BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction to BCI

For generations, humans have fantasized about the ability to communicate and interact
with machines through thought alone or to create devices that can peer into person's mind and
thoughts. These ideas have captured the imagination of humankind in the form of ancient myths
and modern science fiction stories. However, it is only recently that advances in cognitive
neuroscience and brain imaging technologies have started to provide us with the ability to
interface directly with the human brain. This ability is made possible through the use of sensors
that can monitor some of the physical processes that occur within the brain that correspond with
certain forms of thought

Fig 1.1 Introduction to BCI

Primarily driven by growing societal recognition for the needs of people with physical
disabilities, researchers have used these technologies to build brain computer interfaces (BCIs),
communication systems that do not depend on the brain's normal output pathways of peripheral

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nerves and muscles.Brain-computer interfaces are devices that process brain activity and send
signals to external software, allowing a user to control devices with their thoughts.With BCI
technology, scientists envision a day when patients with paralysis, muscle atrophy and other
conditions could regain motor functions. Rehabilitation services could also adopt BCIs to
accelerate recovery from injuries.

Ramses Alcaide, CEO of neurotech startup Neurable, which develops non-invasive brain-
computer interfaces in the form of headphones, sees potential for BCI- enhanced devices to
become an everyday item for the average person.

"If we can make brain-computer interfaces accessible and seamless enough then they can be
integrated into our daily lives, just as we use smartphones or laptops today," Alcaide told Built In.
"But in order to truly become a ubiquitous tool, they need to be comfortable, intuitive and
reliable enough that people can use them without consciously thinking about them similar to how
we use a mouse or keyboard to interact with a computer."

Excitement around the possibilities of BCI has resulted in a thriving market, which is
expected to triple in size from $2 billion in 2023 to $6.2 billion by the end of the decade.“Brain
computer interface is the technology is the technology to interact with human brain to the
computer or any communicating device

The impact of this work is extremely high, especially to those who suffer from devastating
neuromuscular injuries and neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
which eventually strips individuals of voluntary muscular activity while leaving cognitive
function intact.

1.1 History

The history of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with Hans Berger's discovery of the
electrical activity of the human brain and the development of electroencephalography (EEG). In
1924 Berger was the first to record human brain activity by means of EEG. Berger was able to
identify oscillatory activity in the brain by analyzing EEG traces. One wave he identified was the
alpha wave (8-13 Hz), also known as Berger's wave.

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Berger's first recording device was very rudimentary. He inserted silver wires under the
scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patients' head by
rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a Lippmann capillary electrometer, with
disappointing results. More sophisticated measuring devices, such as the Siemens double-coil
recording galvanometer, which displayed electric voltages as small as one ten thousandth of a
volt, led to success.

Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with brain
diseases. EEGs permitted completely new possibilities for the research of human brain
activitiesResearch on BCIs began in the 1970s at the University of California Los Angeles
(UCLA) under a grant from the National Science Foundation, followed by a contract from
DARPA. The papers published after this research also mark the first appearance of the
expression brain-computer interface in scientific literature.

It was company called neurolink which was founded by ALON MUSK in

2016

Fig 1.2 Founded by Alon Musk

ALON MUSK was always been known for his innovation’s but this company works on
linking brain with his computers the technology is called BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE.

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Now, Neuralink has successfully implanted its BCI device in a second human who had
also suffered a spinal cord injury earlier, according to Musk. Out of the 1,024-array, around 400
electrodes are transmitting signals from the second patient's brain, he said.

Based on his previous remarks, Musk has ambitious plans for Neuralink as he envisions
that the brain implant will be able to not just assist paralysed patients but also help them walk.
He has also publicly stated that Neuralink will be able to treat memory loss, addiction, insomnia,
schizophrenia, seizures, psychosis, ana more.Musk wrote in a social media post that “No
Monkey has died as result of a Neuralink implant”

Fig 1.3 BCI

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1.2 ARCHITECTURE OF BRAIN

Contrary to popular simplifications, the brain is not a general-purpose computer with a

unified central processor. Rather, it is a complex assemblage of competing sub-systems, each
highly specialized for particular tasks (Carey2002). By studying the effects of brain injuries and,
more recently, by using new brain imaging technologies, neuroscientists have built detailed
topographical maps associating different parts of the physical brain with distinct cognitive
functions.

The brain can be roughly divided into two main parts:

1 Cerebral Cortex,

2 Sub-cortical regions.

1.2.1 Cerebral Cortex System

The cerebral cortex is evolutionarily much newer. Since this is the largest and most
complex part of the brain in the human, this is usually the part of the brain people notice in
pictures. The cortex supports most sensory and motor processing as well as "higher" level
functions including reasoning, planning, language processing, and pattern recognition. This is the
region that current BCI work has largely focused on.

1.2.2 Sub-cortical Regions

Sub-cortical regions are phylogenetically older and include a areas associated with
controlling basic functions including vital functions such as respiration, heart rate, and
temperature regulation, basic emotional and instinctive responses such as fear and reward,
reflexes, as well as learning and memory.

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Fig 1.4 Functional areas of cerebal cortox

Fig 1.5 Human Brain Waves

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CHAPTER-2

WORKING OF BCI

2.1 How it works

One of the biggest challenges facing brain-computer interface researchers today is the
basic mechanics of the interface itself. The easiest and least invasive method is a set of
electrodes a device known as an electroencephalograph (EEG) attached to the scalp. The
electrodes can read brain signals. However, the skull. blocks a lot of the electrical signal, and it
distorts what does get through.

Fig 2.1 How its works

To get a higher-resolution signal, scientists can implant electrodes directly into the gray
matter of the brain itself, or on the surface of the brain, beneath the skull. This allows for much
more direct reception of electric signals and allows electrode placement in the specific area of
the brain where the appropriate signals are generated.

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This approach has many problems, however. It requires invasive surgery to implant the
electrodes, and devices left in the brain long-term tend to cause the formation of scar tissue in the
gray matter. This scar tissue ultimately blocks signals.

Fig 2.2 working of bCI

Regardless of the location of the electrodes, the basic mechanism is the same: The
electrodes measure minute differences in the voltage between neurons. The signal is then
amplified and filtered. In current BCI systems, it is then interpreted by a computer program,
although you might be familiar with older analogue encephalographs, which displayed the
signals via pens that automatically wrote out the patterns on a continuous sheet of paper.

In the case of a sensory input BCI, the function happens in reverse. A computer converts a
signal, such as one from a video camera, into the voltages necessary to trigger neurons. The
signals are sent to an implant in the proper area of the brain, and if everything works correctly,

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the neurons fire and the subject receives a visual image corresponding to what the camera sees.
Another way to measure brain activity is with a Magnetic Resonance Image (MRI).An MRI
machine is a massive, complicated device. It produces very high- resolution images of brain
activity, but it can't be used as part of a permanent or semipermanen BCI. Researchers use it to
get benchmarks for certain brain functions or to map where in the brain electrodes should be
placed to measure a specific function.

For example, if researchers are attempting to implant electrodes that will allow someone to
control a robotic arm with their thoughts, they might first put the subject into an MRI and ask
him or her to think about moving their actual arm. The MRI will show which area of the brain is
active during arm movement, giving them a clearer target for electrode placement.

Fig 2.3 Robotic arm working

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A similar method is used to manipulate a computer cursor, with the subject thinking about
forward, left, right and back movements of the cursor. With enough practice, users can gain
enough control over a cursor to draw a circle, access computer programs and control a TVIt
could theoretically be expanded to allow users to "type" with their thoughts.

Once the basic mechanism of converting thoughts to computerized or robotic action is

perfected, the potential uses for the technology are almost limitless. Instead of a robotic hand,
disabled users could have robotic braces attached to their own limbs, allowing them to move and
directly interact with the environment. This could even be accomplished without the "robotic"
part of the device. Signals could be sent to the appropriate motor control nerves in the hands,
bypassing a damaged section of the spinal cord and allowing actual movement of the subject's
own hands.

2.2 Architecture of BCI

fig 2.4 architecture of BCI

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1) Signal acquisition
The EEG signals are obtained from the brain through invasive or non-invasive methods After
the signal is amplified and sampled

Fig 2.5 Signal acquistion

2) Signal processing
Neurophysiological signals are prone to contamination from physiological and
nonphysiological artifacts during acquisition. Nonphysiological artifacts, such as powerline
interference, along with physiological artifacts like electrooculogram, electrocardiogram (ECG),
and electromyogram signals, often emerge during EEG data collection. Various filtering
techniques have been explored to counteract these issues. Classical frequency filters, for instance,
effectively eliminate narrow band noise, such as powerline interference. Advanced parametric
filters, including adaptive, Wiener, Kalman, and Bayes filters, optimize filtering parameters
using constraining their efficacy [20]. This article will spotlight two prevalent filters, smoothing
and spatial filters, and discuss their successful applications in the BCI field.

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Fig 2.6 signal processing

3) signal output

Fig 2.7 signal output

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CHAPTER-3
TYPES OF BCIs
Introduction
Before moving to real implications of BCI and its application let us first discuss the three
types of BCI. These types are decided on the basis of the technique used for the interface. Each
of these techniques has some advantages as well as some disadvantages. The three types of BCI
are as follows with there features:

3.1 Invasive BCI

Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new
functionality to paralysed people. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of
the brain during neurosurgery. Using chips implanted against the brain that have hundreds of
pins less than the width of a human hair protruding from them and penetrating the cerebral cortex,
scientists are able to read the firings of hundreds of neurons in the brain.

Fig 3.1 invasive BCI

The language of the neural firings is then sent to a computer translator that uses special
algorithms to decode the neural language into computer language.

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This is then sent to another computer that receives the translated information and tells the
machine what to do. As they rest in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality
signals of BCI devices but are prone to scar-tissue build-up, causing the signal to become weaker
or even lost as the body reacts to a foreign object in the brain.

3.2 Semi-invasive BCI

Semi - invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the brain rather
than within the grey matter. They produce better resolution signals than non-invasive BCIs
where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms signals and have a lower risk of
forming sear-tissue in the brain than fully-invasive BCIs. Electrocorticography (ECOG)
measures the electrical activity of the brain taken from beneath the skull in a similar way to non-
invasive electroencephalography, but the electrodes are embedded in a thin plastic pad that is
placed above the cortex, beneath the dura materECOG is a very promising intermediate BCI
modality because it has higher spatial resolution, better signal-to-noise ratio, wider frequency
range, and lesser training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG, and at the same time has lower
technical difficulty, lower clinical risk, and probably superior long-term stability than
intracortical single-neuron recording. This feature profile and recent evidence of the high level of
control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people
with motor disabilities.

Fig 3.2 Semi invasive BCI

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3.3 Non-invasive BCI

The casiest and least invasive method is a set of electrodes, this device known as an
electroencephalograph (EEG) attached to the scalp. The electrodes can read brain signals.
Regardless of the location of the electrodes, the basic mechanism is the same: The electrodes
measure minute differences in the voltage between neurons. The signal is then. amplified and
filtered. In current BCI systems, it is then interpreted by a computer program, which displayed
the signals via pens that automatically wrote out the patterns on a continuous sheet of paper.

Fig 3.3 Non-invasive BCI

Even though the skull blocks a lot of the electrical signal, and it distorts what does get
through it is more accepted than the other types because of their respective disadvantages. As
well as invasive experiments, there have also been experiments in humans using non-invasive
neuroimaging technologies as interfaces. Signals recorded in this way have been used to power
muscle implants and restore partial movement in an experimental volunteer.

Although they are easy to wear, non-invasive implants produce poor signal resolution
because the skull dampens signals, dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by
the neurons. Although the waves can still be detected it is more difficult to determine the area of
the brain that created them or the actions of individual neurons,

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There are two general classes of brain imaging technologies: invasive technologies, in
which sensors are implanted directly on or in the brain, and non-invasive technologies, which
measure brain activity using external sensors. Although invasive technologies provide high
temporal and spatial resolution, they usually cover only very small regions of the brain.
Additionally, these techniques require surgical procedures that often lead to medical
complications as the body adapts, or does not adapt, to the implants. Furthermore, once
implanted, these technologies cannot be moved to measure different regions of the brain. While
many researchers are experimenting with such implants, we will not review this research in
detail as we believe these techniques are unsuitable for human-computer interaction work and
general consumer use.

We summarize and compare the many non-invasive technologies that use only external
sensors. While the list may seem lengthy, only Electroencephalography (EEG) and Functional
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) present the opportunity for inexpensive, portable, and safe
devices, properties we believe are important for brain-computer interface applications in HCI k

Fig 3.4 working process

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CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTS AND RESEARCHES

The experiments and researches of BCI are as follows

4.1 Implantation of Artificial Eyes (1978)

In 2002, Jens Naumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of 16 paying
patients to receive Dobelle's second generation implant, marking one of the earliest commercial
uses of BCIs. The second generation device used a more sophisticated implant enabling better
mapping of phosphenes into coherent vision. Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in
what researchers call "the starry-night effect". Immediately after his implant, Jens was able to
use his imperfectly restored vision to drive an automobile slowly around the parking area of the
research institute.

Fig 4.1

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4.2 Monkey operated a Robotic Arm (2008)

In may 2008, a monkey controlled a robotic arm to feed himself In University Of Pisttsburgh
Medical Center

Fig 4.2

4.3 First Human Brain to Brain Communication (2012)

University of Washington researchers have performed what they believe is the first
noninvasive human-to-human brain interface, with one researcher able to send a brain signal via
the Internet to control the hand motions of a fellow researcher. Using electrical brain recordings
and a form of magnetic stimulation, Rajesh Rao sent a brain signal to Andrea Stocco on the other
side of the UW campus, causing Stocco's finger to move on a keyboard.

While researchers at Duke University have demonstrated brain-to-brain communication

between two rats, and Harvard researchers have demonstrated it between a human and a rat, Rao
and Stocco believe this is the first demonstration of human-to-human brain interfacing.

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Fig 4 .3

In above figure, University of Washington researcher Rajesh Rao, left, plays a computer
game with his mind. Across campus, researcher Andrea Stocco, right, wears a magnetic
stimulation coil over the left motor cortex region of his brain. Stocco's right index finger moved
involuntarily to hit the "fire" button as part of the first human brain-to-brain interface
demonstration

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CHAPTER -5

Neurosurgery

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), a remarkable technological advancement in neurology

and neurosurgery, mark a significant leap since the inception of electroencephalography in 1924

These interfaces effectively convert central nervous system signals into commands for
external devices, offering revolutionary benefits to patients with severe communication and
motor impairments due to a myriad of neurological conditions like stroke, spinal cord injuries,
and neurodegenerative disorders. BCIs enable these individuals to communicate and interact
with their environment, using their brain signals to operate interfaces for communication and
environmental control. This technology is especially crucial for those completely locked in,
providing a communication lifeline where other methods fall short. The advantages of BCIs are
profound, offering autonomy and an improved quality of disabilibility

Fig 5.1 Neurosurgery

They allow for direct interaction with various devices and prostheses, bypassing damaged
or nonfunctional neural pathways. However, challenges persist, including the complexity of
accurately interpreting brain signals, the need for individual calibration, and ensuring reliable

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CHAPTER-6
Electroencephalography
Electroencephalography(EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp
produced by the firing of neurons within the brain

Fig 6.1 Electro-Encephalography

Electroencephalography (EEG) is the most studied potential non-invasive interface, mainly

due to its fine temporal resolution, ease of use, portability and low set-up cost. The technology is
highly susceptibility to noise however. Another substantial barrier to using EEG as a brain-
computer interface is the extensive training required before users can work the technology. For
example, in experiments beginning in the mid-1990s, Niels Birbaumer at the University of
Tübingen in Germany trained severely paralysed people to self-regulate the slow cortical
potentials in their EEG to such an extent that these signals could be used as a binary signal to
control a computer cursor.(Birbaumer had earlier trained epileptics to prevent impending fits by
controlling this low voltage wave.) The experiment saw ten patients trained to move a computer
cursor by controlling their brainwaves. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for
patients to write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took many months.

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Fig 6. 2 Recordings of brainwaves produced by and electroencephalogram

Another research parameter is the type of oscillatory activity that is measured. Birbaumer's
later research with Jonathan Wolpaw at New York State University has focused on developing
technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they found easiest to operate a BCI,
including mu and beta rhythms.

Among the possible choices the scalp recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) appears to be
an adequate alternative because of its good time resolution and relative simplicity. Furthermore,
there is clear evidence that observable changes in EEG result from performing given mental
activities. The BCI system is subdivided into three subsystems, namely EEG acquisition, EEG
signal processing and output generation

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Fig 6.3 BCI System

The EEG acquisition subsystem is composed of an electrode array arranged according

to the 10-20 international system and a digitization device. The acquired signals are often noisy
and may contain artefacts due to muscular and ocular movements. The EEG signal processing
subsystem is subdivided into a preprocessing unit, responsible for artefact detection, and a
feature extraction and recognition unit that determines the command sent by the user to the BCI.
This command is in turn sent to the output subsystem which generates a "system answer" that
constitutes a feedback to the user who can modulate his mental activities so as to produce those
EEG patterns that make the BCI accomplish his intents. Figure 5 illustrates the basic scheduling
of our BCI. The BCI period is the average time between two consecutive answers and the EEG
trial duration is the duration of EEG that the BCI needs to analyze in order to generate an answer.

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Fig 6.4 General BCI Architecture

Fig 6.5 BCI Scheduling

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CHAPTER-7

MEG and FMRI

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

have both been used successfully as non-invasive BCIs. In a widely reported experiment, fMRI
allowed two users being scanned to play Pong in real-time by altering their haemodynamic
response or brain blood flow through biofeedback techniques. FMRI measurements of
haemodynamic responses in real time have also been used to control robot arms with a seven
second delay between thought and movement.

In 2008 research developed in the Advanced Telecommunications Research (ATR)

Computational Neuroscience Laboratories in Kyoto, Japan, allowed the scientists to reconstruct
images directly from the brain and display them on a computer in black and white at a resolution
of 10x10 pixels. The article announcing these achievements was the cover story of the journal
Neuron of 10 December 2008.

Fig 7.1 ATR Lab’s reconstruction of human vision using fMRI

(top row: original image; bottom row: reconstruction from mean of combined readings)

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In 2011 researchers from UC Berkeley published a study reporting second-by- second

reconstruction of videos watched by the study's subjects, from fMRI data This was achieved by
creating a statistical model relating visual patterns in video shown to the subjects, to the brain
activity caused by watching the videos. This model was then used to look up the 100 one-second
video segments, in a database of 18 million seconds of random YouTube videos, whose visual
patterns most closely matched the brain activity recorded when subjects watched a new video.
These 100 one-second video extracts were then combined into a mashed-up image that
resembled the video being watched.Types of headsets on the market fig 7.2

Fig 7.2 Types of headsets

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CHAPTER-8

ADVANTAGES

Eventually, this technology could:

 allow paralyzed people to control prosthetic limbs with their mind
 transmit visual images to the mind of a blind person, allowing them to see
 transmit auditory data to the mind of a def person, allowing them to hear
 allow gamers to control video games with their minds
 allow a mute person to have their thoughts displayed and spoken by a computer

Fig 8.1 advantages of BCI

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CHAPTER-9

APPLICATIONS OF BCI

9. 1 communication
Communication systems that do not depend on the brain's normal output pathways of
peripheral nerves and muscles. In these systems, users explicitly manipulate their brain activity
instead of using motor movements to produce signals that can be used to control computers or
communication devices.

The impact of this work is extremely high, especially to those who suffer from devastating
neuromuscular injuries and neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
which eventually strips individuals of voluntary muscular activity while leaving cognitive
function intact

Fig 9.1 communication

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9.2 Restoring Physical Disabilities

One of the most critical needs for people with severe physical disabilities is restoring the
ability to communicate. The field of BCI research and development has since focused primarily
on neuroprosthetics applications that aim at restoring damaged hearing, sight and movement.

Fig 9.2 restoring physical abilities

9. 3 Robotics
Controlling robots with thought has long been a popular science fiction concept. Recent
work with BCIs, however, has shown that robotic control is indeed possible with brain signals.
Applications for neurally-controlled robots currently center on assistive technologies "helper"
robots but BCI control has been proposed for military and industrial applications as well. One of
the earliest BCI-controlled robots, the experiment explored the effects of real- world feedback
(the movement of the robot) in conjunction with a P300-based BCI, which depends on user
attention.

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The robot was configured to perform the steps to make coffee, such as getting powdered
coffee, sugar, and cream, and stirring the mixture with a spoon. The results showed that users can
effectively attend to real-world feedback while operating an attention-based BCI.

Fig 9.3 Robotics

9.4 virtual reality

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Fig 9.4 virtual Reality

In the BCI research world that have more practical purposes. The early work in virtual
environments is described in Bayliss and Ballard (2000), which details a study of a P300 BCI
controlling a virtual apartment and a virtual driving simulator. Subsequent work as detailed in
Pfurtscheller et al. (2006) incorporates the ReaCTor "cave" environment, an immersive virtual
world which the user navigates using a BCI. The subject can "walk" through the virtual world by
imagining foot movement, and can "touch" things in the virtual world by imagining reaching and
hand movement.

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CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION

Research and development in Brain Computer Interfaces has exploded in the last ten
years, both in the technologies available and the number of organizations involved in the field.
BCIs have now evolved beyond laboratory experimental systems and some are now offered as
commercial products. No longer the realm of science fiction, BCIs are becoming a viable and
effective alternative for assistive technology and a plethora of mainstream applications. New
paradigms of interaction open even more possibilities for BCI and create new fields of study,
such as neural imaging for computational user experience

However, many obstacles remain for BCI researchers. BCIs are still notoriously slow and
error-prone compared to traditional input technologies. More research is essential in order to
develop techniques to reduce both neural and environmental artifacts, to reduce error rates, and
to increase accuracy. For BCI systems to be feasible for mainstream real-world use in the home
and office, they must be simple, small, wearable, and unobtrusive. New sensor technologies such
as dry EEG electrodes and fNIR emitter/detectors must be perfected. Adaptive systems must be
sufficient to automatically calibrate and "tune" BCIs to an individual's brain signal patterns
without expert assistance. These are daunting challenges, but as the BCI field matures,
effectiveness and accuracy are increasing. The BCI field is rapidly approaching critical mass to
develop the human-computer interaction methods of the future.

BCI being the considered the ultimate development in the world of HCI there is lot
expections from it. Thus this field has been developed keeping in mind the extensive use of BCI
in various applications mainly enabling the disabled survive independently. The boundaries of
BCI applications are being extended rapidly and many experiments are being conducted in this
concern

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CHAPTER-11
FUTURE SCOPE
The practical use of BCI technology depends on an interdisciplinary cooperation
between neuroscientists, engineers, computer programmers, psychologists, andrehabilitation
specialists, in order to develop appropriate applications, to identify appropriate users groups, and
to pay careful attention to the needs and desires of individual users. The prospects for controlling
computers through neural signals are indeed difficult to judge because the field of research is still
in its infancy. Much progress has been made in taking advantage of the power of personal
computers to perform the operations needed to recognize patterns in biological impulses, but the
search for new and more useful signals still continues. If the advances of the 21st century match
the strides of the past few decades, direct neural communication between humans and computers
may ultimately mature and find widespread use. Perhaps newly purchased computers will one
day arrive with biological signal sensors and thought-recognition software built in, just as
keyboard and mouse are commonly found on today's units.

Fig 11. 1 Future Scope

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CHAPTER-12

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