ENERGY SOURCES

UNIT IV

ENERGY SOURCES

Batteries:

A battery is a storage device used for storage of chemical energy and for the

transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy. It acts as a portable source

of electrical energy. A battery is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells

connected in series, that can be used as a source of direct electric current at a constant

voltage. A cell is a device that is packed with active materials at the anode and the

cathode.

Differences between cell and battery

No Cell Battery

1 A cell is a single unit that converts A battery is a combination of cells

chemical energy into electrical energy.

2. It contains only one anode and one It contains several anodes and

cathode. cathodes.

3. Representation of a cell Representation of a battery

Requirements of a battery

A good battery should fulfil the following requirements.

1. It should be light, cheap and portable.

2. It should be compact for easy transport.

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3. The voltage of the battery should not vary appreciably during its use.

4. It should have a long-life cycle both when it is being used and when it is not used.

5. It should be continuous and a constant source.

Types of Batteries

Batteries can be classified into three types.

• Primary batteries

• Secondary batteries

• Flow batteries or Fuel cells

Primary battery (or) Primary cells (or) Non-reversible battery

In these cells, the electrode reactions that converts chemical energy into

electrical energy cannot be reversed by passing an external current. The reactions

occur only once and battery will be dead after use. They cannot be recharged. Ex. Dry

cell, mercury cell.

Secondary battery (or) secondary cells (or) reversible battery

In these cells, the electrode reactions that convert chemical energy into

electrical energy can be reversed by passing an external current. These cells can

be recharged and used repeatedly. They are also known as storage cells or

accumulators. Ex. Lead acid storage cell, nickel-cadmium cell, Lithium-ion battery.

Flow battery (or) Fuel cells

The reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously passed through

the cell, the chemical energy gets converted into electrical energy. Ex. Hydrogen-

oxygen fuel cell, methanol-oxygen fuel cell, solid oxide fuel cell.

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Distinction between primary cell, secondary cell and fuel cells

No Primary cell Secondary cell Fuel cell

1 It acts only as a It acts as a galvanic or It is a simple galvanic or

galvanic or voltaic cell voltaic cell while voltaic cell. i.e.,

(i.e.) produces discharging (producing produces electricity.

electricity. electricity) and acts as

an electrolytic cell too

(consuming electricity).

2 Cell reaction is not Cell reaction is Cell reaction is

reversible. reversible reversible

3 It cannot be It can be recharged. Energy can be

recharged. withdrawn

continuously.

4 It can be used as long It can be used again and Reactants should be

as the active again by recharging. refilled continuously. It

materials are present. does not store energy.

Ex. Dry cell, lithium Ex. Lead storage Ex. H2-O2 fuel cell,

cell battery, Ni-Cd battery, methanol-oxygen fuel

Lithium-ion cell cell

5 Uses: Pacemakers, Uses: Electronic Uses: Space vehicles

watches, transistors, equipments, automobile

radios etc. equipments, digital

cameras, laptops,

flashlights.

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Primary Battery

Dry cell (or) Leclanche cell

The Leclanche cell is called dry cell because of the absence of any liquid phase.

Construction:

Dry cell consists of a cylindrical zinc container that acts as an anode. A carbon

rod (graphite) placed in the centre acts as a cathode. The space between anode and

cathode is packed with the paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 (conducting solution) and the

carbon (graphite rod) is surrounded by powdered MnO2 (oxidizer) and carbon as shown

in the figure. The electrode of a battery that releases electrons during discharge is called

anode; the electrode that absorbs the electrons is the cathode. The battery anode is

always negative and the cathode positive. This seems reasonable as the anode is

the source of electrons and cathode is where the electrons flow. However, in an

electrolytic cell, the anode is taken to be positive while the cathode is negative.

The carbon rod is fitted with a metal cap and the cylinder is sealed at the top with pitch.

The dry cell is represented as;

Zn/Zn2+, NH4+ MnO2, C

Anode is placed on the left and cathode is placed on the right. (emf = 1.5 V)

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Working

The cell reactions at two electrodes are as follows:

At the anode:

Zn (s) → Zn 2+(aq) + 2e–

At the cathode:

2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH–(aq)

Overall reaction

Zn (s) + 2 MnO 2 + H2O (l) → Zn 2+(aq) + Mn2O3 (s) + 2 OH– (aq)

The OH- ions generated at the cathode react with NH4Cl to liberate ammonia, which

react with Zn2+ to form the complex [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2 (Diammine dichloride zinc(II))

2NH4Cl + 2OH- → 2NH3 + 2Cl- + 2H2O

Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2Cl- → [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2

Advantages

• These cells have voltage ranging from 1.25 V to 1.5 V.

• Price is low.

• The compact size of a dry cell makes it suitable for powering small electronic

devices.

• The electrolyte used in dry cell is not so harmful to the environment.

• It is a portable source of electrical energy.

• It is a primary cell and cannot be recharged.

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Disadvantages

• These cells do not have long life.

• These cells cannot be recharged.

• The lifetime of the cell is not indefinite.

• Voltage decreases with continuous usage, due to accumulation of products at

the electrode.

Uses

Dry cells are used in flash lights, radios, tape recorders, transistors etc.

Secondary battery

Lead acid storage cell (or) lead accumulator (or) acid storage cell

A lead-acid storage battery consists of a number of (3 to 6) voltaic cells

connected in series to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, the anode is made of lead.

The cathode is made of lead dioxide (PbO 2) or a grid made of lead, packed with

PbO2. A number of lead plates (anodes) and PbO 2 (cathodes) are connected in parallel.

These plates are separated from the adjacent ones by insulators like rubber or glass

fibre. The entire combination is then immersed in dil.H2SO4 having a density of 1.3

g/mL.

The cell may be represented as:

Pb(s) PbSO4(s), H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s), PbO2(s) Pb(s)

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Working

Discharging

When the storage cell is operating as a voltaic cell (i.e., while supplying electrical

energy), it is said to be discharging. The lead electrode loses electrons thereby oxidation

of lead takes place at anode. The electrons released from the lead plates flow through

the wire in the form of an electric current.

At anode:

Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions which further combine with SO42- to form insoluble PbSO4.

Pb (s) → Pb2+ + 2e-

Pb2+ + SO4 2-(aq) → PbSO4 (s)

Overall anode reaction:

Pb(s) + SO4 2-(aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e-

At the cathode:

The electrons released from the anode flow to lead dioxide electrode.

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Here, PbO2 gains electrons to form Pb2+ ions. (i.e.) lead undergoes reduction at the

cathode from oxidation state +4 to +2. The Pb2+ ions then combine with SO42- ions.

PbO2(s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e- → Pb2+ + 2H2O.

Pb2+ + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4 (s)

Overall cathode reaction:

PbO2(s) + 4 H+ + SO42- + 2 e- → PbSO4 (s) + 2 H2O

Net cell reaction during discharge

At the anode:

Pb(s) + SO 42-(aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e-

At the cathode:

PbO2(s) + 4 H+ + SO42- + 2e- → PbSO4 (s) + 2 H2O

Net reaction

Pb (s) + PbO 2(s) + 2 H2SO4(aq) → 2 PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O + Energy

The voltage of the lead acid storage battery is 2.0 V. From the above reactions, it is

clear that PbSO 4 is precipitated at both the electrodes and H2SO4 is used up. Hence the

density of H2SO4 falls and the battery requires recharging.

Recharging

When the storage cell acts as an electrolytic cell, it is said to be recharging.

Recharging involves applying an external negative voltage to the negative pole and a

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positive voltage to the positive pole of the cell. For recharging the lead acid storage cell,

an external emf greater than 2 V from an electrical source is passed through the

electrodes. The above reactions are reversed.

Net cell reaction during recharging

charging

2 PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O + Energy ⇌ Pb (s) + PbO 2 (s) + 2 H2SO4 (aq)

The above net cell reaction shows that the H2SO4 increases during recharging of the

cell.

Advantages

• It produces very high current.

• It is highly reliable and robust.

• It acts effectively at low temperatures.

• The self-discharging rate is low when compared to other rechargeable batteries.

• It is simple and inexpensive to manufacture.

• Low cost of maintenance.

• It maintains large power in comparison to its weight.

• It can be recycled at an incredibly high rate.

Disadvantages

• Mechanical strain reduces battery capacity.

• Recycling of this battery causes environmental hazards.

• Nominal capacity reduces with battery usage.

• It cannot be stored in a discharged condition.

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• Danger of overheating during fast charging.

Uses

It is used to supply current for electrical vehicles, gas engine ignition and

telephone exchanges, railway trains, mines, hospitals, laboratories and broadcasting

stations. Standby/back-up power for electrical installations. Submarines, UPS Sealed

battery types are used for portable equipment’s.

Lithium – ion battery (Li-ion Battery)

Li-ion batteries are secondary batteries. The battery consists of an anode of

lithium dissolved as ions into carbon. The cathode material is made up from lithium

liberating compounds such as lithium cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2), lithium manganese-

oxide (LiMn2O4), Lithium nickel-oxide (LiNiO2) etc. The cell operation does not

actually involve true oxidation and reduction. Instead, it uses the transport of Li +

ions through the electrolyte from one electrode to the other accompanied by the

transport of electrons through the external circuit to maintain charge balance.

Principle

During the charge and discharge processes, lithium ions are inserted or extracted

from interstitial space within the active material of the battery. The Li+ ion is transferred

between anode and cathode through lithium electrolyte.

Construction

Li-ion cell has a four–layer structure.

Cathode: is a positive electrode made with Lithium cobalt oxide. It has a current

collector made of thin aluminium foil.

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Anode: is a negative electrode made with specialty carbon. It has a current collector

of thin copper foil.

A separator: is a fine porous polymer film.

An electrolyte: made with lithium salt in an organic solvent.

Working

The traditional batteries are based on galvanic action but lithium-ion secondary

battery depends on an ‘intercalation’ mechanism. This involves the insertion of lithium

ions into the crystalline lattice of the host electrode (cathode) without changing its

crystal structure. These electrodes have two key properties. One is the open crystal

structure, which allows the insertion or extraction of lithium ions and the second is

the ability to accept compensating electrons at the same time. Such electrodes are

called intercalation hosts. The chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is

as follows, during charge and discharge operation.

The full reaction (left to right = discharging, right to left = charging):

C6 Lix + Li(1-x) Co O2 ⇌ LiCoO2 + C6

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The lithium ion is inserted and extracted into the lattice structure of anode

and cathode during charging and discharging. During charging, lithium in positive

electrode material (cathode) is ionized and moves from layer to layer and inserted into

the negative electrode (anode). During discharge, Li ions are dissociated from the

anode and migrate across the electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of

the host compound of the cathode. At the same time the compensating electrons travel

in the external circuit and are accepted by the host to balance the reaction. The process

is completely reversible. Thus, the lithium ions pass back and forth between the

electrodes during charging and discharging.

Advantages

• They have higher energy density than other rechargeable batteries.

• They weigh less.

• They produce high voltage out (about 4 V) as compared to other batteries.

• They possess improved safety norms, (i.e.) more resistant to overcharge.

• No liquid electrolyte is used. It means they are immune to leakage.

• Fast charge and discharge rates. It can handle hundreds of charge/discharge

cycles.

• They hold their charge. It loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month.

• They have no memory effect, i.e., it should not be completely discharged before

recharging them.

Disadvantages

• They are expensive.

• They are not available in standard cell types.

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• They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures.

• It must have an on-board computer to manage the battery which makes it more

expensive.

• If a Lithium-ion battery pack fails, it will burst into a flame.

• They will last only two or three years from the date of manufacture.

• Cost of manufacture more than that for other cells.

Applications

• The Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators.

• They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable devices.

• They are used in telecommunication equipment, instruments, portable radios,

TVs and pagers.

• They are used in the operation of laptop computers and mobile phones and

aerospace application.

EMERGING BATTERIES

NICKEL-METAL HYDRIDE BATTERIES

These batteries are alkaline, rechargeable batteries and were commercialized

in 1990. Their construction is done as follows:

• Anode of the cell is composed of metal hydrides like MH and MH2. Active

hydrogen storage like LaNi5 alloy is pasted on a very thin, highly porous nickel

sheet.

• Cathode is composed of NiO(OH) is pasted on a very thin, highly porous nickel

sheet.

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• Electrolyte used is aqueous potassium hydroxide.

• Separator contains a thin layer of polypropylene.

• All the components are housed in a glass container.

Nickel-metal hydride battery

The cell representation is as follows:

MH2  KOH (5 M)  Ni(OH)2, NiO(OH)

The reactions involved in the cell are:

At the anode:

MH2 + 2 OH- → M + 2H2O + 2 e–

At the cathode:

NiO(OH) + H2O + e- → Ni (OH)2 + OH-

The overall cell reaction is:

MH2 + 2 OH- → M + 2H2O + 2 e-

(NiO(OH) + H2O + e- →Ni(OH)2 + OH- ) x 2

MH2 + 2 NiO (OH) → M + 2 Ni(OH)2

The battery offers an EMF of 1.3 V.

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The characteristics of nickel-metal hydride batteries are as follows:

a. They have long shelf life and cycle life.

b. They have high capacity and rapid recharge capability.

c. They have poor charge detention capacity.

These batteries find application in laptop computers, cellular phones as well

as automobiles.

Metal – Air Batteries

Metal-air batteries are the batteries which breathe air, that is, they use oxygen

directly from the air to bring about the electrochemical reaction. These are basically

alkaline batteries in which the cathodic active material is not stored in the cell. The

aluminium – air battery (AAB) is a single-use battery. Aluminum–air (Al-air) batteries are

promising electrochemical storage systems, because of their low flammability and no

risk of explosion, eco-compatibility, and high energy density. However, Al-air batteries

with liquid electrolytes may present safety concerns, because of leakage, and are

unsuitable for miniaturized and portable electronic devices.

AAB is one of the most developed metal-air batteries due to the low cost and

abundance of aluminium metal. The AAB is typically used as a primary metal–air battery

with an aluminium anode and an air-breathing cathode in contact with an aqueous

electrolyte, typically sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or sodium chloride. AABs

as the metal–air batteries are different in that the active cathode material (oxygen) is

not stored in the battery. Instead, oxygen can be absorbed from the environment and

then reduced by catalytic surfaces in the air electrode.

The discharge reaction at the aluminium electrode (involving the oxidation of

aluminium to aluminate ions) can be written as follows

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Al + 4OH− → Al(OH)4 − +3e−

The cathode electrode is an air or gas diffusion electrode, typically comprising a carbon-

based structure that makes oxygen and the electrolyte come in contact with the catalytic

surfaces, resulting in the reduction of the oxygen.

O2+2H2O+4e− → 4OH−

The ideal overall discharge reaction of AAB can be expressed as

4Al+3O2+6H2O+4OH− → 4Al(OH)4−

Aluminium – air battery

The theoretical voltage of AAB is 2.75 V, but actually, the operating voltage decreases

in the range of 1.0–2.0 V. The reasons for Al electrodes operating at a significantly lower

voltage can be summarized as follows.

1. An oxide layer covers the surface and increases internal resistance, which will

cause a delay in reaching a steady-state voltage. Eventually, the solution

becomes supersaturated due to the formation of aluminium hydroxide precipitate:

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Al(OH)4− → Al(OH)3+OH−

2. Besides that, Al also undergoes a parasitic corrosion reaction, resulting in less

utilization of the metal and the formation of hydrogen:

2Al+2OH− +6H2O → Al(OH)4− +3H2

Composite air electrodes can also be used that are composed of high-surface-area

carbon materials, the catalysts, Teflon binder, air-permeable membranes, and metal

mesh current collector. The electrolytes used in AABs include aqueous alkaline solution,

aqueous neutral saline, ionic liquid, solid-state electrolyte, and so on. Some electrolyte

additives are also needed to improve the performance of AAB. Anodes made of pure

aluminum are severely corroded by the electrolytes (especially in the aqueous alkaline

electrolytes), so the aluminum is usually alloyed with tin or other elements.

BATTERIES FOR AUTOMOBILES AND SATELLITES

FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which chemical energy of fuels is

directly converted into electrical energy. The process involved in a fuel cell is as

follows.

Fuel + oxidant → Oxidation products + Electricity

Hydrogen Electricity
Fuel Cell
Heat
Oxygen
Water

Fuel cells convert about 75 % of the available chemical energy into electrical energy.

Ex: H2-O2 fuel cell, methanol-oxygen fuel cell, solid-oxide fuel cell

Advantages

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• They produce zero or very low emissions, especially greenhouse gases.

• Their efficiency is very high.

• The individual cells can be stacked and connected in series to generate higher

voltages.

• The fuel cells are free from vibrations, heat transfers, thermal pollution etc.

• They are reliable, maintainable and durable.

• Maintenance cost is very low.

Disadvantages

• Fuel cells do not store chemical energy.

• Handling of hydrogen gas is dangerous.

• Initial cost of fuel cell is high.

• Electrodes are expensive.

• Life time of fuel cell is not known accurately.

Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel cell

One of the simplest and most successful fuel cells is H2-O2 fuel cell. It consists

of two inert porous graphite electrodes, the anode and the cathode, separated by

an electrolytic solution such as 25 % KOH solution. The two electrodes are connected

through a volt meter.

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A thin layer of platinum or other metals is coated on each electrode to activate the

reaction between oxygen and hydrogen when they bubble through the electrodes.

Fuel: Hydrogen

Oxidiser: Oxygen

Electrolyte: 25 % KOH solution

The overall reaction is shown by the following equation.

2H2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H2O (l)

Fuel is oxidised on the anode and the oxidant is reduced at the cathode.

Working

The electrodes are placed in an electrolytic solution of KOH. Hydrogen gas acts

as a fuel which is bubbled through the anodic compartment under pressure of 50 atm.

The oxygen is bubbled through the cathodic compartment.

The reactions which occur at the electrodes are as follows.

At the anode

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Hydrogen is oxidized to H+ ions with the liberation of electrons which is then

neutralized by the OH- ions of the electrolyte.

2H2(g) → 4H+ + 4 e-

4H+ + 4 OH- → 4 H2O

The net half-cell reaction is

2H2(g) + 4 OH-(l) →4H2O(l) + 4 e-

At the cathode

The electrons liberated at the anode react with oxygen to give peroxide ion which

react with water to give OH- ions.

O2 + 4 e- → 2 O 2-
(peroxide)

2O 2-
+ 2 H2O → 4 OH-

The net half-cell reaction is

O2(g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 e- → 4 OH-

Overall cell reaction

The overall fuel cell reactions which occur at the electrodes are as follows.

Anode reaction:

2H2(g) + 4 OH-(l) → 4H2O(l) + 4 e-

Cathode reaction:

O2(g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 e- → 4 OH-

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Overall reaction:

2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

The emf of the cell is found to be 1 V.

Almost 70-80 % of the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into electrical energy. It

is also noted that the product discharged by the cell is 100 % pure water.

Advantages

• Hydrogen is a basic earth element and it is readily available.

• It does not produce harmful emissions.

• Hydrogen is a non-toxic substance which is rare for a fuel source.

• Fuel cells have higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines.

• It operates silently compared to internal combustion engines.

• Maintenance of fuel cells is simple.

Disadvantages

• It is very expensive to construct H2-O2 fuel cells.

• It is highly flammable.

• It can store only small amounts of power.

Application

• H2-O2 fuel cells are used as auxillary (additional) energy source in space

vehicles, submarines or other military vehicles.

• In case of H2-O2 fuel cells, the product water has proved to be a valuable source

of fresh water for the astronauts.

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SUPERCAPACITORS

A supercapacitor or ultracapacitor is an electrochemical capacitor that has an

unusually high energy and power density when compared to common capacitors.

It can be defined as an energy storage device that stores energy electrostatically

by polarizing an electrolytic solution. They are of particular interest in automotive

applications for hybrid vehicles and as supplementary storage for battery electric

vehicles.

Types of supercapacitors

Attractive features

• Capacitance ranges upto 5000 F

• No chemical reaction occurs

• Much more effective at rapid, regenerative energy storage than chemical

batteries.

• There is no chemical reaction during the storage process

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• Works even at low temperatures, viz – 40o C

• Ultracapacitors can store 5 % as much energy as a modern Lithium – ion battery.

Advantages relative to batteries

• Very high rates of charging and discharging

• High power density

• High cycle efficiency (> 95 %)

• High degree of reversibility

• Low toxicity of materials used.

Principle

Energy is stored in ultracapacitor by polarizing the electrolytic solution. The charges are

separated via electrode – electrolyte interface.

Construction

An ultracapacitor consist of a polarized electrode, electrolyte, current collector and

separator.

Supercapacitor

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(a) Polarized electrode

Highly activated carbon is used as electrode for the following reasons:

• It is highly porous

• It has extraordinarily high specific surface area

• It has good conductivity

• It has high temperature and chemical stability

• It is corrosion resistant

(b) Electrolyte

Electrolyte contains dissolved and solvated ions that migrate to and from the

electrodes during charge and discharge respectively. Electrolyte are of two types:

• Water soluble

• Water insoluble

(c) Current collector

Metal contacts are used as current collectors

(d) Separator

It acts as a mechanical separator between two electrodes. It must provide

electronic insulation between the electrode of opacity polarization. It must

support ionic conduction from one electrode to another.

Working

When the voltage is applied to the positive plate, it attracts negative ions

from the electrolyte. When the voltage is applied to negative plate, it attracts

positive ions from the electrolyte. Therefore, there is a formation of a layer of ions

on both sides of the plate. This is called ‘Double layer’ formation. For this reason,

the ultracapacitor can also be called ‘double layer capacitor’.

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The ions are then stored near the surface of carbon. The distance

between the plates is in the order of angstroms.

According to the formula for the capacitance:

Dielectric constant of medium x area of the plate

Ultracapacitor stores energy via electrostatic charges on opposite surfaces of the

electric double layer. They utilize the high surface area of carbon as the energy

storage medium, resulting in an energy density much higher than conventional

capacitors.

The purpose of having a separator is to prevent the charges moving

across the electrodes. The amount of energy stored is very large as compared

to a standard capacitor because of the enormous surface.

Advantages

o Long life: It works through large number of cycles without wear and aging

o Rapid charging: It takes only a second to charge completely

o Low cost: It is less expensive as compared to electrochemical batteries

o High power storage: Stores huge amount of energy in a small volume

o Faster release: Releases energy much faster than a battery

Disadvantages

o They have low energy density

o Individual cell shows low voltage

o Not all the energy can be utilized during discharge

o They have high self-discharge as compared to a battery

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o Voltage balancing is required when more than three capacitors are

connected in series.

Applications

o They are used in electronic applications such as cellular electronics, power

conditioning, uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)

o They are used in industrial lasers, medical equipment

o They are used in electric vehicles and for load levelling to extend the life of

batteries

o They are used in wireless communication systems for uninterrupted service.

o They are used in CD players, electronic toys, security systems, computers,

scanners, smoke detectors, microwaves and coffee makers.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOLAR ENERGY

Our primary source of abundant energy is the sun. The sun deposits 1,20,000 (terra

watt) TW of radiation on the surface of the earth. Solar energy is an important source

for:

o Heating water in industrial processes

o Heating greenhouses in agricultural production

o Heating pools in homes and sports centres.

o Drying agricultural products.

o Distillation of water for industrial purposes.

o To carry out thermochemical reactions.

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Solar energy conversion

Solar energy conversion is the process of converting direct sunlight into more

useful forms. It occurs by the following mechanisms.

Solar – to – thermal energy conversion (Thermal conversion)

In thermal conversion route, solar radiation can be converted to heat energy. The

energy of direct light is converted into thermal energy. From this heat energy, electricity

can be produced using various strategies which include:

o Thermal engines.

o Thermoelectric generators.

o Thermophotovoltaic devices.

o Magneto hydrodynamic converters.

Solar-to- Electric energy conversion (Photo conversion)

In photoconversion, when solar energy falls on the surface of a metal, it is

absorbed and used to excite and eject electrons from the surface. This is known as

photoelectric effect and is used to generate electricity.

Photovoltaic cells (or) Solar cell

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Photovoltaic (PV) cells commonly known as solar cells are semiconductor

devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity by photovoltaic effect.

Principle:

Light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons. When the photons

fall on two-layer semiconductor devices, a potential difference between the two layers

are produced. This potential difference causes flow of electrons and produces

electricity.

Construction

Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon doped with

trivalent impurity such as boron, gallium, aluminium etc (p-type semiconductor)

and silicon doped with pentavalent impurity such as phosphorus, arsenic etc (n-

type semiconductor). They are in close contact with each other.

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted on a

support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module.

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Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally

protective laminate. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled

as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-

generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels. Since absorption

by the panel is high, more energy can be produced.

Working

When the photons from sunlight fall on the p-n junction, electron-hole pairs are

generated. The electrons move towards the n-type and the holes move towards the p-

type. When the cell is connected to an external circuit, the movement of electrons occur

and the current is known as PV current and thus electricity is produced.

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Applications of solar cells

o Space: Solar cells are very useful in powering space vehicles such as satellites

and telescopes.

o Solar Powered vehicles: Solar powered cars are cars which are powered by an

array of photovoltaic cells.

o Solar Tower: Common wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization

(CSIRO) uses mirrors to reflect the sun’s heat into a solar thermal research

facility to generate electricity.

o Solar cells are used in calculators, electronic watches, TV, radios etc.

o Solar arrays can be used in remote areas as a source of power for roadside

emergency, telephones etc.

Types of photovoltaic cells

PV cells can be divided into three categories.

o Inorganic cells (solid state inorganic semiconductor)

o Organic cells (organic semiconductor)

o Photoelectrochemical cells (ex. DSSC)

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Advantages

o Solar energy is present in abundance and can be used to generate both

electricity and heat.

o They do not cause any pollution like the fossil fuels and nuclear power.

o They provide clean and green energy

o They operate at ambient temperature.

o They need not be recharged.

o Maintenance cost is low.

o They have good durability

o Their shelf-life is long

o Solar cells can be used in remote and isolated areas.

Disadvantages

o Storage of energy is impossible

o Solar panels require large areas of land.

o Greenhouse gases are emitted during manufacturing of solar cells.

o The capital cost is very high.

o They produce only DC power.

DYE SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC)

DSSC imitate the way in which plants harness solar energy. The working

principle of DSSC involves four basic steps: light absorption, electron injection,

transportation of carrier and collection of current. DSSC are composed of transparent

conductive oxide layered glass (F-doped SnO2: FTO), porous titania layer with dye

molecules, and electrolyte consisting of I-/I3- redox species and counter electrode

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(FTO glasses with Pt or Pt/Ti metal plate. In particular, fluorine doped SnO 2, FTO, is

the most used electrode for DSSC because of its high thermal resistance, electrical

conductivity and optical transparency. A counter electrode was coupled with the working

electrode by employing Pt sputtered (coated) on Ti metal sheet or FTO glasses.

Electrolyte is injected into the space between the working electrode and the counter

electrode. Liquid electrolytes are basically composed of three main elements: a

solvent, a redox mediator (ionic conductor) and various additives.

The first step (1) involves the absorption of a photon by the dye (sensitizer) that

determines the promotion of an electron in the excited state. An electron is then injected

from the excited sensitizer into the conduction band of the semiconductor (2), thus

leaving the sensitizer in the oxidized state. The injected electron percolates through the

mesoporous structure of the semiconductor and is collected at the transparent

conductive electrode and then transferred to the external circuit (3). Through the

external circuit the electron reaches the counter-electrode and here interacts with the

redox mediator turning it in its reduced form (4). The reduced state of the redox mediator

finally reduces the oxidized sensitizer, regenerating the original dye and completing the

circuit (5).

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The dye is oxidised and the oxidised dye receives an electron from the iodide

ion, which reduces the dye back to its original form. In this process, Iodide ions undergo

oxidation.

- - -
3I → I3 + 2e

The electrons that return to the DSSC from the external circuit reduces the I3- ion back to
iodide ions.

- - -
I3 + 2e → 3 I

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