. which is common for many things, person, sentences
1.Noun: Definition & types or places. It encompasses a particular type
Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, of things, person, or places. Collective Noun:
things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns are
most of the words of a language. Example: Country (it can refer to any A collective noun is a word for a group of
country, nothing in particular), city (it can things, people, or animals, etc.
Noun can be a/an - refer to any city like Melbourne, Mumbai,
Toronto, etc. but nothing in particular). Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.
Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Collective nouns can be both plural and
Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc. So, a common noun is a word that indicates singular. However, Americans prefer to use
Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, a person, place, thing, etc. In general and a collective nouns as singular, but both of the
cow, kangaroo, etc. proper noun is a specific one of those. uses are correct in other parts of the world.

Place – a name for a place: - London, More Examples of Common Noun Compound Noun:Sometimes two or three
Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc. nouns appear together, or even with other
Abstract Noun: parts of speech, and create idiomatic
Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, compound nouns. Idiomatic means that
door, house, computer, etc. An abstract noun is a word for something those nouns behave as a unit and, to a
that cannot be seen but is there. It has no lesser or greater degree, amount to more
Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, physical existence. Generally, it refers to than the sum of their parts.
superstition, happiness, excitement, etc. ideas, qualities, and conditions.
Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, Example: six-pack, five-year-old, and son-in
Examples of Noun in sentence time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc. -law, snowball, mailbox, etc.

Different Types of Noun: Abstract Noun examples in sentences Functions of Nouns

Proper Noun Concrete Noun: Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct

object, and an indirect object of a verb; as
Common Noun A concrete noun is the exact opposite of an object of a preposition; and as an adverb
abstract noun. It refers to the things we see or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also
Abstract Noun and have physical existence. show possession.

Concrete Noun Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, water, Subject: The company isdoing
money, sugar, etc. great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Countable Noun
Non-countable Noun Countable Noun: Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.

Collective Noun The nouns that can be counted are called Indirect object: Max gave Carol another
countable nouns. Countable nouns can chocolate.
Compound Noun take an article: a, an, the .
Object of preposition: Roses are the
Proper Noun: Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, etc. (you flowers of love.
can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs
A proper noun is a name which refers only are countable) Adverb: The train leaves today.
to a single person, place, or thing and there
is no common name for it. In written Countable Noun examples in sentences
English, a proper noun always begins with Non-countable Noun:
capital letters.
Adjective: The office building faces the are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and pronouns: all, another, any, anybody,
mall. theirs. For example: anyone, anything, each, everybody ,
Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. everyone, everything, few, many, nobody,
My brother’s daughter is adorable. "Is this book yours or his?" none, one, several, some, somebody, and
. someone. For example:
2.What Is a Pronoun? "All the books are mine."
"Everybody got lost on the way there."
Pronouns are used in place of nouns. The "Nobody's house has as many books as
purpose of pronouns is to avoid repetition theirs, not even ours." "Somebody forgot to bring the map."
and make sentences easier to understand.
Some of the most common pronouns to 2. Demonstrative pronouns "No wonder so few showed up."
remember when learning English as a
second language are he, she, it, they, and Demonstrative pronouns point to and 6. Reflexive pronouns
this. identify a noun or a pronoun. This and
The Seven Types of Pronouns these refer to things that are nearby in Reflexive pronouns refer back to the
space or time, while that and those refer to subject of the clause or sentence.
There are seven types of pronouns that things that are farther away in space or The reflexive pronouns used in writing
both English and English as a second further away in time. For example: English are myself, yourself, herself,
language writers must recognize: the himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and
personal pronoun, the demonstrative "This is the dress I will wear; that is the one I themselves. For example:
pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the wore yesterday."
relative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, "That is not true." "She baked a cake for herself."
the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive
pronoun. "Please pay for those." "We decided to eat it ourselves."
3. Interrogative pronouns
"We heard her say, 'They should be
1. Personal pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask ashamed of themselves.'"
questions. The interrogative pronouns are 7. Intensive pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a specific who, whom, which, and what. If you are
person or thing. Their form changes to learning English as a second language, it is Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize
indicate a person, number, gender, or case. important to remember that who and their antecedent. Intensive pronouns are
Subjective personal pronouns are pronouns whom are used to refer to people, while identical in form to reflexive pronouns. For
that act as the subject of a sentence. If you which is used to refer to things and example:
are learning English as a second language, animals. Who acts as the subject, while
remember that the subjective personal whom acts as the object. For example: "I myself find pronouns fascinating."
pronouns are I, you, she, he, it, you, and
they. For example: "Which is the best restaurant?" "They themselves think everyone should
"I walked directly to the party." know about pronouns."
"What did he tell you?"
"You showed up late; she was annoyed." "You yourself should tell everyone how
"Whom should we invite?" great pronouns are."
"He thought you had forgotten; we know .
you were just behind." 4. Relative pronouns 3.Verb: Definition & Types
Relative pronouns are used to link one A verb is a word or a combination of words
Objective personal pronouns are pronouns phrase or clause to another phrase or that indicates action or a state of being or
that act as the object of a sentence. If you clause. The relative pronouns are who, condition. A verb is the part of
are learning English as a second language, whom, that, and which. The compounds a sentence that tells us what the subject
remember that the objective personal whoever, whomever, and whichever are performs. Verbs are the hearts of English
pronouns are me, you, her, him, it, us, you, also commonly used relative pronouns. For sentences.
and them. For example: example:
Examples:
"The police officer told my brother and me "Whoever added the bill made a mistake."
to slow down." Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)
"The bill, which included all our meals, was Mike is going to school. (A condition of
"He pointed to the pedestrians and said to larger than expected." action)
be careful of them."
"The waiter who served us doesn't know Albert does not like to walk. (A negative
"The police officer said there are a lot of how to add." action)
speedy motorists like us."
5. Indefinite pronouns Anna is a good girl. (A state of being)
Possessive personal pronouns are
pronouns that show possession. They Indefinite pronouns refer to an identifiable, Verbs are related to a lot of other factors
define a person but not specified, person or thing. An like the subject, person, number, tense,
(or a number of people) who owns a indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, mood, voice, etc.
particular object. If you are learning English any, none, or some. If you are learning
as a second language, remember that the English as a second language, remember Basic Forms of Verbs
possessive personal pronouns the following common indefinite
There are six basic forms of verbs. These (participles become finite verbs when they Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’
forms are as follows: take auxiliary verbs.) verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were .
However,
Base form: Children play in the field. Example: there are some other verbs which can work
as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Infinitive: Tell them not to play Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem,
Past tense: They played football yesterday. Playing cricket is his only job. (Present smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste,
participle) turn.
Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
Present participle: I saw them playing with I have a broken bat. (Past participle) Some verbs in this list can also be action
him today. verbs. To figure out if they are linking verbs,
Walking is a good habit. (Gerund) you should try replacing them with forms of
Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise. the be verbs . If the changed sentence
Action Verbs: makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.
Different Types of Verbs
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a Example:
Finite Verbs sentence performs. Action verbs can make
the She appears ready for the game.
Non-finite Verbs listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes (She is ready for the game.)
more vividly and accurately.
Action Verbs Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive The food seemed delicious. (The
. food was delicious.)
Linking Verb
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. You look happy. (You are happy.)
Auxiliary Verbs A transitive verb demands
something/someone to be acted upon. Auxiliary Verbs:
Modal Verbs
Example: Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs
Finite Verbs: .
I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands An auxiliary verb extends the main verb by
Finite verbs are the actual verbs which are an object to be painted) helping to show time, tense, and possibility.
called The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have ,
the roots of sentences. It is a form of She is reading the newspaper. (The verb and do.
a verb that is performed by or refers to ‘read’ asks the question “what is she
a subject and uses one of the twelve forms reading?” – the answer is the object) They are used in the continuous
of tense and changes according to the (progressive) and perfect tenses.
number/person of the subject. Intransitive verbs do not act upon
anything. They may be followed by an Linking verbs work as main verbs in the
Example: adjective, adverb, preposition, or another sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main
part of speech. verbs.
Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex –
performed the action in the past. This Example: Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask
information is evident only by the verb questions, to express negation, to provide
‘went’.) She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have emphasis, and more.
any object since the action of ‘smiling’ does
Robert plays hockey. not fall upon anything/anyone) Example:

He is playing for Australia. I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for Alex is going to school.
this verb)
He is one of the best players. (Here, the They are walking in the park.
verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject itself.) Note: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is
sufficient to make a complete sentence but I have seen a movie.
Non-finite Verbs: {Subject + Transitive verb} is not sufficient
because transitive verbs demand a direct Do you drink tea?
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They object.
do not work as verbs in the sentence rather Don’t waste your time.
they work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, Linking Verb: Please, do submit your assignments.
etc. Non-finite verbs do not change
according to the A linking verb adds details about the Modal Verbs:
number/person of the subject because subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it
these verbs, also called verbals, do not connects the subject and the complement A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It
have any direct relation to the subject. — that is, the words that follow the linking assists the main verb to indicate possibility,
Sometimes they become the subject verb. It creates a link between them instead potentiality, ability, permission,
themselves. of showing action. expectation, and obligation.

The forms of non-finite verbs are – Often, what is on each side of a linking verb
infinitive, gerund, and participle is equivalent; the complement redefines or
restates the subject.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, A descriptive adjective is a word which
might, ought to, shall, should, will, would. describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the Demonstrative Adjectives:
adjectives belong in this type. These
Example: adjectives provide information and A demonstrative adjective directly refers
attribute to the nouns/pronouns they to something or someone. Demonstrative
I may want to talk to you again. modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives adjectives include the words: this, that,
are also called qualitative adjectives. these, those.
They must play their best game to win.
Participles are also included in this type of A demonstrative pronoun works alone and
She should call him. adjective when they modify a noun. does not precede a noun, but a
demonstrative adjective always comes
I will go there. Examples: before the word it modifies.
. Examples:
4. Adjective: Definition & Types I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is
describing an attribute of the car) That building is so gorgeously decorated.
An adjective describes or modifies noun/s (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the
and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing speaker)
indicates quality, size, shape, duration, information about the subject)
feelings, contents, and more about a noun This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular
or pronoun. The hungry cats are crying. noun close to the speaker)

Adjectives usually provide relevant I saw a flying Eagle. These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a
information about the nouns/pronouns plural noun close to the speaker)
they modify/describe by answering the More Examples of Descriptive Adjective
questions: What kind? How many? Which Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers
one? How much? Adjectives enrich your Quantitative Adjectives: to a plural noun far from the speaker)
writing by adding precision and originality
to it. A quantitative adjective provides More Examples of Demonstrative
information about the quantity of the Adjectives
Example: nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the
question category of ‘how much’ and ‘how Possessive Adjectives:
The team has a dangerous batsman. (What many’.
kind?) A possessive adjective indicates possession
Examples: or ownership. It suggests the belongingness
I have ten candies in my pocket. (How I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much) of something to someone/something.
many?)
They have three children. (How many) Some of the most used possessive
I loved that red car. (Which one?) adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your.
You should have completed the whole task. All these adjectives always come before a
I earn more money than he does. (How (How much) noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these
much?) words demand a noun after them.
More Examples of Quantitative Adjectives
More Examples of Adjective Examples:
Proper Adjectives:
However, there are also many adjectives My car is parked outside.
which do not fit into these questions. Proper adjectives are the adjective form
Adjectives are the most used parts of of proper nouns. When proper nouns His cat is very cute.
speech in sentences. There are several modify or describe other nouns/pronouns,
types of adjectives according to their uses. they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ Our job is almost done.
Types of Adjectives means ‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or
‘polite.’ Her books are interesting.
Descriptive Adjectives
A proper adjective allows us to summarize a More Examples of Possessive Adjective
Quantitative Adjectives concept in just one word. Instead of
Proper Adjectives writing/saying ‘a food cooked in Chinese Interrogative Adjectives:
recipe’ you can write/say ‘Chinese food’.
Demonstrative Adjectives An interrogative adjective asks a question.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as An interrogative adjective must be
Possessive Adjectives proper nouns are. followed by a noun or a pronoun. The
Example: interrogative adjectives are: which, what,
Interrogative Adjectives whose. These words will not be considered
American cars are very strong. as adjectives if a noun does not follow right
Indefinite Adjectives after them. ‘Whose’ also belongs to
Chinese people are hard workers. the possessive adjective type.
Articles
I love KFC burgers. Examples:
Compound Adjectives
Marxist philosophers despise capitalism. Which phone do you use?
Descriptive Adjectives:
More Examples of Proper Adjectives What game do you want to play?
 There are three degrees of adjectives: A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or
Whose car is this? Positive, comparative, superlative. independent clauses. It provides transitions
These degrees are applicable only for the between ideas and shows relationships.
More Examples of Interrogative Adjective descriptive adjectives. Conjunctive adverbs are also called
connectors.
Indefinite Adjectives: Examples:
Example:
An indefinite adjective describes or Positive degree: He is a good boy.
modifies a noun unspecifically. They It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final
provide indefinite/unspecific information Comparative degree: He is better than any match has not been canceled.
about the noun. The common indefinite other boy.
adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, We are still confused, however, if the
any, each, every, either, nobody, several, Superlative: He is the best student. umpires will come.
some, etc. .
5.Adverb: Definition & Types Last season there was a great
Examples: An adverb is a word/a set of words that drought; consequently, we could not grow
modifies verbs, adjectives, and other crops.
I gave some candy to her. adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an
I want a few moments alone. action is performed or indicates the quality Sentence Adverbs:
or degree of the action.
Several writers wrote about the recent A sentence adverb starts the sentence and
incidents. Many adverbs end in -ly but some words modifies the whole sentence.
which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not
Each student will have to submit homework adverbs. Many words can be both adverbs Example:
tomorrow. and adjectives according to their activity in
the sentence. Hopefully, we will win the match.
Articles Example:
Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy.
Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles Robin is always hungry for success. Certainly, I did not think of coming here.
are also adjectives. Articles determine the
specification of nouns. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are used I love her very much. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
to refer to an unspecific noun, and ‘the’ is
used to refer to a specific noun. He is running fast. Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time
or frequency of the action in the sentence.
Examples: Alex works hard. They answer the question ‘when/how
frequently is the action performed?’.
A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the He wrote that willingly.
noun ‘cat’ refers to any cat, not specific.) Always, never, often, eventually, now,
Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are frequently, occasionally, once, forever,
The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific clauses and phrases that modify the verbs, seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM,
cat.) adjectives or other adverbs in the sentence. 12 PM, etc. are common adverbs of
time/frequency.
An electronic product should always be Example:
handled with care. Example:
He ran toward the bus until he was tired.
Compound Adjectives: (Adverb Clause) I went to school a little late yesterday.

When compound nouns/combined words He came carrying his box with two hands. He always gets a good result.
modify other nouns, they become a (Adverb Phrase)
compound adjective. This type of adjective I will leave Monday.
usually combines more than one word into We were panicked without any reason.
a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. (Adverb Phrase) He smokes occasionally.
They are often separated by a hyphen or
joined together by a quotation mark. Types of Adverbs: Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)
Adverbs of place/direction that indicate
Example: Conjunctive Adverbs place/direction of the action in the
sentence. They answer the question ‘
I have a broken-down sofa. Sentence Adverbs where is the action performed?’.

I saw a six-foot-long snake. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?) Across, over, under, in, out, through,
backward, there, around, here, sideways,
He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?) upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that
now” look. place, etc. are some common adverbs of
Adverbs of Degree (How Much?) place/direction.
The Degree of Adjectives:
Adverbs of Manner (How?) Example:
Conjunctive Adverbs:
I went through the jungle.
He plays in the field. There are five types of prepositions. They Here are some of the most common, or
are simple, double, compound, participle, simple prepositions:
Alex is going to school. and phrase prepositions. A preposition is
used to show a relationship between the aboard
He is staying at my home. noun, pronoun, or phrases in a sentence. about
They are used to connect people, objects, above
Adverbs of Degree (How Much?) time, and locations. across
after
Adverbs that express the What is a Preposition? against
importance/degree/level of the action in along
the sentence are called adverbs of degree. The definition of a preposition is a word or alongside
They answer the question ‘how much is the phrase that connects a noun or pronoun to amid
action performed?’. a verb or adjective in a sentence. They are among
usually short words, and they normally are around
Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, found in front of nouns. On rare occasions, at
most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, prepositions can be found in front of before
much, etc. are common adverbs of degree. gerund verbs. behind
below
Example: If the subject, noun, and verb are the bricks beneath
of beside
She completely forgot about her sentence, then prepositions are the mortar besides
anniversary. that connects them. They express position, between
movement, possession, time, and how an beyond
I read the newspaper thoroughly. action is completed. but
by
I am so excited about the new job. How Many Types of Prepositions are concerning
There? considering
Robin hardly studies despite
There are five types of prepositions: down
Adverbs of Manner (How?) during
Simple preposition except
Adverbs that express the excepting
manner/approach/process of the action in Double preposition for
the sentence are called adverbs of manner. from
They answer the question ‘how is the action Compound preposition in
performed?’. inside
Participle preposition into
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, like
handily, Phrase preposition near
quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully, earnestly, of
nicely, tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs These are spoken and written quite often in off
of manner. These adverbs usually end in ly. English. In fact, many of us use all types of on
prepositions naturally without realizing onto
Example: that they are distinct and have a name.for, opposite
with, on, that, of, to out
Let's divide the prizes equally. outside
Common prepositions are also some of the over
Please, handle the camera carefully. shortest words | Jane past
Samoilova – Shutterstock.com License regarding
Mike is walking slowly.
What are the Most Common Prepositions? round
He is running fast. save
. The Top 10 most common prepositions in since
6. Prepositions: the English language are: of, with, at, from, through
into, during, including, until, against. These throughout
There are five types of prepositions in the represent the most frequently used till
English language. prepositions. They are also called “simple to
prepositions.” toward
A preposition is a word that helps connect under
nouns and pronouns with a verb or What is a Simple Type of Preposition? underneath
adjective in a sentence. until
Simple prepositions are the short words unto
The five types of prepositions are simple, used to show the relationship between up
double, compound, participle, and phrase nouns, pronouns, or to join parts of a clause upon
prepositions. or sentence. via
List of Simple Prepositions with
Prepositional phrases contain a within
preposition plus a noun or pronoun. without
Examples of Simple Prepositions Used in What is a Double Preposition? from behind
Sentences from beneath
The dog jumped out while the car was Easily form a Double Prepositions by from between
moving. joining two simple prepositions. from the point of view of
in accordance with
Car is the object of the preposition out. Examples of Double Prepositions in in a manner similar to
Sentences in care of
Dorothy came upon the Tin Man. The dog jumped out of the moving car. in case of
in close connection with
Upon is the preposition. Tin Man is the The child hid inside of the cabinet. in common with
object. in comparison to
What is a Compound Preposition? in compliance with
She came home without her homework. in connection with
Double prepositions and compound on account of
Homework is the object and the prepositions are very similar. Both are two- on behalf of
preposition is without. word phrases. The double preposition is on the basis of
formed through the conjunction of two on the part of
What are Prepositions of Place? simple prepositions. Whereas the on the point of
Writers use this type of preposition to compound preposition is formed through on top of
describe where something is located. There the conjunction of a non-prepositional out of
are four Prepositions of Place. “At” word and a simple preposition. outside of
describes a specific point in space. “In” owing to
describes an enclosed space. “On” I use INK which is a web content previous to
describes an object’s relationship to a optimization editor. It identifies wordy or prior to
surface. “By” describes an object’s complex sentences and suggests that I edit pursuant to
proximity to something else. to make my articles easily digestible. regardless of
relating to
Many common prepositions are also At that point in time I didn’t know the relative to
“Prepositions of Place”. These are used to answer. short of
indicate a noun’s location. similar to
This sentence can be simplified to: subsequent to
Prepositions of Place Examples Then, I didn’t know the answer. under cover of
or what with
“At” I didn’t know the answer. with a view to
with regard to
Meet me at the library. The Most Common Compound with reference to
Prepositions with respect to
“In” with the intention of
according to in consequence of
[example]I’m trapped in the elevator! ahead of in consideration of
along with in contrast to
“On” alongside of in default of
apart from in deference to
Is that a cat sleeping on your car? around about in exchange for
as against in excess of
“By” as between in favor of
as compared with in front of
I’ve always wanted to try that cafe by the as compared to in lieu of
train station. as for in opposition to
at that point in time in order to
Prepositions of Direction at this point in time in place of
If you ask “Where?”, this type of at the point of in preference to
preposition is usually part of the answer. at the time of in receipt of
Prepositions of Direction let you know because of in regard to
where something is going. They indicate by force of in relation to
which direction something is moving. There by means of in search of
are dozens of examples, but the most by reason of in spite of
common examples of Prepositions of by virtue of in terms of
Direction are: by way of in the course of
due to in the event of
above, across, along, among, around, at, during the course of in the face of
behind, below, beside, over, through, except for in the immediate vicinity of
toward, up, down, between, by, inside, in, for fear of in the nature of
near, past, under for lack of independently of
for the purpose of inside of
“Without” is an example of a preposition of for the reason that instead of
direction, a common preposition, and a for the sake of on account of
simple preposition | QuickMeme – Creative from above on behalf of
Commons License from among on the basis of
on the part of
on the point of When a singular noun is used to represent a In the sense of any, to single out an
on top of whole class, for ex individual as the representative of the class
out of A cow is an useful animal.
outside of The rose is sweetest of all flowers.
owing to A pupil should obey his teacher.
previous to The dog is the most faithful animal.
prior to To make a common noun of a proper noun
pursuant to With names of gulfs, rivers, seas, oceans,
regardless of groups of islands and mountain ranges for A Robert come to judgement.
relating to ex
relative to A or An – Which indefinite article to be
short of The Gulf of Saint Lawrence used ?
similar to
subsequent to The Thames The choice between “A” or “An” is
under cover of determined by sound. Before a word
what with The Pacific Ocean beginning with a vowel sound “an” is used;
with a view to for ex –
with regard to The British isles
with reference to An ass, An enemy, An orange,An hour, An
with respect to The Himalayas honest man, an heir
with the intention of Before the names of certain important .
books 8. Conjunctions are used to join clauses,
Participle Prepositions phrases, and words together for
Participle prepositions have endings such The Bible, The Ramayana, The Vedas constructing sentences. Conjunctions make
as -ed and -ing. a link between/among words or groups of
Before common nouns which are names of words to other parts of the sentence and
assuming, barring, considering, during, things of unique kind show a relationship between/among them.
given, notwithstanding, provided, Example:
regarding, and respected. The Sun
. Alex and Robin are playing together.
7. Definition – An article is a word that is The Sky
used to specify a noun. In literal terms Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than
Articles is basically an adjective which is The Earth him.
used to refer to Nouns. Ex. A Doctor, an
honest man , The Indian ocean With superlatives I play cricket, and Robin plays football.

Articles are basically three words “A”, “An” The great Caesar When he was sick, I went to see him.
or “The” who are used based on certain
rules which The immortal Shakespeare Types of Conjunctions
will be discussed later on.
With ordinals Coordinating Conjunctions
Types of Articles –
He was the first man to arrive. Correlative Conjunctions
Indefinite Articles – “A” or “An” is called
Indefinite articles because it leaves The second chapter of book is most Subordinating Conjunctions
indefinite the person or thing spoken of or adventurous.
We can say its used before a noun which is Coordinating Conjunctions:
not defined in particular and referred as in Before musical instruments
general , for ex – an able man, a horse, a The job of a coordinating conjunction is to
boy, an Elephant He can play the flute. join
two words, phrases, or independent
Definite Article – “The” is called definite The Violin is most difficult musical clauses, which are parallel in structure.
article as it points out some particular thing instrument. There are seven coordinating conjunctions
or person, for ex- The Doctor, The club, The which are by far the most common
Bus. here we are certain about the objects As an Adverb with comparatives as : conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet .
we are referring to and hence definite
article. The more the merrier Example:

Rules for Articles usage – The more they get, the more they want We went to the stadium and enjoyed the
cricket match.
Definite Article Indefinite Article
Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?
When we speak of a particular person or In its original numerical sense of one; as
thing, or one already referred to – for ex Go away and never come back.
Let us go to the club ( here we are referring 10 millimeter makes a centimeter
to a particular club we already knew) Correlative Conjunctions:
A bird in hand is worth two in the bush
I dislike the fellow (Pointing to a certain
person)
A correlative conjunction uses a set of They are highly context-sensitive. ii. Interrogative Sentences
words in a parallel sentence structure to Theses are used to make interrogative
show a contrast or to compare the equal In spoken language, interjections are sentences. For example, Are you feeling
parts of a sentence. The words of the words we instantly use to show our hungry? Why did you insult me?
correlative conjunctions have a special reaction to something which influences our iii. Imperative Sentences
connection between them. emotion. They are the initial reaction and These are used to make some request,
sometimes do not even make sense. suggestion, advice or order. For example,
The correlative conjunctions are not only - However, for formal speech or writing, Please give me a glass of water. Open your
but using interjections is not appropriate. book. Take some rest.
also, either- or, neither - nor, both - and, iv. Optative Sentences
not - but, whether - or. Interjections mainly have four roles: These are used to make some wish or
prayer. For example, May you live long!
Example: Rule 1: Interjections express a sudden Would that! We had won the match.
mood, emotions, and feeling with v. Exclamatory Sentences
Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball. emphasis. There are also many taboo These are used to express sudden feelings
words that are usually used in everyday or emotions to show wonder, surprise,
I want both ice cream and conversation but not in formal aspects. excitement, sorrow, grief, etc. For example,
These words fall into the category of Wow! You have performed well. Alas! I
He ate not only the ice cream but also the interjections. have failed in English.
chocolate. Example: .
2. According to Structure
Subordinating Conjunctions: Wow! That’s an amazing scene. There are four types of sentences according
to structure.
A subordinating conjunction joins Aw, I did not want him to come. i. Simple Sentences
elements of an unparallel sentence These sentences show a single thought and
structure. These elements are usually a What? You never told me that! have one subject and one verb. For
dependent clause and an independent example, I like clouds. Honesty is the best
clause. Rule 2: Some interjections interrupt a policy.
conversation or a thought or hold ii.Compound Sentences
Most commonly used subordinating someone’s attention for a moment. These These sentences have all independent
conjunctions are: are just sounds, not words because these clauses. For example, My sister likes story
sounds do not make any sense. books and I like watching games. The lion
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, was sleeping but the deer was grazing.
where, as, in order that, though, which, as Example: iii.Complex Sentences
much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, These sentences have one independent
because, provided, Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back. clause and all other clauses are dependent.
until, who/whom, before, since, what, For example, I live in a city which is full of
whoever/whomever. I want to, uh, ask you out on a date. honest people who are very hardworking.
iv.Mixed Sentences or Complex-
Example: Rule 3: Some interjections express only yes Compound Sentences
or no. These sentences have two or more
Before we left home, I had had my independent clauses and two or more
breakfast. Example: dependent clauses. For example, My
Yes! I will most definitely do it. brother purchased a suit which was very
Provided they come, we can start class expensive but I purchased a purse which
Tuesday. Nah, we are not going. was very cheap.
Phrase and its kinds
When he was washing my car, I went to the Rule 4: Some interjections are used to get
A phrase is a group of words that
store. someone’s attention.
expresses a concept and is used as a unit
Even though the weather was horrible, they Example: within a sentence. Eight common types of
still went outside phrases are: noun, verb, gerund, infinitive,
. Yo, Alex! Get in the car! appositive, participial, prepositional, and
9. An interjection is a kind of exclamation absolute. Take a look at our selection of
inserted into regular speech. Actually, it is a Hey! Will you give me that ball?
phrase examples below.
brief and abrupt pause in speech for
Noun Phrases
expressing emotions. Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone.
. A noun phrase consists of a noun and all
Interjections are unique and have some Kinds of sentences. its modifiers.Here are examples:
interesting features: There are two types of sentences in English The bewildered tourist was lost.
Language. 1. According to Types 2. The lost puppy was a wet and stinky dog.
Interjections don’t have a grammatical According to Structure The flu clinic had seen many cases of
function in the sentence construction. .1. According to Types: infectious disease.It was a story as old as
There are five kinds of sentences according time.
They usually cannot be modified or to types.
inflected. The sports car drove the long and winding
i. Assertive Sentences
These are used to make positive and road.
They do not have to have a relation to the negative sentences. For example, She Saturday became a cool, wet afternoon.
other parts of the sentence. works hard. They did not attend the party.
Verb Phrases The Florida panther, the state animal of independent sentence) which has both
A verb phrase consists of a verb and all its Florida, is an endangered species. subject and predicate.
modifiers.Here are examples: Participial Phrases Example:I will meet him in office.
The part of above sentence “I will meet
He was waiting for the rain to stop. A participial phrase begins with a past or
him” is a clause because it has a subject(I)
She was upset when it didn't boil. present participle. and a predicate(will meet him). On the
You have been sleeping for a long time. Examples are: other hand, the rest part of above
You might enjoy a massage. Washed with my clothes, my cell phone sentence “in office” lacks both subject and
He was eager to eat dinner. no longer worked. predicate(verb) such group of word is
Gerund Phrases Knowing what I know now, I wish I had called phrase.
A gerund phrase is simply a noun phrase never come here. A clause may stand as a simple sentence
or may join another clause to make a
that starts with a gerund.Examples I am really excited, considering all the
sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists
include: people that will be there. of one, two or more clauses.
Taking my dog for a walk is fun. We are looking forward to the movie, Examples.
Walking in the rain can be difficult. having seen the trailer last week. He is
Strolling along a beach at sunset is Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted sleeping.
romantic. her award. (on((on
Getting a promotion is exciting. The happy dog ran the entire length of the e clause)
Signing autographs takes time. park, pausing only to sniff the dandelions.
The kids were laughing at the
Going for ice cream is a real treat. Painted a brilliant white, the small room joker. (one clause)
Singing for his supper was how he earned appeared bigger. The teacher asked a question, but no one
his keep. The lake, frozen over all winter, was answered. (two clauses)
Getting a sore back was the result of the finally thawing. I am happy, because I won a prize
golf game. Prepositional Phrases . (two clauses) I like
Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology
Pulling an all-nighter did not improve his A prepositional phrase begins with a
,
test scores. preposition and can act as a noun, an because he wants to become a
Sailing into the sunset was the perfect adjective or an adverb. doctor. (three clauses)
end to the book. Examples are:
Infinitive Phrases The book was on the table. Clauses are divided into main clause (also
An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that We camped by the brook. called independent clause) and
begins with an infinitive verb.Here are He knew it was over the rainbow. subordinate clause (also called
dependent clauses).
some examples: She was lost in the dark of night.
To make lemonade, you have to start with He was between a rock and a hard place. Types of Clauses
lemons. I waited for a while.
I tried to see the stage, but I was too She smelled of strawberries and cream. There are two major types of clauses main
short. He won the challenge against all odds. (or independent) clause and subordinate
She organized a boycott to make a Absolute Phrases (or dependant) clause.
statement. An absolute phrase has a subject, but not
Main Clause and Subordinate Clause –
To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling. an action verb, so it cannot stand alone as
Comparison
He really needs to get his priorities in a complete sentence. It modifies the
order. whole sentence, not just a noun. He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.
The company decided to reduce hours for Examples are: The above sentence has two clauses “He is
everyone. His tail between his legs, the dog walked
To donate time or money is an honorable out the door. buying a shirt” and “which looks very
nice”. The clause “He is buying a shirt”
thing. Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her
expresses a complete thought and can
I went to Spain to stud y the language and date. alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is
culture. The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their called main or independent clause.
Appositive Phrases fingers getting the last bit of cheese off
An appositive phrase restates and defines the plate. While the clause “which looks very nice”
a noun. It consists of one or more words. Their heads hanging down, the whole does not express a complete thought and
Examples are: group apologized. can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on
another clause (main clause) to express
My favorite pastime, needlepoint, The entire team, their uniforms muddy
complete idea. Such a clause is called
surprises some people. and stained, shouted for joy. subordinate or dependent clause.
Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and .
joy. CLAUSE AND ITS TYPES Main or Independent Clause
My wife, the love of my life, is also my Clause: “A clause is a group of related
best friend. words containing a subject and a “Main (or independent) clause is a clause
A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can predicate” that expresses a complete thought and
For example, he laughed. can stand as a sentence.
run 70 miles an hour.
A clause refers to a group of related words Examples
My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was I met the boy who had helped me.
(within a sentence or itself as an
accepted by the boss. She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one Example •The student in the class, who had
answered. What he did made a problem for his attended all the lectures, passed the
He takes medicine because he family. test. (nonrestrictive clause)
suffers In the first sentence the clause “who
In above sentence the clause “what he studied a lot” restrict information to
from fever. did” functions as a noun, hence it is a noun preceding noun(student), it means that
He became angry and smashed the clause. A noun clause works as a noun that there is only one student in the class who
vase into peaces. acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive
In the above sentences each underlined sentence. A noun clause starts with clause.
part shows main clause. It expresses words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, In the second sentence the clause “who
complete though and can stand as a whoever, whomever”. had attended all the lectures” gives us
sentence that is why a main or an Examples information about preceding noun but
independent clause is normally referred as Whatever you learn will help you in does not limit this information to the
a simple sentence. future. (noun clause as a subject) preceding noun. It means there can be
What you said made me laugh. several other students in the class who
Subordinate or dependent Clause had attended all the lectures.
(noun clause as a subject) A comma is always used before a
Subordinate (or independent) clause is a He knows that he will pass the test. restrictive clause in a sentence and also
clause which does not express complete (noun clause as an object) after nonrestrictive clause if it is within a
thought and depends on another clause Now I realize what he would have main clause.
(main clause) to express complete thought. (noun clause as an object) “That” is usually used to introduce a
thought. Subordinate clause does not restrictive clause while “which” is used to
express complete idea and can’t stand as a Adjective Clause introduce a nonrestrictive clause.
sentence. A sentence having a subordinate “A dependent clause that functions as an Example:The table that costs $ 100 is
clause must have a main clause. adjective in a sentence is called adjective made of steel. (restrictive clause)
Example clause.” The table, which costs $ 100, is made of
He likes Chinese rice which tastes An adjective clause works like adjective in steel. (nonrestrictive clause)
good. a sentence. The function of an adjective is
The clause “which tastes good” in above to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Adverb Clause
sentence is a subordinate clause because Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or “A dependent clause that functions as an
it does not express complete thought and a pronoun. adverb in a sentence is called adverb
can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on Example clause”
main clause He wears a shirt which looks nice. An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a
The clause “which looks nice” in above verb, adjective clause or other adverb
(he likes Chinese rise) to express complete sentence is an adjective clause because it clause in a sentence. It
thought. modifies noun “shirt” in the sentence. modifies(describes) the situation in main
Examples. An adjective clause always precedes the clause in terms of “time, frequency (how
I met the boy who had helped me. noun it modifies. often), cause and effect, contrast,
I bought a table that costs $ 100. Examples. condition, intensity (to what extent).”
He takes medicine because he I met the boy who had helped me. The subordinating conjunctions used for
suffers from fever. An apple that smells bad is rotten. adverb clauses are as follows.
The teacher asked a question but The book which I like is helpful in Time: when, whenever, since, until,
no one answered. preparation for test. before, after, while, as, by the time, as
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are The house where I live consists of soon as
further divided into tree types, four rooms. Cause and effect: because, since, now
1. Noun Phrase, 2. Adjective Phrase, 3. The person who was shouting that, as long as, so, so that,
Adverb Phrase needed help. Contrast: although, even, whereas, while,
Adjective clause begins with relative though
Types of Subordinate Clause pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or
or whose) and is also relative clause. not, even if, providing or provided that, in
Functions of Subordinate Clause. Adjective (relative) clauses can be case
restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause Examples.
A subordinate (dependent) clause may Don’t go before he comes.
function as a noun, an adjective or an Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses He takes medicine because he is ill.
adverb in sentence. On the basis of their Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t
function in a sentence, subordinate Adjective (relative) clauses can be climb up the tree.
clauses can be divided in to following restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. Unless you study for the test, you
types. A restrictive clause limits the meaning of can’t pass it.
1. Noun Clause preceding noun or pronoun. A I will go to the school unless it
2. Adjective Clause. nonrestrictive clause tells us something rains.
3. Adverb Clause about preceding noun or pronoun but You are safe as long as you drive
does not limit the meaning of preceding carefully.
Noun Clause noun or pronoun. You can achieve anything provided
Example that you struggle for it.
“A dependent clause that functions as a •The student in the class who studied a
noun in a sentence is called noun clause.” lot passed the test. (restrictive clause)
A noun clause performs same function like
a noun in a sentence.
Gerunds, Infinitives, and "wrote" is a verb that refers to the action, He bought his son a bike - his son is the
indirect object of the verb bought. (For
Participles "the poem" is the object involved in the whom did he buy a bike?)
. action.
The three verbals— gerunds, infinitives,
and participles—are formed from verbs, Transitive and intransitive verbs
but are never used alone as action words
in sentences. Instead, verbals function as
nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These
A verb can be classified as transitive or
intransitive according to whether it takes End
or doesn't take an object:
verbals are important in phrases.
If a verb takes objects, then it is a
The gerund ends in -ing and functions as a
transitive verb.
noun.
Example:
Jumping is fun.
They played soccer. → (The verb play
He liked skiing.
takes ONE object 'soccer')
He had a unique way of whistling.
They sent him a postcard. → (The verb
.
The infinitive is the base form of a verb send takes TWO objects 'him' and 'a

with to. Usually it functions as a noun, postcard')

although it can also function as an
If a verb doesn't take an object, then it is
adjective or adverb.
an intransitive verb.
To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the verb
Example:
is)
She lies. → (The verb 'lie' doesn't take any
I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the
object)
verb like)
The building collapsed. → (The verb
She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective
'collapse' doesn't take any object)
modifying suggestion)
Types of objects
He called to warn her. (adverb modifying
the verb called) There are two types of objects: direct and
. indirect objects:
A participle is a verb that ends in -ing
(present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n Direct object
(past participle). Participles may function
as adjectives, describing or modifying A direct object answers the question
nouns. "what?" or "who?"
The dancing parrots entertained the
crowd. Examples:
The wrecked sailboat washed up on shore.
David repaired his car → his car is the
But participles have another function.
direct object of the verb repaired. ( What
When used with helping verbs such as to
did David repair?)
be and to have, they are action verbs and
He invited Mary to the party → Mary is
form several verb tenses.
the direct object of the verb invited. (Who
She is thinking of the children.
did he invite?)
The conference room had been cleaned
before they arrived. Indirect Object
.
Direct and Indirect Object An indirect object answers the question
. "to whom?", "for whom?"
What is an object?
An indirect object is the recipient of the
.
direct object, or an otherwise affected
An object in grammar is a part of a
participant in the event. There must be a
sentence, and often part of the predicate.
direct object for an indirect object to be
It refers to someone or something
placed in a sentence. In other words an
involved in the subject's "performance" of
indirect object cannot
the verb. It is what the verb is being done
exist without a direct object.
to. As an example, the following sentence
is given: Examples:

SubjectVerbObjectLeilawrotethe poem " They sent him a postcard - him is the

Leila" is the subject, the doer or indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom
performer, did they send a postcard?)