SEMESTER-V

Skill Enhancement Course-III (16PHY5S03) ( 3 credits )

Renewable Energy and Energy harvesting

Study Material

UNIT-I
Conventional Energy sources:

Coal, Oil, Natural Gas, Nuclear power and Hydro - their utilization pattern in the past, present
and future projections of consumption pattern - Sector-wise energy consumption –
environmental impact of fossil fuels – Energy scenario in India – Growth of energy sector and its
planning in India. Non-Conventional Energy Sources: Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Energy from
Biomass & Biogas, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, Tidal Energy, Geothermal Energy,
Hydrogen Energy, Fuel Cell, Magneto Hydro-Dynamics Generator, Advantages& Limitations of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Energy is one of the major parts of the economic infrastructure, being the basic input needed to sustain
economic growth. There exists a strong relationship between economic development and energy
consumption.
The more developed is a country, the higher is the per capita of energy consumption and vice-versa.
Human civilization relies on different sources of energy.
The two major sources of energy can be classified under:
• Conventional Sources
• Non-Conventional Sources
Below you could see the difference between conventional and non-conventional sources of energy.

What are Conventional Sources of Energy?

These sources of energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and are available in
limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it can be classified under commercial and
non-commercial energy.

Commercial Energy Sources

Coal, electricity and petroleum are known as commercial energy since the consumer needs to pay its
price to buy them.

a) Coal
Coal is the most important source of energy. There are more than 148790 coal deposits in India.
Between 2005-2006, the annual production went up to 343 million tons. India is the fourth-largest coal-
producing country and the deposits are mostly found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkand and
Bengal.

b) Oil and Natural Gas:

Today oil is considered to be liquid gold and one of the crucial sources of energy in India and the
world. Oil is mostly used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. It is mainly found in Assam, Gujarat
and Mumbai.
The total production of oil in India was 0.3 million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million
tons in 2000-01.

c) Electricity:
Electricity is a common form of energy and used for domestic and commercial purposes. It is mainly
utilized in electrical appliances like fridge, T.V, washing machine and air conditioning.
The major sources of power generation are mentioned below:
• Nuclear Power
• Thermal Power
• Hydro-electric power

1. Thermal Power:
Thermal power is generated at various power stations by means of oil and coal. It is a vital source of
electric current and its share in the total capacity of the nation in 2004-05 was 70 percent.

2. Hydroelectric Power:
Hydroelectric power is produced by constructing dams above flowing rivers like Damodar Valley
Project and Bhakra Nangal Project. The installed capacity of hydroelectric power was 587.4 mW in
1950-51 and went up to 19600 mW in 2004-05.

3. Nuclear Power:
The fuel used in nuclear power plants is Uranium, which costs less than coal. Nuclear power plants can
be found in Kaiga (Karnataka), Kota (Rajasthan), Naroura (UP) and Kalapakam(Chennai).

Non-commercial energy sources

Generally, the energy sources that are freely available are considered non-commercial energy sources.
The examples of non-commercial energy sources are straw, dried dung, firewood.

What are Non-Conventional Sources of Energy?

These non-conventional sources are also known as renewable sources of energy. Examples include
solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy and wind energy.

1. Solar Energy
This is the energy that is produced by sunlight. The photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight based on
the form of electricity that needs to be produced. The energy is utilized for cooking and distillation of
water.
 2. Wind Energy
This kind of energy is generated by harnessing the power of wind and mostly used in operating water
pumps for irrigation purposes. India stands as the second-largest country in the generation of wind
power.

3. Tidal Energy
The energy that is generated by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea is known as tidal energy. This
source is yet to be tapped due to the lack of cost-effective technology.

Difference Between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Advantages of non-conventional sources are:

• Non-polluting: The major advantage of these non-conventional sources is that they are non-polluting,
unlike the other sources. The burning of firewood and fossil fuels result in air pollution. This can be
avoided by using these non-conventional sources.
• Inexhaustible: The major problem while using conventional sources especially fossil fuels is that they
are exhaustible sources. It takes millions of years for them to be renewed and replenished. But non-
conventional sources are renewable sources that do not get exhausted.
• Safe: Non-conventional energy extraction is safer. Many accidents occur while extracting energy from
mines. These accidents can be completely avoided.
• Low cost: The cost of energy production and extraction is much lesser for non-conventional sources if
the initial cost of establishment is borne.
• Energy production: The non-conventional sources especially nuclear energy results in the production
of huge quantities of energy compared to the conventional energy sources.
 Coal: Past, Present and Future
The use of coal as an energy source dates back to second and third century Rome, with archeological
evidence suggesting it was mined from outcroppings and used as a heating source. By the 1700s coal
was widely used because it burned cleaner and hotter than wood charcoal, helping to fuel the
Industrial Revolution. Today, coal remains a primary energy source for electric power, accounting for
41% of global electricity generation. Developing nations, including China and India, are relying
heavily on coal to support their growing economies – not just to meet rising demand for electricity
but also for concrete and steel production – the building blocks of urbanization.

From the first light bulb to the modern electric grid

Today’s modern coal power has its roots in the late 19th century when Thomas Edison invented the
carbon filament light bulb as a replacement for smoke-emitting gas and oil lighting. In 1882, Edison
opened the coal-fueled Pearl Street Station in New York City as the first permanent power station to
provide electricity for lighting. Edison chose to put his power station in a densely populated area so
he could serve as many residents as possible. With the introduction of alternating current (AC) by
Westinghouse in the early 1900s, electric power could be transmitted over long distances, spurring
the development of centralized power stations to serve population centers connected by
transmission lines.
As steam turbine technology advanced, power stations became larger and more efficient,
capitalizing on cost advantages from economies-of-scale. The fuel of choice for power plants during
this period of early electrification was coal, due to its high energy content and abundance. The
development of high voltage transmission technology allowed utility companies to connect multiple
large coal power stations and deliver electricity to wide areas. Today, the U.S. electric grid still
greatly resembles that transmission system backbone built during the mid-1900s around coal power.
This is why coal is often referred to as the “backbone of the electric system.”
The use of coal in the U.S. grew with surging electric demand, increasing by an average annual rate
of 3% from 1960 through 1990. But it was not until 2007 that coal consumption peaked in the U.S.
Since that time, coal use for electricity generation has decreased as natural gas and renewable
energy sources have been deployed. However, through 2014 coal still accounted for more kilowatt-
hours generated than any other energy source. During the polar vortex of 2014, severe cold weather
across the U.S. highlighted the value of the coal power fleet. During this time of great stress on the
electric power grid when natural gas pipeline bottlenecks strained energy supplies, coal produced
92% of the increase in electric generation to meet the spike in demand.
Coal – not just for electricity
In addition to electric power, coal is used for steel making and cement production. Coke, produced
from coal, is used in blast furnaces for smelting of iron ore to produce molten iron, a primary
component of steel. The molten iron is combined with scrap steel and a flux (usually limestone) in a
basic oxygen furnace, producing pure liquid steel. Today, 70% of the world’s steel is made using coal.
China uses more steel than any other country, accounting for 47% of global demand.
Cement is produced in kilns that use high carbon content fuels to heat raw materials and produce a
pebble-like substance known as clinker. Clinker is combined with gypsum and ground into a fine
powder that when mixed with water produces cement. Coal is one of the primary energy sources
used in cement production, with about 390 pounds of coal needed for every ton of cement
produced. China, India and the U.S. are the three largest producers of cement in the world. China’s
cement production alone consumed 1.63 billion tons of coal in 2009.

Modern coal technologies to meet future demand

As coal became the fuel of choice for power generation, steam turbine technology advanced to
utilize more of the thermal energy from combusting coal. Concurrently, technologies were
developed to control the emissions from electric power generation. Coal power plants today
produce 80 to 90% less particulate, sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions than just
a few decades ago.
In addition to emissions control systems, modern coal combustion technologies generate more
power using less coal. These high-efficiency low-emissions (HELE) technologies can reduce carbon
emissions by 20% for every kilowatt hour (kWh) generated. The world’s most efficient coal power
plants, such as the John W. Turk plant in Arkansas and the Isogo Thermal Power Station in Japan
demonstrate that meeting growing electric demand cost-effectively can be balanced with
environmental and sustainability objectives. These power plants are based on ultra-supercritical coal
technology, which generates very high steam temperatures and pressures, enabling them to be
more efficient at converting thermal energy into electrical output.
The deployment of HELE coal technologies and carbon capture and storage (CCS) worldwide is
important for lowering global carbon emissions. Emerging economies such as China and India are
expected to drive a 15% increase in global coal demand through 2040. Despite recent retirements of
numerous coal generating units in the U.S., domestic coal consumption is expected to remain steady
through 2040 as coal continues to be a primary source of electricity.
In many countries – including the U.S. – electric power, steel production and cement manufacturing
are inextricably linked with coal. The widespread availability and favorable economics of coal to
meet future energy demand mean that coal will remain an important part of the global energy mix
for decades to come.

Natural Gas: the Past, Present, and Future

For millions of years, layers of decomposing prehistoric plants and animals have laid to rest beneath
the Earth’s surface. Time, pressure, and intense heat have forced a chemical reaction that results in
usable energy today. Hence the name: “fossil fuel”. Natural gas is the byproduct of the energy that
plants and animals soaked up from the sun millions of years ago.

What is Natural Gas?

Natural gas is an abundant and naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas. It is primarily composed of
methane (CH4) but can include alkalines and other gas compounds. Natural gas is the cleanest burning

fossil fuel and is used for a variety of purposes.

Dry and Wet Natural Gas

Dry Natural Gas

Dry natural gas is primarily composed of methane. It is more thermally mature than wet natural gas and
has widespread commercial and residential uses that include cooking, heating, cooling, and fuel.

Wet Natural Gas

Wet natural gas contains a variety of “natural gas liquids” that must be removed before distributing to
homes and businesses. Liquids include ethane, butane, propane, and pentane. Wet gas is more
valuable because the liquid gases can be separated and sold as commodities.

How is Natural Gas Harvested and Transported?

Harvesting from a Natural Gas Reserve

Natural gas is harvested from a reserve by drilling a vertical well into the Earth’s surface. The gas
naturally flows upward and into a collection plant. This can be wet or dry natural gas.

Harvesting Natural Gas from Landfills

Methane can also be harvested from landfills and the decomposition of plastics and organic waste.
Many landfills have vents to allow methane to be harvested.

After collection, gas is moved through a series of pipelines into a processing plant, where it is treated to
become pipeline-quality dry natural gas.

Natural Gas Treatment Process

• Oil removal
• Water removal
• Separation of natural gas liquids
• CO2 and sulfur removal

After treatment, natural gas is stored underground or in tanks for later use.
The Transportation of Natural Gas

When natural gas is transported, it is cooled to -260° Fahrenheit and shipped as liquefied natural gas
(LNG). This is done because the volume of LNG is 600 times smaller than the gaseous form.

How Does Natural Gas Get To My Home?

Without thinking twice, we expect the convenience of commanding natural gas at the flip of a switch.
But making this happen is a complex process that requires drilling, pumping, distributing, and
monitoring the flow of natural gas.

1. Drill a natural gas well thousands of feet into the ground and use heavy machinery to pump it to
the surface. From here it is sent to a processing plant and readied for distribution.
2. The gas is distributed to utility companies using a complex network of buried gas mains, similar
to the interstate system. Utility companies distribute the gas for commercial and residential use
through a series of pipes that get smaller and smaller as the process unfolds.
3. The utility company’s pipes connect to a gas meter outside of homes and businesses, which
measures the amount of natural gas used.
4. Gas lines connect the meter to appliances, such as the furnace, water heater, dryer, and stove.

Environmental Impact and Sustainability

Although natural gas is a fossil fuel, the global warming emissions from its combustion are far lower
than that of its counterparts. When compared to coal, natural gas produces 43% fewer carbon emissions
for each unit of energy produced, and 30% less than oil. This is largely due to the fact that natural gas
produces no physical waste. Even still, the future demands more sustainable energy solutions.

The United States relies on natural gas for domestic use and as a lucrative export. However, domestic
demand is projected to begin declining after 2035. As renewable energy sources and storage solutions
become more viable, our use of natural gas and other fossil fuels will finally begin to burn out.

Hydro - Their Utilization Pattern In The Past, Present And Future Projections Of Consumption
Pattern

Hydroelectric power is electricity produced from generators driven by turbines that convert the
potential energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Hydro power projects are classified as large
and small hydro projects based on their sizes. In India, hydro power plants of 25MW or below capacity
are classified as small hydro and comes under purview of Ministry of New and renewable
energy(MNRE).

How Do We Get Energy From Water?

Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is a renewable source of energy that generates power by using a
dam or diversion structure to alter the natural flow of a river or other body of water. Hydropower relies
on the endless, constantly recharging system of the water cycle to produce electricity, using a fuel water
that is not reduced or eliminated in the process. There are many types of hydropower facilities, though
they are all powered by the kinetic energy of flowing water as it moves downstream. Hydropower
utilizes turbines and generators to convert that kinetic energy into electricity, which is then fed into the
electrical grid to power homes, businesses, and industries.

How Exactly Is Electricity Generated At Hydropower Plants?

Because hydropower uses water to generate electricity, plants are usually located on or near a water
source. The energy available from the moving water depends on both the volume of the water flow and
the change in elevation—also known as the head—from one point to another. The greater the flow and
the higher the head, the more the electricity that can be generated.
At the plant level, water flows through a pipe—also known as a penstock—and then spins the blades in
a turbine, which, in turn, spins a generator that ultimately produces electricity. Most conventional
hydroelectric facilities operate this way, including run-of-the-river systems and pumped storage
systems.

Nuclear power programme – Past, present and future

The country is facing energy shortages at present for the connected load. A large population even now
does not have access to electricity. As the economy expands and the population increases, the country
will need to generate even more power to meet the growing demand. Resources of energy are
experiencing constraints to meet the current demand. The generating capacities in the country are
under-performing at present because of fuel supply constraint. Analysis in the Energy Policy document
hints that conventional fuel resources will begin to exhaust by middle of the century. All these indicate
that for India to be able to meet its growing demand, nuclear and solar power could provide energy
security in the long term. The first stage of commercially successful nuclear power programme has
indicated that country has command on the technology through its own R&D base built since the
beginning of establishing Department of Atomic Energy. On this strength it could withstand the
technology denial regime for years. The second stage (Fast Breeder Reactor) programme has been
initiated. Given the scientific and technological capability demonstrated so far, the technology required
for optimizing the second stage programme and launching the third stage programme can be developed
to assure long term energy security at the desired capacity.

Nuclear energy theoretically offers India the most potent means for long term energy security. India’s
nuclear energy resource profile, indicates that nuclear power offers the most potent means for long-
term energy security. Currently, the nuclear energy share in electricity generation is about 3%. The
nuclear share in total primary energy mix is expected to grow, as the installed nuclear power capacity
grows.

Merits of nuclear power

Nuclear power is an intense source of energy and the transport infrastructure needed for nuclear
fuel is very small. 10,000 MW nuclear power capacity needs only about 300–350 tons of
enriched fuel per annum, as against 35–50 million tons of coal needed for a coal fired thermal
power station of the same capacity requiring about a shipload or 20 trainloads per day to trans-
port the coal. The pressure on rail, port and other infrastructure will be immense when large
thermal capacity is added, apart from emissions arising out of transporting such large quantities
of coal. The land needed for setting up a nuclear power station is also less when compared to
thermal coal-fired power stations and hydroelectric stations which involve large submergence of
land .

Historical perspective of nuclear power in India

Unlike the advanced countries where nuclear power came about as a spin-off from the development of
the strategic programme and related military research, in India, nuclear energy development began with
the objectives of improving the quality of life of the people and self-reliance in meeting their energy
needs. The origin of the atomic energy programme in India can be traced unambiguously to a
remarkably bold initiative taken by Homi Jehangir Bhabha. In 1944, he addressed a letter to Sir Dorabji
Tata Trust, outlining the urgent need to initiate nuclear research in India to keep abreast with
international developments. He proposed setting up of a rigorous school of research in fundamental
physics for this purpose. Bhabha prophesied that a completely self-reliant power programme would
come about within two decades. Sir Dorabji Tata Trust granted an initial financial approval for setting-
up the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bombay (presently Mumbai), jointly with the
Bombay Government. Between 1945 and 1954, research work at TIFR, in the fields of nuclear physics,
cosmic rays and electronic instrumentation was taken up. On 10th August 1948, the Government of
India constituted the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), under the Atomic Energy Act to establish the
atomic energy programme. One of the first tasks of the Commission was to explore the availability of
raw material resources within the country. Based on initial explorations by Atomic Minerals Division, it
became clear that the country had limited uranium resources but was endowed with one of the largest
thorium reserves in the world. This led Bhabha to conceive a three-stage nuclear power programme for
efficient exploitation of available resources, unique to India. The sequential three-stage programme was
based on a closed fuel cycle, where the spent fuel of one stage is reprocessed to recover fuel for
the next stage. The closed fuel cycle thus multiplies manifold the energy potential of the fuel and
greatly reduces the quantity of waste generated.

Department of Atomic Energy

On 3rd August 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established. Immediate effort
was to develop key elements of infrastructure for a nuclear power programme. All scientists
and engineers engaged in the fields of reactor design and development, instrumentation, metal-
lurgy and material science, etc. were transferred with their respective programmes from the Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) to Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET)

India’s three-stage programme

The adoption of the unique sequential three-stage nuclear power programme and associated tech-
nologies is based on the optimum utilization of the indigenous nuclear resource profile of modest
Uranium and abundant Thorium in the country, the potential of which has already been given
in the foregoing sections. India’s three-stage nuclear power programme is shown pictorially. The
process of increasing the nuclear power capacity can thus be achieved to a desired level in the country
through Plutonium-based FBRs. Thorium232 is not fissile and has to be converted to Uranium233 by
transmutation in a reactor for use as a fissile material. In the second stage, once sufficient nuclear
power capacity is built through Plutonium-based FBRs, Thorium232 will be introduced as a blanket
material to be converted to Uranium233. The third stage of the programme will be using a
Thorium232–Uranium233 fuel cycle in the reactors. Direct use of Thorium232 as a fuel will thus be in
the third stage reactors. Thorium232–Uranium233 fuel cycle does not permit attractive breeding char-
acteristics like that of Pu–U cycle but would facilitate the nuclear power capacity built during
second stage of the programme to be sustained for as long as Thorium, which is quite large in the
country, is available.
Nuclear power has an important role to play in the country’s energy scene, complementing generation
from other sources in the near term and providing energy security in the long term while
abating climate change. Indian Nuclear power program, visualized by Dr. Bhabha in early fifties is on
course and is being developed and successfully deployed with indigenous efforts, placing the country
in elite club of countries possessing advanced nuclear technology. The evolution and development of
commercial nuclear technology in the country has passed through several technological challenges.
While developing and implementing the nuclear power program, the Indian industry’s capability in
manufacturing and supply of high precision and specialized equipment has also been developed
comparable to international standards. The nuclear power has come of age with comprehensive
capabilities in all aspects of nuclear power and is poised for a large expansion program. The challenge
is to develop and commercially deploy technologies of Fast Breeder Reactors in a big way to increase
the installed nuclear power capacity in the country to a desired level followed by large scale utilization
of thorium to sustain this capacity for a very prolonged period thus ensure long term energy security.
The fruition of international cooperation will in addition open up plethora of opportunities in import
and export of nuclear goods, equipment and services. The Indian nuclear power sector and industry
needs to evolve faster to meet the associated challenges.

Energy Scenario in India

Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary energy pro-
duction. Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in prima-
ry energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the share
of oil in primary energy production from 20% to 17% during the same period.
Energy Supply
Coal Supply
India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tonnes of proven recoverable reserves (at
the end of 2003). This amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about
230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world's proven coal
reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio. Reserves/Production (R/P)
ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided by the production in that year, the
result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at that
level. India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is con-
centrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal).
Oil Supply
Oil accounts for about 36 % of India's total energy consumption. India today is one of the top ten oil-
guzzling nations in the world and will soon overtake Korea as the third largest consumer of oil in Asia
after China and Japan. The country's annual crude oil production is peaked at about 32 million tonne as
against the current peak demand of about 110 million tonne. In the current scenario, India's oil
consumption by end of 2007 is expected to reach 136 million tonne(MT), of which domestic
production will be only 34 MT. India will have to pay an oil bill of roughly $50 billion, assuming a
weighted average price of $50 per barrel of crude. In 2003-04, against total export of $64 billion, oil
imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports 70% of its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The
majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels in oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper
Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In terms of sector wise petroleum product consumption, transport
accounts for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24% and 24% respectively. India spent more
than Rs.1,10,000 crore on oil imports at the end of 2004.

Natural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The current demand
for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against availability of 67 mcmd. By
2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 660 billion
cubic meters.

Electrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating stations under utilities was 1,12,581 MW
as on 31st May 2004, consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW - thermal and 2,720 MW- nuclear
and 1,869 MW- wind (Ministry of Power). The gross generation of power in the year 2002-2003 stood
at 531 billion units (kWh).

Nuclear Power Supply

Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India. India has ten nuclear
power reactors at five nuclear power stations producing electricity. More nuclear reactors have also
been approved for construction.

Hydro Power Supply

India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only 15% has
been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the country's total generated units has steadily
decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on 31st May 2004. It is assessed that exploitable potential
at 60% load factor is 84,000 MW.

Growth of energy sector and its planning in India

• India's demand for energy is set to outpace domestic supply, providing the largest contribution
(30 per cent) to global energy demand growth to 2035.

• Energy is central to achieving India's development ambitions: bringing electricity to those who
do not have it; and developing infrastructure.

• India will remain reliant on energy imports, particularly for fossil fuels. It will also provide a
market for services and technologies that improve energy efficiency and the uptake of
renewables.
• In terms of commodities, India will be heavily dependent on imports of oil and gas.
• India will be largely self-reliant in thermal coal in the longer term, but will need to import
thermal coal well into the medium term.
• India will present a significant market for uranium out to 2035, though opportunities for
Australia will not be more than moderate.
• There are emerging prospects in hydrogen, including through partnerships with Japan, if
Australia is able to stay ahead of the technological curve.
• How all these opportunities play out will depend on India's reform path. India's aspirations to
simultaneously and rapidly: change its energy mix; be energy self-sufficient; ensure energy
security; and meet its climate change goals, will be difficult to achieve but show India's energy
policy sentiment. The political compulsion to provide affordable 'power to all' will shape other
reforms in this sector.
• India's energy sector is characterised by myriad, often highly inefficient policy interventions.
Controls on supply and the lack of transparent price signals reduce incentives to invest.
Distribution is a bottleneck and a bigger problem than capacity. While political constraints will
make any change incremental rather than wholesale, India is seeking to tackle these challenges.
• India's integration into global energy markets will be a key shift in the global economy out to
2035, with India having a greater stake in their efficiency.
• To support greater economic partnership with India in the energy sector, Australia should
encourage India's deepening ties with the international energy policy regime, engage on
 regulatory barriers and foster a deeper bilateral knowledge partnership. We should also seek to
build on our bilateral investment relationship in this sector, particularly Indian investment in
Australian renewable energy sources.

Non-conventional Energy Sources in Indian’s Perspective

The sources of energy which are exhaustible and being produced continuously in nature are called non-
conventional energy or renewable sources of energy. Some of these sources include solar energy, wind
energy and tidal energy. The conventional energy sources are basically based on fossil fuels which have
finite reserves in nature and hence would extinct in future. Since the development and progress of
mankind are closely related to energy sources, many countries throughout the world have engaged
themselves in searching and developing non-conventional energy sources that would be very essential
to sustain the life cycle of human being.

Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds work by human beings and nature.
Everything what happens the world is the expression of flow of energy in one of its forms. Energy is
the major input to drive the life cycle and improve it. Energy consumption is closely related to the
progress of the mankind. In future, improvement in the living standard of the mankind, industrialization
of the developing countries and the global demand for energy will increase with the every growing
population. The development of infrastructure plays a significant role to sustain economic growth. The
power sector is one of the major significant constituents of infrastructure. In general, India is dependent
on conventional sources of energy like thermal, hydro and nuclear.

NONCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

The conventional sources of energy are generally nonrenewable sources of energy, which are being
used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their
known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. The sources of energy which are being produced
continuously in nature and are in exhaustible are called nonconventional energy (or) renewable sources
of energy. Figure 1 provides the pictorial views of different forms of non-conventional energy sources
and renewable energy sources options, respectively.
Solar energy

Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy since prehistoric times. It is
estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the world's annual commercial energy
consumption reaches the earth every year. Solar energy can be utilized through two different routes, as
solar thermal route and solar electric (solar photovoltaic) routes. Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat
to produce hot water or air, cook food, drying materials etc. Solar photovoltaic uses sun's heat to
produce electricity for lighting home and building, running motors, pumps, electric appliances, and
lighting. In solar thermal route, solar energy can be converted into thermal energy with the help of solar
collectors and receivers known as solar thermal devices.

Wind energy

Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the
wind is converted to electrical energy. When solar radiation enters the earth's atmosphere, different
regions of the atmosphere are heated to different degrees because of earth curvature. This heating is
higher at the equator and lowest at the poles. Since air tends to flow from warmer to cooler regions, this
causes what we call winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in windmills and wind turbines to
produce power. Now wind power is harnessed to generate electricity in a larger scale with better
technology.

Bio energy

Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected to become one of the key
energy resources for global sustainable development. Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived
from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. Biomass does not add carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as it releases when
consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same equipment
that is now being used for burning fossil fuels. Bio energy is being used for cooking, mechanical
applications, pumping, power generation etc.

Hydro energy

The potential energy of falling water, captured and converted to mechanical energy by waterwheels,
powered the start of the industrial revolution. Wherever sufficient head, or change in elevation, could
be found, rivers and streams were dammed and mills were built. Water under pressure flows through a
turbine and causes it to spin. The Turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.

Ocean energy

The ocean contains two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's heat, and mechanical energy
from the tides and waves. Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity
generation. There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open cycle, and
hybrid. Closed cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which
has a low boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapour expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then
activates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating
at low pressures. This produces steam that passes through a turbine / generator. The hybrid systems
combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle systems. Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from
ocean thermal energy. Even though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the
gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds. A barrage (dam) is
typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines, activating a
generator.

Energy from Wastes

An estimated 50 million tons of solid waste and approximately 6,000 million cubic meters of liquid
waste are generated annually in the urban areas of India. In India, there is a great potentiality of
generating approximately 2,600 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and approximately,
1,300 MW from industrial wastes, respectively. A total of 48 projects with aggregate capacity of about
69.62 MW ex. have been installed in the country thereby utilizing only 1.8% of the potential that exists.

PRESENT STATUS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

In India, the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) was created in the Ministry of
Energy in the year of 1982 to look after all the aspects relating to new and renewable energy. The
Department was upgraded into a separate Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in
1992 and was rechristened as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in October, 2006. As
per the information furnished by MNRE, starting with the 9th Plan, there has been consistent increase
in pace of renewable energy development. Reportedly, India's renewable energy installed capacity has
grown at an annual rate of 23%, rising from about 3900 MW in 2002-03 to about 24000 MW in 2011-
12. Energy generated by using wind, solar, small hydro, tides, geothermal heat and biomass is known a
non-conventional energy. All these sources are renewable process of energy generation and do not
cause environmental pollution. Our country has been endowed with adequate natural resources.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES-

• Non-conventional/renewable energy is an indigenous source available in considerable quantities

to all developing nations and capable, in principle of having a significant local, regional or
national economic impact.
• There is a great scope of research and development in non-conventional/renewable energy
sectors regarding its future development and scientific utilization.
 • The power plants based on renewable do not have any fuel cost and hence negligible running
cost.
• Renewable have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution or ecological balance
problem. Provide energy in environmentally benign manner.
• The use of non-conventional/renewable energy could help to conserve foreign exchange and
generate local employment if conservation technologies are designed, manufactured, assembled
and installed locally.
• Short gestation period and low investment.

The sustainable economic development and growth of any country are closely related to the
development and security of its energy sectors. Concerning the finite and limited reserves of
conventional energy sources and their impact on environment, a great emphasis should be given to the
development of non- conventional energy sectors and their proper utilization for the benefit and
betterment of mankind. Such initiatives would also be helpful to create many employment
opportunities at all levels, especially in rural areas. Thus, mainstreaming of non-conventional and
renewable energy technologies is becoming very essential for the developing countries. In India, there
is great scope for the development of non-conventional and renewable energy sectors. India is the only
country that has an exclusive Ministry for New and Non-Conventional Energy Sources. India possesses
the largest decentralized solar energy programme, the second largest biogas and improved stove
pogrammes, and the fifth largest wind power programme in the world.

Solar energy

More energy from the sun falls on the earth in one hour than is used by everyone in the world in one
year. A variety of technologies convert sunlight to usable energy for buildings. The most commonly
used solar technologies for homes and businesses are solar photovoltaics for electricity, passive solar
design for space heating and cooling, and solar water heating.

Businesses and industry use solar technologies to diversify their energy sources, improve efficiency,
and save money. Energy developers and utilities use solar photovoltaic and concentrating solar power
technologies to produce electricity on a massive scale to power cities and small towns.
Solar technologies:

1. Solar Photovoltaic Technology

Converts sunlight directly into electricity to power homes and businesses. Solar cells, also called
photovoltaic cells, convert sunlight directly into electricity.

1.1 Photovoltaics (often shortened as PV) gets its name from the process of converting light (photons)
to electricity (voltage), which is called the photovoltaic effect. This phenomenon was first exploited in
1954 by scientists at Bell Laboratories who created a working solar cell made from silicon that
generated an electric current when exposed to sunlight. Solar cells were soon being used to power
space satellites and smaller items such as calculators and watches. Today, electricity from solar cells
has become cost competitive in many regions and photovoltaic systems are being deployed at large
scales to help power the electric grid.

1.2 Silicon Solar Cells

The vast majority of today's solar cells are made from silicon and offer both reasonable prices and good
efficiency (the rate at which the solar cell converts sunlight into electricity). These cells are usually
assembled into larger modules that can be installed on the roofs of residential or commercial buildings
or deployed on ground-mounted racks to create huge, utility-scale systems.

1.3 Thin-Film Solar Cells

Another commonly used photovoltaic technology is known as thin-film solar cells because they are
made from very thin layers of semiconductor material, such as cadmium telluride or copper indium
gallium diselenide. The thickness of these cell layers is only a few micrometers—that is, several
millionths of a meter.

Thin-film solar cells can be flexible and lightweight, making them ideal for portable applications—
such as in a soldier’s backpack—or for use in other products like windows that generate electricity
from the sun. Some types of thin-film solar cells also benefit from manufacturing techniques that
require less energy and are easier to scale-up than the manufacturing techniques required by silicon
solar cells.

1.4 III-V Solar Cells

A third type of photovoltaic technology is named after the elements that compose them. III-V solar
cells are mainly constructed from elements in Group III—e.g., gallium and indium—and Group V—
e.g., arsenic and antimony—of the periodic table. These solar cells are generally much more expensive
to manufacture than other technologies. But they convert sunlight into electricity at much higher
efficiencies. Because of this, these solar cells are often used on satellites, unmanned aerial vehicles, and
other applications that require a high ratio of power-to-weight.

1.5 Next-Generation Solar Cells

Solar cell researchers at NREL and elsewhere are also pursuing many new photovoltaic technologies—
such as solar cells made from organic materials, quantum dots, and hybrid organic-inorganic materials
(also known as perovskites). These next-generation technologies may offer lower costs, greater ease of
manufacture, or other benefits. Further research will see if these promises can be realized.

1.6 Reliability and Grid Integration Research

Photovoltaic research is more than just making a high-efficiency, low-cost solar cell. Homeowners and
businesses must be confident that the solar panels they install will not degrade in performance and will
continue to reliably generate electricity for many years. Utilities and government regulators want to
know how to add solar PV systems to the electric grid without destabilizing the careful balancing act
between electricity supply and demand.

Materials scientists, economic analysts, electrical engineers, and many others at NREL are working to
address these concerns and ensure solar photo voltaics are a clean and reliable source of energy.

2. Passive Solar Technology

• Provides light and harnesses heat from the sun to warm our homes and businesses in winter.

3. Solar Water Heating

• Harnesses heat from the sun to provide hot water for homes and businesses.

4. Solar Process Heat

• Uses solar energy to heat or cool commercial and industrial buildings.

5. Concentrating Solar Power

• Harnesses heat from the sun to provide electricity for large power stations.
Wind Energy

Wind is caused when the earth's surface is heated unevenly by the sun. Wind energy can be used to
generate electricity.
Wind power is one of the fastest-growing renewable energy technologies. Usage is on the rise
worldwide, in part because costs are falling. Global installed wind-generation capacity onshore and
offshore has increased by a factor of almost 75 in the past two decades, jumping from 7.5 gigawatts
(GW) in 1997 to some 564 GW by 2018, according to IRENA's latest data. Production of wind
electricity doubled between 2009 and 2013, and in 2016 wind energy accounted for 16% of the
electricity generated by renewables. Many parts of the world have strong wind speeds, but the best
locations for generating wind power are sometimes remote ones. Offshore wind power offers
tremendous potential.

Wind turbines first emerged more than a century ago. Following the invention of the electric generator
in the 1830s, engineers started attempting to harness wind energy to produce electricity. Wind power
generation took place in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1887 and 1888, but modern wind
power is considered to have been first developed in Denmark, where horizontal-axis wind turbines
were built in 1891 and a 22.8-metre wind turbine began operation in 1897.

Wind is used to produce electricity using the kinetic energy created by air in motion. This is
transformed into electrical energy using wind turbines or wind energy conversion systems. Wind first
hits a turbine’s blades, causing them to rotate and turn the turbine connected to them. That changes the
kinetic energy to rotational energy, by moving a shaft which is connected to a generator, and thereby
producing electrical energy through electromagnetism.

The amount of power that can be harvested from wind depends on the size of the turbine and the length
of its blades. The output is proportional to the dimensions of the rotor and to the cube of the wind
speed. Theoretically, when wind speed doubles, wind power potential increases by a factor of eight.

Wind-turbine capacity has increased over time. In 1985, typical turbines had a rated capacity of 0.05
megawatts (MW) and a rotor diameter of 15 metres. Today’s new wind power projects have turbine
capacities of about 2 MW onshore and 3–5 MW offshore.

Commercially available wind turbines have reached 8 MW capacity, with rotor diameters of up to 164
metres. The average capacity of wind turbines increased from 1.6 MW in 2009 to 2 MW in 2014.
Betz' Law
Betz' law says that you can only convert less than 16/27 (or 59%) of the kinetic energy in the wind to
mechanical energy using a wind turbine. Betz' law was first formulated by the German Physicist Albert
Betz in 1919. His book "Wind-Energie" published in 1926 gives a good account of the knowledge of
wind energy and wind turbines at that moment.

Wind Turbines

Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30
meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines
catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a
shaft to form a rotor.

A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on
the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the
rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force
against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the
rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make electricity.

Land-Based Wind Energy

Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected to a utility power grid
or even combined with a photovoltaic (solar cell) system. For utility-scale (megawatt-sized) sources of
wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are usually built close together to form a wind plant, also
referred to as a wind farm. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to supply power to their
customers.

Stand-alone wind turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However,
homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their
electric bills.

Distributed Wind Energy

Small wind systems also have potential as distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources
refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to improve the
operation of the electricity delivery system.

Offshore Wind Energy

Offshore wind energy is a relatively new industry in the United States. America's first offshore wind
farm, located in Rhode Island, off the coast of Block Island, powered up in December 2016. The
Energy Department's Wind Vision Report shows that by 2050, offshore wind could be available in all
coastal regions nationwide.

Anything that moves has kinetic energy, and scientists and engineers are using the wind’s kinetic
energy to generate electricity. Wind energy, or wind power, is created using a wind turbine, a device
that channels the power of the wind to generate electricity.

The wind blows the blades of the turbine, which are attached to a rotor. The rotor then spins a generator
to create electricity. There are two types of wind turbines: the horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs)
and vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs). HAWTs are the most common type of wind turbine. They
usually have two or three long, thin blades that look like an airplane propeller. The blades are
positioned so that they face directly into the wind. VAWTs have shorter, wider curved blades that
resemble the beaters used in an electric mixer.

Small, individual wind turbines can produce 100 kilowatts of power, enough to power a home. Small
wind turbines are also used for places like water pumping stations. Slightly larger wind turbines sit on
towers that are as tall as 80 meters (260 feet) and have rotor blades that extend approximately 40
meters (130 feet) long. These turbines can generate 1.8 megawatts of power. Even larger wind turbines
can be found perched on towers that stand 240 meters (787 feet) tall have rotor blades more than 162
meters (531 feet) long. These large turbines can generate anywhere from 4.8 to 9.5 megawatts of
power.

Once the electricity is generated, it can be used, connected to the electrical grid, or stored for future
use. The United States Department of Energy is working with the National Laboratories to develop and
improve technologies, such as batteries and pumped-storage hydropower so that they can be used to
store excess wind energy. Companies like General Electric install batteries along with their wind
turbines so that as the electricity is generated from wind energy, it can be stored right away.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there are 57,000 wind turbines in the United States, both on
land and offshore. Wind turbines can be standalone structures, or they can be clustered together in what
is known as a wind farm. While one turbine can generate enough electricity to support the energy needs
of a single home, a wind farm can generate far more electricity, enough to power thousands of homes.
Wind farms are usually located on top of a mountain or in an otherwise windy place in order to take
advantage of natural winds.

The largest offshore wind farm in the world is called the Walney Extension. This wind farm is located
in the Irish Sea approximately 19 kilometers (11 miles) west of the northwest coast of England. The
Walney Extension covers a massive area of 149 square kilometers (56 square miles), which makes the
wind farm bigger than the city of San Francisco, California, or the island of Manhattan in New York.
The grid of 87 wind turbines stands 195 meters (640 feet) tall, making these offshore wind turbines
some of the largest wind turbines in the world. The Walney Extension has the potential to generate 659
megawatts of power, which is enough to supply 600,000 homes in the United Kingdom with electricity.

Biomass energy

Biomass is the fuel developed from organic matter waste of living organisms like plant waste, animal
waste, forest waste, and municipal wastes.

In biological terms, the word biomass refers to the organic plant matter, which is converted into fuel
and used as an energy source. Biomass fuel is considered to be of great importance as it plays the role
of a renewable and sustainable source of energy. For example, biomass is used for the production of
electricity. Due to this, biomass is capable of replacing fossil fuels.

Organic materials which can be recycled like wood, agricultural wastes, and municipal wastes serve as
excellent sources to produce biomass fuel. The biomass can be burnt directly and later converted into
methane and ethanol biofuels. Biomass’s chemical composition includes hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, certain alkali atoms, alkaline earth metals and heavy metals.

Wood is a renewable domestic energy resource. When it is used for energy, only as much CO 2 is

produced as the plants have captured during their growth. We at RWE make use of these advantages.
Our biomass power plants generate electricity from residual wood. Wood from a forest or old wood,
such as old furniture, is suitable for this purpose. And this is how energy production works: The wood
is placed in a kiln. The heat generated by burning the wood heats water. The resulting steam then drives
a turbine to generate electricity. When the wood is burned, no more CO 2 is produced than the plants

absorbed during their growth.

How a biogas plant works

Biogas is a true multi-talent: biogas essentially consists of methane, carbon dioxide and small amounts
of water and trace gases. The almost CO2-neutral energy supplier is generated in a biogas plant. In a

closed tank (fermenter), the biogas is produced with the aid of bacteria from biomass such as green
plants and manure or slurry. Biogas is a versatile product: It can be used locally in a combined heat and
power plant (CHP) directly to generate electricity and heat. Processed at natural gas level, it can be
used multifunctionally via the natural gas network. This includes classic electricity and heat generation,
e. g. in natural gas CHPs, heating of buildings and the use as fuel for natural gas vehicles.

Biogas is a renewable energy source produced by the breakdown of organic matter by certain bacteria
under anaerobic conditions. It is a mixture of methane, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. It can be
produced by agricultural waste, food waste, animal dung, manure, and sewage. The process of biogas
production is also known as anaerobic digestion.

Biogas recycles the waste products naturally and converts them into useful energy, thereby, preventing
any pollution caused by the waste in the landfills, and cutting down the effect of the toxic chemicals
released from the sewage treatment plants.

Biogas converts the harmful methane gas produced during decomposition, into less harmful carbon
dioxide gas.

The organic material decomposes only in a wet environment. The organic matter or the waste dissolves
in water and forms a sludge which is rich in nutrients and used as a fertilizer.
Biogas Plant

The biogas production is carried out in anaerobic digesters known as Biogas plant. These have five
components:

• An inlet to feed the slurry

• The fermentation chamber where the biogas is produced with the activity of microorganisms,
• The gas storage tank to store the gas produced,
• The outlet for the used slurry,
• The exit pipe for removing the gas produced.

The organic matter if fed into the digesters which are completely submerged in water to provide it with
an anaerobic environment. These digesters are hence called anaerobic digesters. The microorganisms
breakdown the organic matter and convert it into biogas.

The biogas thus produced is supplied to the respective places through the exit pipes.

Breakdown of Organic matter

1. The first stage involves the breakdown of organic polymers, such as carbohydrates, making it
available to the next stage of bacteria known as the acidogenic bacteria.
2. The acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugar and amino acids into carbon dioxide, ammonia,
hydrogen, and organic acids.
3. The organic acids are now converted into acetic acid, hydrogen, ammonia, and carbon dioxide.
4. These are finally converted into methane and carbon dioxide by the action of methanogens.

Methane is a combustible gas, i.e., it can be burnt. This gas is supplied to various places and is used in
cooking and lighting. It is an eco-friendly gas and reduces various environmental problems like, it
reduces the reliance on fossil fuels.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a game-changing technology that leverages the
temperature difference in the ocean between cold deep water and warm surface water in the tropics and
subtropics to generate unlimited energy without the use of fossil fuels. It boasts a competitive
advantage over alternative sources of electricity production regarding accessibility, predictability,
affordability, and emissions

Eighty percent of the sun’s solar energy is absorbed into the surface of the world’s oceans, and it is
replenished daily regardless of weather patterns. In a closed cycle OTEC system, water flows through a
large pipe and heat exchanger, which heats a liquid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia. As the
boiling ammonia creates steam, it turns a turbine generator to produce electricity. A second pipe
extracts cool deep water from the ocean, which condenses the steam back to liquid form. As the
ammonia is recycled, the process repeats, creating unlimited clean energy 24 hours a day, 365 days a
year. This process is known as the Rankine cycle, commonly found in typical oil, coal, or nuclear
power generation plants. The difference with OTEC is that it uses the solar energy from the ocean – no
fossil fuels are used in OTEC’s power generation.
Tidal Energy

Tidal power is one of the major renewable energy sources, but also one of the most infantile. Using the
power of the tides, energy is produced from the gravitational pull from both the moon and the sun,
which pulls water upwards, while the Earth’s rotational and gravitational power pulls water down, thus
creating high and low tides. This movement of water from the changing tides is a natural form of
kinetic energy. All it takes is a steam generator, tidal turbine or the more innovative dynamic tidal
power (DTP) technology to turn kinetic energy into electricity. Engineering company SIMEC Atlantis
recently designed the world’s largest single-rotor tidal turbine, which can generate more electricity at a
lower cost of operation and maintenance. However, tidal currently isn’t the cheapest form of renewable
energy, and the real effects of tidal power on the environment have not yet been fully determined. Here
are some tidal energy advantages and disadvantages that must not be overlooked.
 Tidal power is a known green energy source, at least in terms of emitting zero greenhouse
gases. It also doesn’t take up that much space. The largest tidal project in the world is the Sihwa Lake
Tidal Power Station in South Korea, with an installed capacity of 254MW. The project, established in
2011, was easily added to a 12.5km-long seawall built in 1994 to protect the coast against flooding and
to support agricultural irrigation. Another benefit of tidal power is that it is predictable. The
gravitational forces of celestial bodies are not going to stop anytime soon. Furthermore, as high and
low tide is cyclical, it is far easier for engineers to design efficient systems, than say, predicting when
the wind will blow or when the sun will shine.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or steam carry the
geothermal energy to the Earth’s surface. Depending on its characteristics, geothermal energy can be
used for heating and cooling purposes or be harnessed to generate clean electricity. However, for
electricity, generation high or medium temperature resources are needed, which are usually located
close to technically active regions.

This key renewable source covers a significant share of electricity demand in countries like Iceland, El
Salvador, New Zealand, Kenya, and Philippines and more than 90% of heating demand in Iceland. The
main advantages are that it is not depending on weather conditions and has very high capacity factors;
for these reasons, geothermal power plants are capable of supplying baseload electricity, as well as
providing ancillary services for short and long-term flexibility in some cases.

There are different geothermal technologies with distinct levels of maturity. Technologies for direct
uses like district heating, geothermal heat pumps, greenhouses, and for other applications are widely
used and can be considered mature. The technology for electricity generation from hydrothermal
reservoirs with naturally high permeability is also mature and reliable, and has been operating since
1913. Many of the power plants in operation today are dry steam plants or flash plants (single, double
and triple) harnessing temperatures of more than 180°C. However, medium temperature fields are more
and more used for electricity generation or for combined heat and power thanks to the development of
binary cycle technology, in which geothermal fluid is used via heat ex-changers to heat a process fluid
in a closed loop. Additionally, new technologies are being developed like Enhanced Geothermal
Systems (EGS), which are in the demonstration stage.

First used in Italy in 1904, geothermal has been a consistent – and expanding – source of energy in
recent years. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal energy
has grown steadily from around 10GW worldwide in 2010 to 13.3GW in 2018.

So what is geothermal energy, how does it work and where is it prevalent?

Where does geothermal energy come from?

Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks
and fluids beneath the earth’s crust and can be found as far down to the earth’s hot molten rock,
magma. To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into underground
reservoirs to access the steam and hot water there, which can then be used to drive turbines connected
to electricity generators. There are three types of geothermal power plants; dry steam, flash and binary.

Dry steam is the oldest form of geothermal technology and takes steam out of the ground and uses it to
directly drive a turbine. Flash plants use high-pressure hot water into cool, low-pressure water whilst
binary plants pass hot water through a secondary liquid with a lower boiling point, which turns to
vapour to drive the turbine.

Where it’s used

Geothermal energy is used in over 20 countries. The United States is the largest producer of geothermal
energy in the world, and hosts the largest geothermal field.

Known as “The Geysers” in California, the field is spread over 117 square kilometres and formed of 22
power plants, with an installed capacity of over 1.5GW.

The energy source is also prevalent in Iceland, where it has been used since 1907. Describing itself as a
‘pioneer’ of geothermal power, the country produces 25% of its energy from five geothermal power
plants. This is due to the 600 hot springs and 200 volcanoes in the country.
Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only water. Hydrogen can be
produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and
renewable power like solar and wind. These qualities make it an attractive fuel option for transportation
and electricity generation applications. It can be used in cars, in houses, for portable power, and in
many more applications.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced from other
sources. Today, hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods. The most common methods
today are natural gas reforming (a thermal process), and electrolysis. Other methods include solar-
driven and biological processes.

Thermal Processes :Thermal processes for hydrogen production typically involve steam reforming, a
high-temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen. Many
hydrocarbon fuels can be reformed to produce hydrogen, including natural gas, diesel, renewable liquid
fuels, gasified coal, or gasified biomass. Today, about 95% of all hydrogen is produced from steam
reforming of natural gas.
Electrolytic Processes : Water can be separated into oxygen and hydrogen through a process called
electrolysis. Electrolytic processes take place in an electrolyzer, which functions much like a fuel cell
in reverse—instead of using the energy of a hydrogen molecule, like a fuel cell does, an electrolyzer
creates hydrogen from water molecules.

Solar-Driven Processes : Solar-driven processes use light as the agent for hydrogen production. There
are a few solar-driven processes, including photobiological, photoelectrochemical, and solar
thermochemical. Photobiological processes use the natural photosynthetic activity of bacteria and green
algae to produce hydrogen. Photoelectrochemical processes use specialized semiconductors to separate
water into hydrogen and oxygen. Solar thermochemical hydrogen production uses concentrated solar
power to drive water splitting reactions often along with other species such as metal oxides.

Biological Processes : Biological processes use microbes such as bacteria and microalgae and can
produce hydrogen through biological reactions. In microbial biomass conversion, the microbes break
down organic matter like biomass or wastewater to produce hydrogen, while in photobiological
processes the microbes use sunlight as the energy source.

Fuel Cells

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels to cleanly and efficiently produce
electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, the only products are electricity, water, and heat. Fuel cells are
unique in terms of the variety of their potential applications; they can use a wide range of fuels and
feedstocks and can provide power for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a
laptop computer.

Why Study Fuel Cells

Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, providing power for applications across multiple
sectors, including transportation, industrial/commercial/residential buildings, and long-term energy
storage for the grid in reversible systems.

Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies currently used in
many power plants and vehicles. Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies than combustion engines
and can convert the chemical energy in the fuel directly to electrical energy with efficiencies capable of
exceeding 60%. Fuel cells have lower or zero emissions compared to combustion engines. Hydrogen
fuel cells emit only water, addressing critical climate challenges as there are no carbon dioxide
emissions. There also are no air pollutants that create smog and cause health problems at the point of
operation. Fuel cells are quiet during operation as they have few moving parts.

How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce electricity
and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or
anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as
hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the
anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the
cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate
through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water
and heat.

Research and Development Goals

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working closely with its national laboratories, universities,
and industry partners to overcome critical technical barriers to fuel cell development. Cost,
performance, and durability are still key challenges in the fuel cell industry.

• Cost—Research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) focuses on the development of low-

cost fuel cell stack and balance of plant (BOP) components and advanced high-volume
manufacturing approaches to reduce overall system cost. Platinum represents one of the largest
cost components of a direct hydrogen fueled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, so there is
emphasis on approaches that will increase activity and utilization and reduce the content of
current platinum group metal (PGM) and PGM-alloy catalysts, as well as PGM-free catalyst
approaches for long-term applications.
• Performance—To improve fuel cell efficiency and performance, RD&D focuses on innovative
materials and integration strategies. Efforts include developing ion-exchange membrane
electrolytes with enhanced efficiency and durability at reduced cost; improving membrane
electrode assemblies (MEAs) with high power density through integration of state-of-the-art
MEA components; modeling to understand system design and operating conditions; and
developing stacks with high efficiency at rated power and high-performing BOP components,
such as air management components with low parasitic losses.
 • Durability—Fuel cell applications generally require adequate performance to be maintained
over long periods of time. DOE has set ultimate targets for fuel cell system lifetime under
realistic operating conditions at 8,000 hours for light-duty vehicles, 30,000 hours for heavy-duty
trucks, and 80,000 hours for distributed power systems. In the most demanding applications,
system reliability and robustness is required under dynamic and harsh operating conditions.
Realistic operating conditions include starting and stopping, freezing and thawing, impurities in
the fuel and air, and humidity and dynamic load cycles that result in stresses on the chemical
and mechanical stability of the fuel cell system materials and components. RD&D focuses on
identifying and understanding the fuel cell degradation mechanisms and developing materials
and strategies to mitigate their effects.

Magneto Hydro-Dynamics Generator

The MHD generation or, also known as magneto hydrodynamic power generation is a direct energy
conversion system which converts the heat energy directly into electrical energy, without any
intermediate mechanical energy conversion, as opposed to the case in all other power generating plants.
Therefore, in this process, substantial fuel economy can be achieved due to the elimination of the link
process of producing mechanical energy and then again converting it to electrical energy.
History of MHD Generation

The concept of MHD power generation was introduced for the very first time by Michael Faraday in
the year 1832 in his Bakerian lecture to the Royal Society. He in fact carried out an experiment at the
Waterloo Bridge in Great Britain for measuring the current, from the flow of the river Thames in
earth’s magnetic field.

This experiment in a way outlined the basic concept behind MHD generation over the years then,
several research work had been conducted on this topic, and later in August 13, 1940 this concept of
magneto hydro dynamic power generation, was imbibed as the most widely accepted process for the
conversion of heat energy directly into electrical energy without a mechanical sub-link.

Principle of MHD Generation

The principal of MHD power generation is very simple and is based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that when a conductor and a magnetic field moves relative to
each other, then voltage is induced in the conductor, which results in flow of current across the
terminals.
As the name implies, the magneto hydro dynamics generator shown in the figure below, is concerned
with the flow of a conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and electric fields. In conventional
generator or alternator, the conductor consists of copper windings or stripswhile in an MHD generator
the hot ionized gas or conducting fluid replaces the solid conductor.

A pressurized, electrically conducting fluid flows through a transverse magnetic field in a channel or
duct. Pair of electrodes are located on the channel walls at right angle to the magnetic field and
connected through an external circuit to deliver power to a load connected to it. Electrodes in the MHD
generator perform the same function as brushes in a conventional DC generator. The MHD generator
develops DC power and the conversion to AC is done using an inverter.
The power generated per unit length by MHD generator is approximately given by,

/++
Where, u is the fluid velocity, B is the magnetic flux density, σ is the electrical conductivity of
conducting fluid and P is the density of the fluid.

It is evident from the equation above, that for the higher power density of an MHD generator there
must be a strong magnetic field of 4-5 tesla and high flow velocity of conducting fluid besides adequate
conductivity.

MHD Cycles and Working Fluids

The MHD cycles can be of two types, namely
1. Open Cycle MHD.
2. Closed Cycle MHD.
The detailed account of the types of MHD cycles and the working fluids used, are given below.

Open Cycle MHD System

In open cycle MHD system, atmospheric air at very high temperature and pressure is passed through
the strong magnetic field. Coal is first processed and burnet in the combustor at a high temperature of
about 2700oC and pressure about 12 ATP with pre-heated air from the plasma. Then a seeding material
such as potassium carbonate is injected to the plasma to increase the electrical conductivity. The
resulting mixture having an electrical conductivity of about 10 Siemens/m is expanded through a
nozzle, so as to have a high velocity and then passed through the magnetic field of MHD generator.
During the expansion of the gas at high temperature, the positive and negative ions move to the
electrodes and thus constitute an electric current. The gas is then made to exhaust through the
generator. Since the same air cannot be reused again hence it forms an open cycle and thus is named as
open cycle MHD.

Closed Cycle MHD System

As the name suggests the working fluid in a closed cycle MHD is circulated in a closed loop. Hence, in
this case inert gas or liquid metal is used as the working fluid to transfer the heat. The liquid metal has
typically the advantage of high electrical conductivity, hence the heat provided by the combustion
material need not be too high. Contrary to the open loop system there is no inlet and outlet for the
atmospheric air. Hence, the process is simplified to a great extent, as the same fluid is circulated time
and again for effective heat transfer.

Advantages of MHD Generation

The advantages of MHD generation over the other conventional methods of generation are given
below.
1. Here only working fluid is circulated, and there are no moving mechanical parts. This reduces
the mechanical losses to nil and makes the operation more dependable.
2. The temperature of working fluid is maintained by the walls of MHD.
3. It has the ability to reach full power level almost directly.
4. The price of MHD generators is much lower than conventional generators.
5. MHD has very high efficiency, which is higher than most of the other conventional or non-
conventional method of generation.