MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Subject - Electrical & Electronics

Engineering

NOTES: Unit II

Class – F.Y. (SEM-I)

A.Y. 2024 - 2025
 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

UNIT II
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Main Topic-1: Electromechanical energy conversion: Types of ac and dc motors, Characteristics
and applications, ac generators.,
Main Topic-2: Single phase transformer: Construction, principle of working, emf equation, ratios,
regulation, losses, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency
Main Topic-3: Introduction to O.C & S.C. test, Introduction to auto-transformer and instrument
transformer

Electromechanical Energy Conversion:

An electromechanical energy conversion is a conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy or vice versa with the aid of rotary motion or translatory motion. Electrical machines,
solenoid actuators and electromagnets are generally called electromechanical energy conversion
devices. Electrical machines, solenoid actuators and electromagnets are generally called
electromechanical energy conversion devices.

Fig. 1 Electromechanical energy conversion

Transformers and solid-state converters do not belong to the group of electromechanical energy
conversion devices because they only convert one kind of electrical energy into another kind of
electrical energy with different parameters (change in voltage, current, frequency, number of
phases, conversion of DC into AC current, etc.) without any motion.

Fig. 2

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 1

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Block diagrams of electromechanical energy conversion devices Fig. 1. Fig. 2 (a) shows a block
diagram of a motor, while Fig. 2 (b) shows a block diagram of a generator. An example of
application of an electric motor is shown in Fig. 3(a). An example of application of an electric
generator is shown in Fig. 3(b).

Fig. 3 (a) Fig. 3 (b)

Energy flow in an electromechanical energy conversion device

Fig. 4
Fig. 4 illustrates the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy, according to the
following equation:
𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑑𝑊𝑓 + 𝑑𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑑𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
where 𝑑𝑊𝑒 is the electrical energy (input energy) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 is the energy stored in the magnetic field
(coil), 𝑑𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 are all the power losses and 𝑑𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ is the mechanical energy (output energy).

Principal Of Energy Conversion

• An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy or, mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Electromechanical energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic field or
an electric field, but most practical converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium
between electrical and mechanical systems, this is because the electric storing capacity
of the magnetic field is much higher than that of the electric field.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 2

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

• Electromechanical energy converters are either gross-motion devices such as

microphones, loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, and certain electrical measuring
instruments, etc. DC, induction and synchronous machines are used extensively for
electromechanical energy conversion.
• When the conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical form, the device is called
the motor, and when the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy, the device
is called a generator.
• In these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form or from
mechanical to electrical from results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:
➢ When a conductor is allowed to move in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in
the conductor.
➢ When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then a mechanical
force is experienced by the conductor.
• In monitoring action, current flows through the conductors placed in a magnetic field. A
force is produced on each conductor. The conductors are placed on the rotor which is free
to move. An electromagnetic torque produced on the rotor is transferred to the shaft of
the rotor and can be utilized to drive a mechanical load. Since the conductors rotate in the
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in each conductor.
• In generating action, the rotor is driven by a prime mover. A voltage is induced in the rotor
conductors. If an electrical load is connected to the winding formed by these conductors,
a current will flow, delivering electric power to the load. Moreover, the current flowing
through the conductors will interact with the magnetic field to produce a reaction torque,
which will tend to oppose the torque developed by the prime mover.

Conservation of energy
According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed it can only be transformed from one state to another. In an energy conversion device,
the total input energy is equal to the sum of the following three components: Thus, with an
electromechanical conversion device, the energy balance equation can be written as

The above equation is for motor action. For generator action, the energy balance equation is
written as

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 3

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Types of Electric Motors – Classification of AC, DC:

An Electrical Motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used
for generating torque to lift loads, move objects & various other mechanical work. In the following
article, we will discuss the different types of electric motors such as AC, DC and special types of
motors etc. An electrical motor is mainly classified into three types.
➢ AC Motors
➢ DC Motors
➢ Special Motors

AC Motor
➢ The AC electric motor converts AC (Alternating Current) electrical energy into mechanical
energy by using an electromagnetic induction phenomenon. These electric motors are
powered using a single-phase or three-phase alternating current. The basic working principle
of AC motor is the rotating magnetic field (RMF) generated by the stator winding when an
alternating current is passed through it. The rotor (having its own magnetic field) follows the
RMF & starts rotation. The stator and the rotor are the two most important parts of the AC
motors. The stator is the stationary part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of the
motor. The AC motor may be single phase or three phase.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 4

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

➢ The three phase AC motors are mostly applied in the industry for bulk power conversion from
electrical to mechanical. For small power conversion, the single-phase AC motors are mostly
used. The single-phase AC motor is nearly small in size, and it provides a variety of services
in the home, office, business concerns, factories, etc. Almost all the domestic appliances such
as refrigerators, fans, washing machine, hair dryers, mixers, etc., use single phase AC motor.
➢ The AC motor is mainly classified into two types. They are the synchronous motor and the
induction motor.

➢ Synchronous Motor
The main function of a synchronous motor is to change the AC electrical energy into
mechanical energy. As the name suggests, this kind of motor works simply at a synchronous
speed. The synchronous motor working principle is, once the power supply is provided to the
synchronous motor, and then a rotating field can be formed. So, this field seeks to drag the
rotor through it, although could not perform due to the inactivity of the rotor. Therefore, no
starting torque can be generated. So basically, this is not a self-starting motor.
➢ Induction Motor
The induction motor is also known as an asynchronous motor. The function of this motor is to
change the AC power into mechanical power through electromagnetic induction. This type of
motor is simply categorized into two types like the single-phase & the three-phase.
An induction motor working principle is, the armature winding in this motor works like both the
windings like armature & field. Once the connection of stator windings can be done with an
AC supply, then flux can be generated within the air gap. Here the flux will rotate at a set
speed that is known as synchronous speed. So, the voltages can be induced through the
rotary flux within the stator & rotor windings.
If the circuit of the rotor is closed, then-current supplies throughout the rotor winding &
responds through the rotary flux to generate a torque. In the stable condition, the rotor
revolves at a very close speed of synchronous speed.
Again, induction motor is available in two types like single-phase induction & three-phase
induction motor.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 5

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Single Phase Induction Motor: Generally, the construction of a single-phase induction

motor is similar to a 3- phase motor. The arrangement of AC windings can be done on the
stationary part like the stator whereas the shortcircuited conductors are arranged within a
rotating part like the rotor. The main difference between these two is, there is simply a single-
phase supply toward the stator.
If we consider the motor diagram, an ac supply is provided to the winding of the stator, and
then a pulsating flux density will be generated, which will connect the rotor circuits. In the rotor
circuits, the induced voltage will cause a current to supply, generating a flux density to resist
change within the stator flux connected to the circuit.
In the motor, both the flux densities of both the stationary and rotating parts will operate within
the y-direction, this easy qualitative analysis specifies an issue, the supplies with a single-
phase will generate pulsating fields instead of rotary fields because pulsating fields do not
generate torque.
Three Phase Induction Motor: The three-phase induction motors are extensively used for
generating mechanical energy within the applications of industries. In industrial areas, most
of the motors used are three-phase induction. So as compared to other motors, this motor is
the most essential one. This is one kind of ac motor that works through a three-phase supply
as evaluated to the 1- phase induction motor wherever 1-phase supply is required to activate
it. The three-phase supply will generate an electromagnetic field within the stator winding
which leads to producing the torque within the winding of the rotor of the motor including the
magnetic field.
➢ Advantages & Disadvantages of AC motors:
The advantages of ac motor include the following.
• Design is easy & simple
• The power factor is good
• Inexpensive
• AC source can be directly connected to this motor
• Good power to weight ratio
• Maintenance is less
➢ The disadvantages of ac motor include the following.
• The starting torque of this motor is very less
• At low speeds, it won’t operate
• Poor positioning control
• Limited speed through the frequency supply
➢ Applications: The applications of ac motor include the following.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 6

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

• They are appropriate for projects wherever constant motion & permanent speed are not
necessary.
• They are not appropriate for applications that need very fewer speeds.
• These motors are a very good choice for applications that need high performance & torque
o/p.
• These motors are used in power tools, clocks, disk drives, fans, blowers, pumps,
compressors, conveyors, audio turntables, home appliances, washing machines &
industrial areas

DC Motors
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In a
DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into the mechanical
rotation. In this session, let us know what is a DC motor, types of DC motor and their applications.

DC Motor Diagram

Different Parts of a DC Motor

A DC motor is composed of the following main part:

Armature or Rotor

The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one
another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part
that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.

Field Coil or Stator

A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a magnetic field.
This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 7

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Commutator and Brushes

The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments stacked
together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary function of a commutator is to
supply electrical current to the armature winding.

The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes conduct
electric current from the external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come to
understand that the commutator and the brush unit are concerned with transmitting the
power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.

DC Motor Working

In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using this
knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.

A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The created
magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the
armature from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s
South pole side.

The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but in the
opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor armature to
rotate.

Working principle of DC motor

When kept in a magnetic field, a current-carrying conductor gains torque and develops a tendency
to move. In short, when electric fields and magnetic fields interact, a mechanical force arises.
This is the principle on which the DC motors work.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 8

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Types of DC motor
DC motors have a wide range of applications ranging from electric shavers to automobiles. To
cater to this wide range of applications, they are classified into different types based on the field
winding connections to the armature as:
• Self-Excited DC Motor
• Separately Excited DC Motor
Now, let us discuss the various types of DC Motors in detail.

Self-Excited DC Motor
In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to the armature
winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC motor can further be classified as:
• Shunt wound DC motor
• Series wound DC motor
• Compound wound DC motor
Shunt wound DC motor

In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected parallel to the armature as shown in the
figure.
Series wound DC motor

In a series-wound DC motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
as shown in the figure.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 9

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Compound wound DC motor

DC motors having both shunt and series field winding is known as Compound DC motor, as
shown in the figure. The compound motor is further divided into:
• Cumulative Compound Motor
• Differential Compound Motor
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the windings is in the same
direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is
opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding.

Separately Excited DC Motor

In a separately excited DC motor, the field coils are energised from an external source of DC
supply as shown in the figure.
Brushed DC Motor vs Brushless DC Motor

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 10

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

A brushless DC motor, also known as synchronous DC motor, unlike brushed DC motors, do not
have a commutator. The commutator in a brushless DC motor is replaced by an electronic
servomechanism that can detect and adjust the angle of the rotor.
A brushed DC motor features a commutator that reverses the current every half cycle and creates
single direction torque. While brushed DC motors remain popular, many have been phased out
for more efficient brushless models in recent years.
Applications of DC Motor
The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:
Shunt DC Motors
Owing to the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors, they are used
in the following applications:
1. Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
2. Lathe machines
3. Blowers and Fans
4. Drilling machines
5. Milling machines
6. Machine tools
Series DC Motors
Owing to the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
• Conveyors
• Hoists, Elevators
• Cranes
• Electric Locomotives
Cumulative Compound DC motors
Owing to the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
• Shears
• Heavy Planers
• Rolling mills
• Elevators

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 11

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Single Phase Transformer

A Single-Phase Transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another circuit without a change in frequency. Mutual induction is the working principle behind
the operation of single phase or three-phase transformers. During single phase transformer
construction, the yoke and limb carry the flux and these are designed in such a way that they
carry maximum flux.

Generally, single phase transformer construction has two main parts i.e., core and windings. A
core is generally made of a low reluctance material with high permeability to allow maximum flux
to flow through it. The vertical portion of the core on which the coil is wound in the construction of
single-phase transformer is called the limb and the horizontal portion is called the yoke.

A single-phase transformer is a type of transformer that only works with single phase power. This
device is a passive electrical device that uses electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical
power from one circuit to another. It is commonly used to lower (‘step down’) or raise (‘step up’)
voltage levels between circuits. A magnetic iron core serves as a magnetic component, while a
cooper winding serves as an electrical component in a single phase transformer.

Single Phase Transformer Working Principle

Single Phase Transformers are based on the principle of “mutual induction.” When current flows
through a wire a magnetic field is produced. When a conductor passes through a magnetic field,
a current flow will be induced through the wire. The method of transferring electrical energy by a
transformer is done indirectly. Electrical energy is first converted into magnetic energy, then
reconverted back into electrical energy at a different voltage and ampacity. Magnetism and
electricity are closely related.

• By altering the number of windings on the primary and secondary, we can alter the number
of volts and amps between the source and the load.
• The current in the secondary coil always changes by the inverse of the ratio by which the
voltage changes.
• If the voltage is raised to n times its original value by the transformer, the current in the
secondary coil will be reduced to one-nth the value of the current in the primary coil.

Construction of Single-Phase Transformer

Generally, a transformer has two main parts: Core and Windings. There are many other parts in
the construction of single-phase transformer. But core and windings are the key parts in single

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 12

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

phase transformer construction. By using core and winding, along with insulation, we can
construct a hands-on single-phase transformer.
1. Transformer Core
• The core of a transformer is generally made of two materials. The first material is silicon steel.
Silicon steel is used in order to reduce hysteresis losses. About 4 to 5% of silicon is added to
increase the resistivity of the material and so to reduce the eddy current losses.
Wh= ηBxmaxfV
where,
• η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
• f = frequency of supply
• V = volume of material
Here, x varies between 1.2 to 1.6 in silicon steel material
• Also, the structure of silicon steel is body-centred cubic (BCC) structure. The permeability will
be maximum along the edges and minimum along the diagonals of the cube.
• Another material for transformers is cold-rolled grain-oriented (CRGO) steel. In the hysteresis
loss equation mentioned above, the value of x for CRGO will be 1.8. Hence, we can conclude
that maximum flux densities can be achieved with CRGO which reduces the size and cost of
the machine. Practically, a transformer is made of CRGO steel.
• Whatever the material it may be, the core is laminated in order to minimize the eddy current
losses. As eddy current losses are directly proportional to the square of thickness, if the
thickness is reduced, then we can see a good reduction in eddy current losses, which results
in reduced core losses and in turn, increased efficiency. Eddy current loss can also be
minimized by increasing the resistivity of the material (silicon steel case).
• Hence, we can say that during construction itself, the core of a transformer is laminated into
thin laminations, and insulating materials such as varnish, and impregnated paper is placed
in between them in order to avoid short circuit situations. This process of bunching the core
laminations is called core staggering. If we observe properly, this connection looks similar to
that of a capacitor i.e., two conducting plates separated by an insulator. So, we can also
experience dielectric losses in a transformer. But we neglect them as these are not in
considerable amounts.
• A core generally provides a low reluctance path for the flow of magnetic flux in the circuit. This
core is generally of the following two types in a single-phase transformer.
• Core type: Windings surround the core in this type. It is generally used for high voltage
and low KVA transformers. Also suitable for high voltage power transmission.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 13

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

• Shell type: Here, windings are surrounded by the core. These are generally used for
low voltage, large KVA transformers. Also suitable for low voltage power transmission.
2. Transformer Windings
• The second most important part in the construction of single phase transformer is the winding.
Generally, the copper winding is preferred for a transformer. This winding is wound on both
the primary and secondary. The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary
winding and the winding which is connected to the load is called secondary winding.
• Since copper is a conducting material and it has a certain resistance, so we can say copper
losses also in a single phase as well as three-phase transformers. These two windings i.e.,
primary, and secondary are wound on the common core. Both the windings collectively
experience copper losses.
3. Other Parts
There are many other important parts in the construction of a single-phase transformer. They are
transformer oil, conservator tank, bushings, Buchholz relay, explosion vent, tap changers
breather with silica gel crystals etc.
• Transformer oil: Mineral oil or vegetable oil is used for transformer oil. This oil serves two
purposes: It acts as a coolant and as an insulating medium between the transformer tank and
core. The colour of fresh dielectric oil is pale yellow and after extreme use, it becomes black
(scrap oil).
• Conservator tank: It is an airtight cylindrical metallic drum just to store the oil temporarily
and allow the transformer to expand and contract i.e., breathing conveniently during
temperature variations.
• Buchholz relay: It is a gas-actuated relay, and it is used for the protection of all the internal
and incipient faults in a transformer. It is generally mounted between the main tank and the
conservator tank.
• Breather: The transformer while breathing will have certain moisture entering the tank. This
moisture content is absorbed by silica gel crystals which are present in the breather. The
colour of fresh silica gel is blue and after extreme use, it turns out to be pale pink. The colour
of fresh silica gel is blue and in good condition. After a while, it turns out to be violet and after
final extreme condition, it turns out to be pale pink. Then we can conclude that silica gel
crystals need to be replaced with new ones for further operations.
• Bushings: Bushings are just used to bring out the HV and LV windings through them. We
can decide the LV and HV windings based on the length of the bushings. The lengthier
bushing will indicate HV winding whereas the shorter bushing indicates LV winding.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 14

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

• Tap changer: Within a transformer, all the Voltage variations or changes are balanced using
tap changers. These are of two types- on load and off load tap changers. If the tappings are
changed without isolating the transformer from the supply, it is an on-load tap changer and
vice versa is called an off-load tap changer.
• Explosion vent: During internal faults, sometimes the transformer explodes due to the
excessive flow of hot oil. This can be avoided by an explosion vent. When an internal fault
occurs, the boiling hot oil expels out through the explosion vent, and thus exploding of the
transformer can be avoided.

Types of Transformers:
A transformer is a static electrical machine that is used to increase or decrease the voltage and
current in an AC (Alternating Current) system. Based on construction, the transformers are
broadly classified into following two types
1) Core Type Transformer 2) Shell Type Transformer
Core Type Transformer
In the core type transformer, the magnetic circuit of the transformer consists of two sections
namely two vertical section called limbs and two horizontal sections called yokes. The half of
each winding (primary and secondary windings) is placed on each limb of the core, so that the
leakage flux can be minimized.
In the core type transformer, the low voltage winding is always placed next to the core and the
high voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding. It is because, the placement of
low voltage winding near to the core reduces the need of insulating material required.
The major advantage of a core type transformer is that it is easier to dismantle for repair and
maintenance. Also, the natural cooling in a core type transformer is efficient. However, the core
type transformers need higher magnetizing current.
The core type transformers are mainly used in high voltage applications such as distribution and
power transformers.
Shell Type Transformer
A shell type transformer consists of one central limb and two outer limbs as shown in the figure
of shell type transformer. In the shell type transformer, both primary and secondary windings are
placed on the central limb. The function of the two outer limbs is to complete the path of low
reluctance for magnetic flux.
In the shell type transformer, each winding is divided into subsections, where the low voltage
winding and high voltage winding subsections are alternatively placed on the central limb in the
form of a sandwich. For this reason, this winding is called sandwich or disc winding.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 15

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

The major advantage of the shell type transformer is that it gives better support against the
electromagnetic forces between the current carrying conductors. Also, the shell type transformer
provides a shorter magnetic path, thus it requires smaller magnetizing current. However, the
major disadvantage of the shell type transformer is that it has poor natural cooling. Consequently,
the shell type transformers are preferred in low voltage applications such low power circuits and
electronic circuits.

Differences between Core Type and Shell Type Transformers

The following table highlights the key differences between a core type transformer and a shell
type transformer-

Basis of Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Difference

Definition A type of transformer in which the A type of transformer in which the

magnetic circuit consists of two magnetic circuit consists of one central
vertical sections called limbs and limb and two outer limbs, and both
two horizontal sections called yokes primary and secondary windings are
and the windings placed on the placed on the central limb is called a
limbs is called core type shell type transformer.
transformer.

Surrounding In a core type transformer, the In a shell type transformer, the

type windings surround the core of magnetic core surrounds the windings
transformer of the transformer.

Shape of core The U and I shaped laminations are The core of the shell type transformer
laminations used for constructing the core of the is made up of either U and T shaped
core type transformer. laminations or E and I shaped
laminations.

Cross section The cross section of the core of a The cross section of the core of a shell
of core core type transformer may be type transformer is rectangular.
square, cruciform two-stepped and
threestepped.

Number of A core type transformer consists of A shell type transformer consists of

limbs and two limbs and two yokes. three limbs and two yokes.
yokes

Number of Core type transformer consists of a A shell type transformer consists of

magnetic single magnetic circuit. two magnetic circuits.
circuits

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 16

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Type of A core type transformer has A shell type transformer has sandwich
winding concentric winding (or cylindrical winding (or interleaved winding or disc
winding). winding).

Placement of In a core type transformer, the In a shell type transformer, both

winding windings are placed on two separate primary and secondary windings are
limbs. Where, low voltage winding is placed on the central limb.
placed next to the core and the high
voltage winding around the low
voltage winding.

Conductor Core type transformer requires Shell type transformer requires less
material more conductor material for winding conductor material.
windings.

Iron for core Core type transformer requires less Shell type transformer needs
construction iron for core construction. comparatively more iron for core
construction.

Core loss The core loss is more in case of core The core losses is comparatively less
type transformer because the total in a shell type transformer because
magnetic flux flows through the half of the total flux flows in the entire
entire core. core.

Copper loss Core transformer has more copper The copper loss in a shell type
loss. transformer is comparatively less.

Natural In a core type transformer, the Shell type transformer has poor natural
cooling natural cooling is relatively more cooling because the core surrounds
effective due to distributed windings. the windings.

Repair and Core type transformer can be easily The dismantling of a shell type
maintenance dismantle for repair and transformer for maintenance is
maintenance. relatively difficult.

Average The average length of winding is In a shell type transformer, the

winding length shorter in a core type transformer average length of winding is longer
which results in lower percentage which results in higher percentage
impedance. impedance.

Average core In a core type transformer, the In a shell type transformer, the
length average length of magnetic core is average length of magnetic core is
longer. shorter.

Problem of In a 3-phase core type transformer, The shell type transformer provides
tank heating there is no path for the flow of zero the path for zero sequence current

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 17

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

sequence flux as a result it flows through the lateral lags. Consequently,

through the air gap and causes there is no problem of tank heating in
heating of the tank. the shell type transformer.

Applications The core type transformers are used The shell type transformers are
for high voltage and high power preferred for low voltage and low
transformers. power applications.

EMF Equation of a Transformer

A Transformer is a static device that works on the principle of Magnetic Induction. When an
alternating supply is given to its primary winding a magnetizing current will circulate through the
primary winding and set up a magnetic flux. This magnetic flux circulates through the low
reluctance path provided in the transformer (i.e., the core of the transformer) and links with the
secondary winding.
As the supply given is alternating the nature of the flux produced will also be alternating. This
alternating flux when links with the secondary winding, it induces an electro-motive force (emf) in
the secondary winding according to faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, and there will be
a circulation of currents in the secondary winding. The amount of emf induced will depend upon
the number of turns in the primary and secondary winding.
The EMF equation of a transformer gives the amount of emf induced in the primary and as well
as in secondary windings. Consider a transformer of N1 turns in the primary winding and N2 turns
in the secondary winding. When voltage V, is applied to the transformer, emf E1 induced in the
primary winding will induce another emf E2 in the secondary winding by mutual induction as
shown below.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 18

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

The frequency of the induced emf will equal the supply frequency f, and the magnitude of both
fluxes due to magnetizing current Im will be the same as supply magnitude, i.e., sinusoidal in
nature.
Let,
Φ = Maximum flux in core in weber = Maximum flux density Bm x area A
N1 = Number of primary turns
N2 = Number of secondary turns
f = supply frequency in Hz
E1 = RMS value of primary induced emf
E2 = RMS value of secondary induced emf.
As the input given to the transformer will be a sinusoidal waveform. We can see that the time
taken to increase the flux from zero to maximum value Φm, in terms of frequency is given as 1/4f
second, i.e., in a sinusoidal waveform, the maximum current which gives the maximum flux will
be at 1/4f as shown in the above waveform.

We know that from Faraday's Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction, the emf induced is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux. The average rate of change of flux will be,

As the emf induced will be equal to the rate of change of flux, the average e.m.f induced per turn
will be,

Since the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, we know the form factor of a sinusoidal waveform is 1.11
(Form factor = RMS value / average value).

Therefore, the RMS value of the induced emf per turn will be,

The resultant RMS value of the induced emf we derived will be in terms of the per-turn of the
winding. But there are N1 and N2 number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 19

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Therefore, the total RMS value of emf E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary winding
is given as,

Or 𝐸1 = 4.44∅𝑚 𝑓𝑁1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 & 𝐸2 = 4.44∅𝑚 𝑓𝑁2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Turn & Transformation Ratio of Transformer:

Turn Ratio of Transformer:
From the emf equation of the transformer, if E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and
secondary winding. Then the ratio of their turns N1 and N2 in the primary and secondary winding
is given as,

The transformation ratio K of a transformer is defined as the ratio of their secondary induced emf
to the primary induced emf.

• If V2 > V1 or N2 > N1 i.e., K > 1 then the transformer will work as a step-up
transformer.
• If V1 > V2 or N1 > N2 i.e., K < 1 then the transformer will work as a step-down
transformer.
Current Ratio:
Consider an ideal transformer whose losses are negligible and zero. For an ideal transformer,
the input power will equal the output power (i.e., input VA = output VA).

Hence, in a transformation ratio K, primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to
their respective turns.

Losses In Transformer
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output
power. An electrical transformer is a static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 20

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and
copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that
transformers do not have mechanical losses. Losses in transformer are explained below –

(I) Core Losses or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used
for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.
▪ Hysteresis loss in transformer:
Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends
upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux
density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3
▪ Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced
emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy
current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat and it
is known as eddy current loss given by

𝑊𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑉 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 𝐵𝑚
2
.

This loss can be minimized by making the core of thin laminations. The flux set up in the core
of the transformer remains constant from no-load to full load. Hence, iron loss is independent
of the load and is known as constant losses

(ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends
on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.

Efficiency of Transformer & Maximum Efficiency Condition

t is important to calculate the efficiency of any device. The efficiency of a device determines the
performance of how efficiently the device is operated i.e., the capability of a device to give any

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 21

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

amount of output energy for given specific input energy. If both input and output values are the
same then it can be said that the device is working at 100% (terms of %) efficiency.
Efficiency of a Transformer:
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output in watt (or kW) to input in watt (or
kW), and is represented by the letter 'Ƞ' (and is also known as commercial efficiency). The
expression is given by,

A transformer is a highly efficient device and has very small losses. The different losses that occur
in a transformer are iron or core losses, copper losses, and stray losses. The stray loss of a
transformer is comparatively very small and can be neglected.
Since the remaining losses are not constant, they will be different at different loads, and thus
efficiency also varies with the variation of load on the transformer.

Where,
The iron or core losses Pi (sum of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss) in a transformer can
be obtained from a no-load test. The core losses practically remain constant if the input voltage
is constant.
The copper losses Pc can be calculated by performing a short-circuit test on the transformer.
These losses vary as the square of the load current.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage.
I1 = Primary winding current.
I2 = Secondary load current.
Cos Φ2 = Power factor of the load (for purely resistive load it is 1).
R1 & R2 = Primary and secondary winding resistance.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 22

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

R01 = Total resistance referred to the primary side.

R02 = Total resistance referred to the secondary side.
Taking the above equation,

Where,
R02 = R2 + R1 K2
I22 R02 = Total copper loss in the windings
Dividing with I2 on both numerator and denominator. we get,

Since the secondary voltage V2 is kept almost constant for every transformer. For efficiency to be
maximum for a particular power factor the denominator should be minimum.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency of a Transformer:

To determine the condition of the load on the transformer at which the efficiency would be
maximum. Let,
Primary input = V1 I1 Cos Φ1
Iron loss = Pi
Copper loss = I12 R01 or I22 R02

For efficiency to be maximum, the above equation should be differentiated with respect to I1 and
equating it to zero.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 23

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Hence the efficiency will be maximum when variable or copper loss (I12 R01 or I22 R02) are equal
to constant or iron or core losses (Pi).

Voltage regulation:
When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes due
to voltage drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e., primary and secondary
resistances and inductive reactance. The voltage drop at the terminals also depends upon the
load and its power factor. The change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load at constant
supply voltage with respect to no-load voltage is known as voltage regulation of the transformer.
Let,
E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no-load.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.

The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal voltage of the transformer is
expressed as,

Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an example explained below:

If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open-circuited or no load is connected to the
secondary terminals, the no-load current flows through it.
If the no current flows through the secondary terminals of the transformer, the voltage drops
across their resistive and reactive load become zero. The voltage drop across the primary side
of the transformer is negligible.
If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to their secondary terminal, the voltage
drops appear across it. The value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the better
performance of the transformer.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 24

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

From the circuit diagram shown above, the following conclusions are made
• The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than the induced emf on the primary
side. V1>E1
• The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater than the voltage at full load
condition. E2>V2
By considering the above circuit diagram, the following equations are drawn

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage for the different types of the load
is
1. For inductive load

Where,

2. For Capacitive load

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 25

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

In this way, we define the voltage regulation of the transformer.

OC & SC test on transformer to determine Efficiency & Regulation:

Open-circuit Test:
A transformer is said to be on no load when secondary of the transformer is open circuited and
the secondary current is zero but in actual practice the losses cannot be neglected there if
transformer is on no load a small current usually 2 to 10% of rated value called exciting current
is drawn by the primary this current has to supply an iron losses in the core and a very small
amount of copper losses in the primary but comparatively negligible than core or iron losses
(hysteresis and eddy current loss).
In this test rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually high voltage winding) while the
secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage V0 is measured by the voltmeter, the
no load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by wattmeter as shown in fig.(1). As
the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore normal iron losses will occur in the
transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses & small copper loss in the primary.
Since no load current I0 is very small (usually 2-10% of rated current), copper losses in the primary
under no load condition are negligible as compared with iron losses. Hence wattmeter reading
practically gives the iron losses in the transformer. Iron losses are same and constant at all loads.

.
Figure 1: Open Circuit Test
Procedure:
The connection diagram for open circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure 1. A
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV side of the transformer as shown.
The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio
auto transformer.
The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac, applied voltage gets
slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage of the LV side. After

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 26

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

reaching rated LV side voltage, we record all the three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter
and Wattmeter readings).
Observation Table:
Open Circuit Test:

No Load Voltage V0 in No Load Current I0 in No Load Power W0 in

Sr. No.
Volts Amps Watts

Calculations:
From Open circuit (O.C.) Test:
𝑊0
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷0 =
𝑉0 𝐼0
𝑉0
𝑅0 =
𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷0
𝑉0
𝑿𝒎 =
𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷0
Short-circuit Test:

This circuit is performed by applying a rated current at the rated frequency to one winding while
a short circuit is placed across the other winding. Since the rated current is smaller on the high-
voltage side, the short circuit test is performed on the high-voltage side taking safety into
consideration. With the Rated current in the high-voltage winding, the short-circuit current will be
the Rated current of the low voltage winding. This test is performed to measure the effective
resistance and leakage reactance of the two windings as referred to the high voltage side. The
current flowing through the winding is rated current hence the total copper losses is full load
copper loss. Now the applied voltage is very low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage, the
iron losses are the function of applied voltage so the iron loss is very small. Hence the wattmeter
read the power which is equal to the full load copper losses as iron loss are very low.

Figure 2: Short Circuit Test

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 27

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Procedure:
The connection diagram for the short circuit test on the transformer is shown in the figure below.
A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer as shown.
A low voltage of around 5-10% is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac (i.e., a variable
ratio auto transformer). We short-circuit the LV side of the transformer. Now with the help of variac
applied voltage is slowly increased until the wattmeter, and an ammeter gives reading equal to
the rated current of the HV side.

Observation Table:
Short Circuit Test:

Sr. No. Short Circuit Voltage Short Circuit Current Short Circuit Power
Vsc in Volts Isc in Amps Wsc in Watts

Calculations:
From Short circuit (S.C.) Test:
𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷𝑠𝑐 =
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑽𝒔𝒄
𝒁𝒔𝒄 = 𝒁𝟎𝟏 =
𝑰𝒔𝒄
𝑹𝟎𝟏 = 𝒁𝒔𝒄 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷𝑠𝑐
𝑿𝟎𝟏 = 𝒁𝒔𝒄 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷𝑠𝑐

Calculation of Efficiency & Regulation from the OC & SC Test Data:

A. Efficiency at x load

𝑥𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
% 𝜂𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = × 100 (1)
𝑥𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2 +𝑊0 +𝑥 2 𝑊𝑠𝑐

Where,
𝑉2 𝐼2 = F.L. rating of transformer
W0 = Iron (core) losses
Wsc = copper losses at full load

i. Efficiency at full load & unity pf: x=1 at full load & 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 = p. f. = 1

𝑘𝑉𝐴×103 ×1
𝜂𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝐿 & 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴×103×1+𝑊 +12×𝑊 × 100
0 𝑐𝑢

ii. Efficiency at half load & unity pf: x=0.5= at half load & 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 = p. f. =1

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 28

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

0.5×𝑘𝑉𝐴×103 ×1
𝜂𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝐿 & 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑓 = 0.5×𝑘𝑉𝐴×103 ×1+𝑊 +0.52 ×𝑊 × 100
0 𝑐𝑢

B. Regulation at different Power Factor:

𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝐼1 = = 𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑉1 𝑉1

I1 = full load primary current = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 × 103 /𝑉1

I2 = full load secondary current = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 × 103 /𝑉2
V1 = primary voltage
V2 = secondary voltage
𝐼1 [𝑅01 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷±𝑋01 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷]
% Regulation = × 100
𝑉1

Autotransformer
A transformer, having only one winding a part of which acts as a primary winding and the other
as secondary is called an autotransformer. The windings of the autotransformer are connected
magnetically and electrically.

When the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage, then the transformer is called
step down autotransformer, and when the primary voltage is smaller than secondary, then it is
called step-up auto-transformer.

The autotransformer has a low cost, better regulation and low losses. The disadvantage of the
autotransformer is that the primary winding of the auto-transformer is not insulated from the
secondary. Thus, if the low voltage is supplied from the high voltage, then the full voltage came
across the secondary terminal which is dangerous for the load and operator.

The auto-transformer is not used for interconnecting the high voltage and low voltage system. It
is used in the places where slight variation is required

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 29

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

It is a transformer with one winding only, part of this being common to both primary and
secondary. Obviously, in this transformer the primary and secondary are not electrically isolated
from each other as is the Case with a 2-winding transformer. But its theory and operation are
similar to those of a two-winding transformer. Because of one winding, it uses less copper and
hence is cheaper. It is used where transformation ratio differs little from unity. Figs. Given above
shows both step down and step-up auto-transformers.

➢ Similarities Between Autotransformer and Transformer

The autotransformer and the conventional transformer both work on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. They used copper conductor for making the windings. The cores
of both the transformers are made up of CRGO steel. The primary and the secondary of both
the transforms are magnetically connected to each other.
➢ Differences Between Autotransformer and Transformer
• An autotransformer has only one winding which acts both as a primary and the secondary
whereas the conventional transformer has two separate windings, i.e., the primary and
the secondary winding.
• The auto-transformer works on the principle of self-induction i.e., induce the
electromagnetic force in the circuit due to variation in current. The conventional
transformer works on the principle of mutual induction in which the emf induces in the coil
by changing the current in the adjacent coil.
• The auto-transformer is smaller in size, whereas the conventional transformer is larger in
size.
• The autotransformer is more economical as compared to a conventional transformer.
• In an autotransformer, electrical power is transferred from primary to secondary partly by
the process of transformation and partly by the direct current. The conventional
transformer transfers the electrical power through the electric transformation due to which
power loss occurs.
• The voltage regulation of an auto-transformer is much better than the conventional
transformer
• The voltage regulation is the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no load to full
load.
• The autotransformer has only one winding. Thus, less conductor is required for winding
as compared to the conventional transformer.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 30

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

• The primary and secondary windings of the autotransformer are not electrically insulated
whereas the windings of the conventional transformer are electrically insulated from each
other.
• The starting current of the auto-transformer is less than the actual current, whereas the
starting current of the conventional transformer is one-third of the main current.
• The auto-transformer is more efficient as compared to the conventional transformer.
• The leakage flux and resistance of an auto-transformer are low because it has only one
winding whereas it is high in the conventional transformer.
• The autotransformer has less impedance as compared to conventional current. The
smaller impedance results in the large short circuit current.
• The cost of the autotransformer is very less whereas the conventional current is very
costly.
• The losses in the auto-transformer are less as compared to the conventional transformer.
• The output voltage of the secondary transformer varies when the sliding contacts are used
in the secondary winding whereas the output voltage of the conventional transformer
always remains constant.
• The autotransformer is used as a voltage regulator, in the laboratory, in the railway
stations, as a stator in an induction motor, etc., whereas the conventional transformer is
used to step-up and step-down the voltage in the power grid.

Advantages of using Auto Transformers

• For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be approximately 50%
of the corresponding size of two winding transformer. For transformation ratio say 20 however
the size would be 95 %. The saving in cost of the material is of course not in the same
proportion. The saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of transformer is low, that is lower
than 2. Thus, auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper.
• An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding transformers. This is because of
less ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of transformer material.
• Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage drop in resistance and reactance of
the single winding is less.

Disadvantages of Using Auto Transformer

• Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary windings the lower voltage
circuit is liable to be impressed upon by higher voltage. To avoid breakdown in the lower

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 31

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

voltage circuit, it becomes necessary to design the low voltage circuit to withstand higher
voltage.
• The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small and hence the
impedance is low. This results into severer short circuit currents under fault conditions.
• The connections on primary and secondary sides have necessarily needs to be same, except
when using interconnected starring connections. This introduces complications due to
changing primary and secondary phase angle particularly in the case of delta/delta
connection.
• Because of common neutral in a star/star connected auto transformer it is not possible to
earth neutral of one side only. Both their sides should have their neutrality either earth or
isolated.
• It is more difficult to maintain the electromagnetic balance of the winding when voltage
adjustment tapings are provided. It should be known that the provision of tapping on an auto
transformer increases considerably the frame size of the transformer. If the range of tapping
is very large, the advantages gained in initial cost is lost to a great event.

Applications of Auto Transformers

• Auto transformers are used for compensating voltage drops by boosting supply voltage in
distribution systems.
• Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting induction and synchronous
motors.
• Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous variable over broad
ranges are required.

Instrument Transformers

Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of electrical quantities i.e.
voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency. Instrument transformers are also
used with protective relays for protection of power system.
Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step down the AC System voltage and current.
The voltage and current level of power system is very high. It is very difficult and costly to design
the measuring instruments for measurement of such high-level voltage and current. Generally
measuring instruments are designed for 5 A and 110 V.
The measurement of such very large electrical quantities, can be made possible by using the
Instrument transformers with these small rating measuring instruments. Therefore, these
instrument transformers are very popular in modern power system.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 32

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Types of Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers are of two types –
1. Current Transformer (C.T.)
2. Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Current Transformer (C.T.)

Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a lower level to make it
feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection diagram
of a current transformer is shown in figure below.

Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also used. Primary is
connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore, sometimes it also called series
transformer. The secondary is having large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an
ammeter. As the ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current
transformer operates almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of secondary is earthed to
avoid the large voltage on secondary with respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of
insulation breakdown and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever before
disconnecting the ammeter, secondary is short circuited through a switch ‘S’ as shown in figure
above to avoid the high voltage build up across the secondary.

Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower level to make
is feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e., 110 – 120 V voltmeter. A typical
connection diagram of a potential transformer is showing figure below.
Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across the line (generally
between on line and earth). Hence, sometimes it is also called the parallel transformer.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 33

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Secondary of P.T. is having few turns and connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is
having large resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited
condition. One terminal of secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the secondary voltage with
respect to earth. Which assures the safety of operators.

Difference between C.T. and P.T.

Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below –

Sr No. Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Connected in Parallel with Power

1 Connected in series with power circuit.
circuit.

2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter. Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.

Secondary works almost in short circuited Secondary works almost in open

3
condition. circuited condition.

Primary current depends on power circuit Primary current depends on

4
current. secondary burden.

Primary current and excitation vary over Primary current and excitation
5 wide range with change of power circuit variation are restricted to a small
current range.

One terminal of secondary is earthed to One terminal of secondary can be

6
avoid the insulation break down. earthed for Safety.

Secondary can be used in open

7 Secondary is never be open circuited.
circuit condition.

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. Sangita Patil & EEE Team 34