Understanding Linear and RBF Kernels in Machine Learning

In machine learning, especially in Support Vector Machines (SVMs), kernels are functions
used to transform data into a higher-dimensional space, allowing models to classify data
that is not linearly separable in the original space. Two popular types of kernels are the
Linear kernel and the Radial Basis Function (RBF) kernel.

1. Linear Kernel
The linear kernel is the simplest kernel function. It’s typically used when the data is linearly
separable, meaning it can be separated by a straight line (in 2D) or a hyperplane (in higher
dimensions).

How it works:
The linear kernel calculates the dot product between two vectors x and x':
K(x, x') = x · x'
This means it projects the data without any additional transformation into a higher-
dimensional space.

Example:
If we have two feature vectors, x = [x₁, x₂] and x' = [x₁', x₂'], the linear kernel output would
be x₁ * x₁' + x₂ * x₂'.

Use case:
The linear kernel is fast and works well when the data is linearly separable or when the
dataset has many features, as it’s computationally less intensive.

2. Radial Basis Function (RBF) Kernel

The RBF kernel, also known as the Gaussian kernel, is a more complex kernel function. It’s
widely used in SVMs because it can model non-linear relationships in the data by mapping it
into a higher-dimensional space.

How it works:
The RBF kernel computes the similarity between two points x and x' based on the distance
between them:
K(x, x') = exp(-γ ||x - x'||²)
where γ is a parameter that defines the width of the Gaussian curve (means how far the
influence of each point reaches).

If x and x' are close together, ||x - x'||² is small, making K(x, x') close to 1. If x and x' are far
apart, ||x - x'||² is large, making K(x, x') close to 0. The RBF kernel allows the model to
capture complex patterns.

Example:
Suppose x and x' are two points in 2D space. If x is closer to x', the RBF kernel will return a
high similarity score. If they’re farther apart, the score will be lower.
Use case:
The RBF kernel is useful for non-linearly separable data and is often a default choice
for SVMs due to its flexibility and ability to handle complex patterns in the data.

Summary of Differences
Kernel Type Formula Use Case Complexity
Linear K(x, x') = x · x' Linearly separable Simple
data
RBF (Gaussian) K(x, x') = exp(-γ ||x - Non-linearly Complex
x'||²) separable data

In the context of kernels, x and x′ represent the feature vectors of two data points.

 Each data point in your dataset has a set of features, which can be thought of as
coordinates in a feature space.

 The feature vector x (for one data point) and x′(for another data point) contain
these feature values.

For example, in a dataset for predicting housing prices, a feature vector x might look like
Number of rooms, Square footage, Age of house. The kernel function then calculates a
similarity or relationship between two data points by using these feature vectors x and x′.

So, when we say K(x,x′), we’re calculating the similarity between two data points based on
their features.
Equation: z = x² + y²

The equation z = x² + y² represents a mathematical expression that combines two variables,

x and y, to determine a value z. Below is a breakdown of what it means and its implications
in different contexts.

1. Variables and Terms

• x and y: These are two variables that could represent coordinates on a two-dimensional
plane.
• x²: This term means x is squared or multiplied by itself.
• y²: Similarly, y is squared here.

2. Summing the Squares

The equation takes the squares of x and y, then adds them together to get z:
z = x² + y²

3. Geometric Interpretation

In three-dimensional space, this equation represents a paraboloid:

• When x and y vary, the value of z changes based on the sum of their squares.
• This creates a 3D shape where z is always positive (since squares are positive), and z
increases as x and y move farther from zero.
• When x = 0 and y = 0, z = 0, which is the lowest point. As x and y increase or decrease, z
becomes larger, creating a bowl-like shape.

4. Application in the Kernel Trick

In the context of Support Vector Machines (SVMs), this equation can represent a
transformation of points (x, y) from a 2D space to a 3D space. This transformation makes it
easier to separate classes with a simple plane (a straight line in higher dimensions). This is
an example of the 'kernel trick' used in SVMs to find boundaries for complex data
distributions by mapping them to higher dimensions.

The equation z = x² + y² describes a 3D surface that rises as x and y move away from the
origin. This concept is useful in machine learning, especially in SVMs, as it helps separate
data that isn’t easily separable in lower dimensions.

Types of Kernel:

Linear Kernel: Draws a straight line for simpler separable data.

Polynomial Kernel: Adds curved boundaries for more complex, non-linear separations.
RBF Kernel: Adapts flexibly around data points, creating complex, non-linear boundaries
suitable for highly intricate patterns.

Hyperplane Equation in SVM: w · x + b = 0

In machine learning, particularly in Support Vector Machines (SVM), the equation w · x + b =

0 represents a hyperplane. This hyperplane is the decision boundary that separates
different classes of data. Let’s break down the meaning of each component in this equation.

Components of the Equation w · x + b = 0

1. x: This represents a data point in the feature space. It’s usually a vector containing the
features of a single instance in your dataset.
For example, if we’re classifying points based on two features, x might be a vector like x =
[x₁, x₂], where x₁ and x₂ are the values of these two features for one data point.

2. w: This is the weight vector (or normal vector) to the hyperplane. It’s a vector of the same
size as x, which defines the direction and orientation of the hyperplane.
In a two-dimensional case, w could be represented as w = [w₁, w₂], where w₁ and w₂
determine the slope of the line (or hyperplane) in relation to the features.

3. b: This is the bias term or intercept. It shifts the hyperplane up or down in the feature
space. Adjusting b moves the hyperplane without changing its orientation.
In a 2D plane, b is the y-intercept when the hyperplane is represented as a line.

4. w · x: This represents the dot product between the weight vector w and the data point x.
The dot product gives a scalar value that, together with b, determines the position of x
relative to the hyperplane.

What the Equation Means

The equation w · x + b = 0 defines the hyperplane as follows:

• If w · x + b = 0, the point x lies on the hyperplane.

• If w · x + b > 0, the point x is on one side of the hyperplane.
• If w · x + b < 0, the point x is on the other side of the hyperplane.

In Support Vector Machines (SVM)

In SVM, this equation is used to classify points. The SVM algorithm tries to find values of w
and b such that the hyperplane best separates the classes in the dataset, maximizing the
distance (margin) between this hyperplane and the closest points of each class, known as
support vectors.

Example in 2D
For a simple 2D case with two features x₁ and x₂:

w · x + b = w₁ x₁ + w₂ x₂ + b = 0

This is the equation of a line that divides the 2D space into two regions, one for each class.

Summary

• w defines the orientation and slope of the hyperplane.

• x represents a point we want to classify.
• b shifts the hyperplane position in the space.
The equation w · x + b = 0 represents the boundary that separates different classes in SVM.