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Big Data Analytics
in Cybersecurity
 Data Analytics Applications
Series Editor: Jay Liebowitz

PUBLISHED

Actionable Intelligence for Healthcare

by Jay Liebowitz, Amanda Dawson
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6665-4

Data Analytics Applications in Latin America and Emerging Economies

by Eduardo Rodriguez
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6276-2

Sport Business Analytics: Using Data to Increase Revenue and

Improve Operational Efficiency
by C. Keith Harrison, Scott Bukstein
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6126-0

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Current Practices and Future Opportunities
by Gregory Richards
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6434-6

Data Analytics Applications in Education

by Jan Vanthienen and Kristoff De Witte
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6927-3

Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

by Onur Savas and Julia Deng
ISBN: 978-1-4987-7212-9

FORTHCOMING

Data Analytics Applications in Law

by Edward J. Walters
ISBN: 978-1-4987-6665-4

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by Henri Waelbroeck
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Big Data Analytics
in Cybersecurity

Edited by
Onur Savas
Julia Deng
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-7212-9 (Hardback)

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Contents

Preface................................................................................................................vii
About the Editors..............................................................................................xiii
Contributors....................................................................................................... xv

Section I APPLYING BIG DATA INTO

DIFFERENT CYBERSECURITY ASPECTS
1 The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity.................................................3
SONG LUO, MALEK BEN SALEM, AND YAN ZHAI

2 Big Data for Network Forensics............................................................23

YI CHENG, TUNG THANH NGUYEN, HUI ZENG, AND JULIA DENG

3 Dynamic Analytics-Driven Assessment of Vulnerabilities

and Exploitation....................................................................................53
HASAN CAM, MAGNUS LJUNGBERG, AKHILOMEN ONIHA,
AND ALEXIA SCHULZ

4 Root Cause Analysis for Cybersecurity.................................................81

ENGIN KIRDA AND AMIN KHARRAZ

5 Data Visualization for Cybersecurity....................................................99

LANE HARRISON

6 Cybersecurity Training.......................................................................115
BOB POKORNY

7 Machine Unlearning: Repairing Learning Models in Adversarial

Environments......................................................................................137
YINZHI CAO

v
vi ◾ Contents

Section II BIG DATA IN EMERGING

CYBERSECURITY DOMAINS
8 Big Data Analytics for Mobile App Security.......................................169
DOINA CARAGEA AND XINMING OU

9 Security, Privacy, and Trust in Cloud Computing..............................185

YUHONG LIU, RUIWEN LI, SONGJIE CAI, AND YAN (LINDSAY) SUN

10 Cybersecurity in Internet of Things (IoT)...........................................221

WENLIN HAN AND YANG XIAO

11 Big Data Analytics for Security in Fog Computing............................245

SHANHE YI AND QUN LI

12 Analyzing Deviant Socio-Technical Behaviors Using Social

Network Analysis and Cyber Forensics-Based Methodologies............263
SAMER AL-KHATEEB, MUHAMMAD HUSSAIN, AND NITIN AGARWAL

Section III TOOLS AND DATASETS FOR CYBERSECURITY

13 Security Tools......................................................................................283
MATTHEW MATCHEN

14 Data and Research Initiatives for Cybersecurity Analysis..................309

JULIA DENG AND ONUR SAVAS

Index............................................................................................................329
Preface

Cybersecurity is the protection of information systems, both hardware and soft-

ware, from the theft, unauthorized access, and disclosure, as well as intentional or
accidental harm. It protects all segments pertaining to the Internet, from networks
themselves to the information transmitted over the network and stored in data-
bases, to various applications, and to devices that control equipment operations
via network connections. With the emergence of new advanced technologies such
as cloud, mobile computing, fog computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT), the
Internet has become and will be more ubiquitous. While this ubiquity makes our
lives easier, it creates unprecedented challenges for cybersecurity. Nowadays it seems
that not a day goes by without a new story on the topic of cybersecurity, either a
security incident on information leakage, or an abuse of an emerging technology
such as autonomous car hacking, or the software we have been using for years is
now deemed to be dangerous because of the newly found security vulnerabilities.
So, why can’t these cyberattacks be stopped? Well, the answer is very com-
plicated, partially because of the dependency on legacy systems, human errors,
or simply not paying attention to security aspects. In addition, the changing and
increasing complex threat landscape makes traditional cybersecurity mechanisms
inadequate and ineffective. Big data is further making the situation worse, and pres-
ents additional challenges to cybersecurity. For an example, the IoT will generate a
staggering 400 zettabytes (ZB) of data a year by 2018, according to a report from
Cisco. Self-driving cars will soon create significantly more data than people—​
3 billion people’s worth of data, according to Intel. The averagely driven car will
churn out 4000 GB of data per day, and that is just for one hour of driving a day.
Big data analytics, as an emerging analytical technology, offers the capability
to collect, store, process, and visualize BIG data; therefore, applying big data ana-
lytics in cybersecurity becomes critical and a new trend. By exploiting data from
the networks and computers, analysts can discover useful information from data
using analytic techniques and processes. Then the decision makers can make more
informative decisions by taking advantage of the analysis, including what actions
need to be performed, and improvement recommendations to policies, guidelines,
procedures, tools, and other aspects of the network processes.

vii
viii ◾ Preface

This book provides a comprehensive coverage of a wide range of complementary

topics in cybersecurity. The topics include but are not limited to network forensics,
threat analysis, vulnerability assessment, visualization, and cyber training. In addi-
tion, emerging security domains such as the IoT, cloud computing, fog computing,
mobile computing, and the cyber-social networks are studied. The target audience of
this book includes both starters and more experienced security professionals. Readers
with data analytics but no cybersecurity or IT experience, or readers with cybersecu-
rity but no data analytics experience will hopefully find the book informative.
The book consists of 14 chapters, organized into three parts, namely
“Applying Big Data into Different Cybersecurity Aspects,” “Big Data in Emerging
Cybersecurity Domains,” and “Tools and Datasets for Cybersecurity.” The first part
includes Chapters 1–7, focusing on how big data analytics can be used in differ-
ent cybersecurity aspects. The second part includes Chapters 8–12, discussing big
data challenges and solutions in emerging cybersecurity domains, and the last part,
Chapters 13 and 14, present the tools and datasets for cybersecurity research. The
authors are experts in their respective domains, and are from academia, govern-
ment labs, and the industry.
Chapter 1, “The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity,” is written by Song Luo,
Malek Ben Salem, from Accenture Technology Labs, and Yan Zhai from E8 Security
Inc. This chapter introduces big data analytics and highlights the needs and impor-
tance of applying big data analytics in cybersecurity to fight against the evolving
threat landscape. It also describes the typical usage of big data security analytics
including its solution domains, architecture, typical use cases, and the challenges.
Big data analytics, as an emerging analytical technology, offers the capability to
collect, store, process, and visualize big data, which are so large or complex that
traditional data processing applications are inadequate to deal with. Cybersecurity,
at the same time, is experiencing the big data challenge due to the rapidly grow-
ing complexity of networks (e.g., virtualization, smart devices, wireless connections,
Internet of Things, etc.) and increasing sophisticated threats (e.g., malware, multi-
stage, advanced persistent threats [APTs], etc.). Accordingly, this chapter discusses
how big data analytics technology brings in its advantages, and applying big data
analytics in cybersecurity is essential to cope with emerging threats.
Chapter 2, “Big Data Analytics for Network Forensics,” is written by scien-
tists Yi Cheng, Tung Thanh Nguyen, Hui Zeng, and Julia Deng from Intelligent
Automation, Inc. Network forensics plays a key role in network management and
cybersecurity analysis. Recently, it is facing the new challenge of big data. Big
data analytics has shown its promise of unearthing important insights from large
amounts of data that were previously impossible to find, which attracts the atten-
tion of researchers in network forensics, and a number of efforts have been initiated.
This chapter provides an overview on how to apply big data technologies into net-
work forensics. It first describes the terms and process of network forensics, presents
current practice and their limitations, and then discusses design considerations and
some experiences of applying big data analysis for network forensics.
 Preface ◾ ix

Chapter 3, “Dynamic Analytics-Driven Assessment of Vulnerabilities and

Exploitation,” is written by U.S. Army Research Lab scientists Hasan Cam
and Akhilomen Oniha, and MIT Lincoln Laboratory scientists Magnus Ljungberg
and Alexia Schulz. This chapter presents vulnerability assessment, one of the essential
cybersecurity functions and requirements, and highlights how big data analytics could
potentially leverage vulnerability assessment and causality analysis of vulnerability
exploitation in the detection of intrusion and vulnerabilities so that cyber analysts can
investigate alerts and vulnerabilities more effectively and faster. The authors present
novel models and data analytics approaches to dynamically building and analyzing
relationships, dependencies, and causality reasoning among the detected vulner-
abilities, intrusion detection alerts, and measurements. This chapter also describes a
detailed description of building an exemplary scalable data analytics system to imple-
ment the proposed model and approaches by enriching, tagging, and indexing the
data of all observations and measurements, vulnerabilities, detection, and monitoring.
Chapter 4, “Root Cause Analysis for Cybersecurity,” is written by Amin
Kharraz and Professor Engin Kirda of Northwestern University. Recent years have
seen the rise of many classes of cyber attacks ranging from ransomware to advanced
persistent threats (APTs), which pose severe risks to companies and enterprises.
While static detection and signature-based tools are still useful in detecting already
observed threats, they lag behind in detecting such sophisticated attacks where
adversaries are adaptable and can evade defenses. This chapter intends to explain
how to analyze the nature of current multidimensional attacks, and how to identify
the root causes of such security incidents. The chapter also elaborates on how to
incorporate the acquired intelligence to minimize the impact of complex threats
and perform rapid incident response.
Chapter 5, “Data Visualization for Cyber Security,” is written by Professor Lane
Harrison of Worcester Polytechnic Institute. This chapter is motivated by the fact
that data visualization is an indispensable means for analysis and communication,
particularly in cyber security. Promising techniques and systems for cyber data
visualization have emerged in the past decade, with applications ranging from
threat and vulnerability analysis to forensics and network traffic monitoring. In this
chapter, the author revisits several of these milestones. Beyond recounting the past,
however, the author uncovers and illustrates the emerging themes in new and ongo-
ing cyber data visualization research. The need for principled approaches toward
combining the strengths of the human perceptual system is also explored with
analytical techniques like anomaly detection, for example, as well as the increas-
ingly urgent challenge of combatting suboptimal visualization designs—designs
that waste both analyst time and organization resources.
Chapter 6, “Cybersecurity Training,” is written by cognitive psychologist Bob
Pokorny of Intelligent Automation, Inc. This chapter presents training approaches
incorporating principles that are not commonly incorporated into training pro-
grams, but should be applied when constructing training for cybersecurity. It
should help you understand that training is more than (1) providing information
x ◾ Preface

that the organization expects staff to apply; (2) assuming that new cybersecurity
staff who recently received degrees or certificates in cybersecurity will know what is
required; or (3) requiring cybersecurity personnel to read about new threats.
Chapter 7, “Machine Unlearning: Repairing Learning Models in Adversarial
Environments,” is written by Professor Yinzhi Cao of Lehigh University. Motivated
by the fact that today’s systems produce a rapidly exploding amount of data, and
the data further derives more data, this forms a complex data propagation network
that we call the data’s lineage. There are many reasons that users want systems to
forget certain data including its lineage for privacy, security, and usability reasons.
In this chapter, the author introduces a new concept machine unlearning, or simply
unlearning, capable of forgetting certain data and their lineages in learning models
completely and quickly. The chapter presents a general, efficient unlearning approach
by transforming learning algorithms used by a system into a summation form.
Chapter 8, “Big Data Analytics for Mobile App Security,” is written by
Professor Doina Caragea of Kansas State University, and Professor Xinming Ou of
the University of South Florida. This chapter describes mobile app security analysis,
one of the new emerging cybersecurity issues with rapidly increasing requirements
introduced by the predominant use of mobile devices in people’s daily lives, and dis-
cusses how big data techniques such as machine learning (ML) can be leveraged for
analyzing mobile applications such as Android for security problems, in particular
malware detection. This chapter also demonstrates the impact of some challenges
on some existing machine learning-based approaches, and is particularly written to
encourage the practice of employing a better evaluation strategy and better designs
of future machine learning-based approaches for Android malware detection.
Chapter 9, “Security, Privacy, and Trust in Cloud Computing,” is written by
Ruiwen Li, Songjie Cai, and Professor Yuhong Liu Ruiwen Li, and Songjie Cai of
Santa Clara University, and Professor Yan (Lindsay) Sun of the University of Rhode
Island. Cloud computing is revolutionizing the cyberspace by enabling conve-
nient, on-demand network access to a large shared pool of configurable computing
resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rap-
idly provisioned and released. While cloud computing is gaining popularity, diverse
security, privacy, and trust issues are emerging, which hinders the rapid adoption of
this new computing paradigm. This chapter introduces important concepts, mod-
els, key technologies, and unique characteristics of cloud computing, which helps
readers better understand the fundamental reasons for current security, privacy, and
trust issues in cloud computing. Furthermore, critical security, privacy and trust
challenges, and the corresponding state-of-the-art solutions are categorized and dis-
cussed in detail, and followed by future research directions.
Chapter 10, “Cybersecurity in Internet of Things (IoT),” is written by Wenlin Han
and Professor Yang Xiao of the University of Alabama. This chapter introduces the
IoT as one of the most rapidly expanding cybersecurity domains, and presents the
big data challenges faced by IoT, as well as various security requirements and issues
in IoT. IoT is a giant network containing various applications and systems with
 Preface ◾ xi

heterogeneous devices, data sources, protocols, data formats, and so on. Thus, the
data in IoT is extremely heterogeneous and big, and this poses heterogeneous big data
security and management problems. This chapter describes current solutions and also
outlines how big data analytics can address security issues in IoT when facing big data.
Chapter 11, “Big Data Analytics for Security in Fog Computing,” is written by
Shanhe Yi and Professor Qun Li of the College of William and Mary. Fog comput-
ing is a new computing paradigm that can provide elastic resources at the edge of
the Internet to enable many new applications and services. This chapter discusses
how big data analytics can come out of the cloud and into the fog, and how security
problems in fog computing can be solved using big data analytics. The chapter also
discusses the challenges and potential solutions of each problem and highlights
some opportunities by surveying existing work in fog computing.
Chapter 12, “Analyzing Deviant Socio-Technical Behaviors using Social
Network Analysis and Cyber Forensics-Based Methodologies,” is written by Samer
Al-khateeb, Muhammad Hussain, and Professor Nitin Agarwal of the University
of Arkansas at Little Rock. In today’s information technology age, our thinking
and behaviors are highly influenced by what we see online. However, misinfor-
mation is rampant. Deviant groups use social media (e.g., Facebook) to coordi-
nate cyber campaigns to achieve strategic goals, influence mass thinking, and steer
behaviors or perspectives about an event. The chapter employs computational social
network analysis and cyber forensics informed methodologies to study information
competitors who seek to take the initiative and the strategic message away from the
main event in order to further their own agenda (via misleading, deception, etc.).
Chapter 13, “Security Tools for Cybersecurity,” is written by Matthew Matchen
of Braxton-Grant Technologies. This chapter takes a purely practical approach to
cybersecurity. When people are prepared to apply cybersecurity ideas and theory to
practical applications in the real world, they equip themselves with tools to better
enable the successful outcome of their efforts. However, choosing the right tools
has always been a challenge. The focus of this chapter is to identify functional areas
in which cybersecurity tools are available and to list examples in each area to dem-
onstrate how tools are better suited to provide insight in one area over the other.
Chapter 14, “Data and Research Initiatives for Cybersecurity,” is written by the
editors of this book. We have been motivated by the fact that big data based cyber-
security analytics is a data-centric approach. Its ultimate goal is to utilize available
technology solutions to make sense of the wealth of relevant cyber data and turn-
ing it into actionable insights that can be used to improve the current practices
of network operators and administrators. Hence, this chapter aims at introducing
relevant data sources for cybersecurity analysis, such as benchmark datasets for
cybersecurity evaluation and testing, and certain research repositories where real
world cybersecurity datasets, tools, models, and methodologies can be found to
support research and development among cybersecurity researchers. In addition,
some insights are added for the future directions on data sharing for big data based
cybersecurity analysis.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
About the Editors

Dr. Onur Savas is a data scientist at Intelligent Automation, Inc. (IAI), Rockville,
MD. As a data scientist, he performs research and development (R&D), leads a
team of data scientists, software engineers, and programmers, and contributes to
IAI’s increasing portfolio of products. He has more than 10 years of R&D expertise
in the areas of networks and security, social media, distributed algorithms, sen-
sors, and statistics. His recent work focuses on all aspects of big data analytics and
cloud computing with applications to network management, cybersecurity, and
social networks. Dr. Savas has a PhD in electrical and computer engineering from
Boston University, Boston, MA, and is the author of numerous publications in
leading journals and conferences. At IAI, he has been the recipient of various R&D
contracts from DARPA, ONR, ARL, AFRL, CTTSO, NASA, and other federal
agencies. His work at IAI has contributed to the development and commercializa-
tion of IAI’s social media analytics tool Scraawl® (www.scraawl.com).

Dr. Julia Deng is a principal scientist and Sr. Director of Network and Security
Group at Intelligent Automation, Inc. (IAI), Rockville, MD. She leads a team of
more than 40 scientists and engineers, and during her tenure at IAI, she has been
instrumental in growing IAI’s research portfolio in networks and cybersecurity. In
her role as a principal investigator and principal scientist, she initiated and directed
numerous R&D programs in the areas of airborne networks, cybersecurity, net-
work management, wireless networks, trusted computing, embedded system, cog-
nitive radio networks, big data analytics, and cloud computing. Dr. Deng has a
PhD from the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, and has published over
30 papers in leading international journals and conference proceedings.

xiii
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contributors

Nitin Agarwal Julia Deng

University of Arkansas at Little Rock Intelligent Automation, Inc.
Little Rock, Arkansas Rockville, Maryland

Samer Al-khateeb Wenlin Han

University of Arkansas at Little Rock University of Alabama
Little Rock, Arkansas Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Songjie Cai Lane Harrison

Santa Clara University Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Santa Clara, California Worcester, Massachusetts

Hasan Cam Muhammad Hussain

U.S. Army Research Lab University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Adelphi, Maryland Little Rock, Arkansas

Yinzhi Cao Amin Kharraz

Lehigh University Northwestern University
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Boston, Massachusetts

Doina Caragea Engin Kirda

Kansas State University Northwestern University
Manhattan, Kansas Boston, Massachusetts

Yi Cheng Qun Li
Intelligent Automation, Inc. College of William and Mary
Rockville, Maryland Williamsburg, Virginia

xv
xvi ◾ Contributors

Ruiwen Li Malek Ben Salem

Santa Clara University Accenture Technology Labs
Santa Clara, California Washington, DC

Yuhong Liu Onur Savas

Santa Clara University Intelligent Automation, Inc.
Santa Clara, California Rockville, Maryland

Magnus Ljungberg Alexia Schulz

MIT Lincoln Laboratory MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Lexington, Massachusetts Lexington, Massachusetts

Song Luo Yan (Lindsay) Sun

Accenture Technology Labs University of Rhode Island
Washington, DC Kingston, Rhode Island

Matthew Matchen Yang Xiao

Braxton-Grant Technologies University of Alabama
Elkridge, Maryland Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Tung Thanh Nguyen Shanhe Yi

Intelligent Automation, Inc. College of William and Mary
Rockville, Maryland Williamsburg, Virginia

Akhilomen Oniha Hui Zeng

U.S. Army Research Lab Intelligent Automation, Inc.
Adelphi, Maryland Rockville, Maryland

Xinming Ou Yan Zhai

University of South Florida E8 Security Inc.
Tampa, Florida Redwood City, California

Bob Pokorny
Intelligent Automation, Inc.
Rockville, Maryland
APPLYING BIG I
DATA INTO
DIFFERENT
CYBERSECURITY
ASPECTS
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Chapter 1

The Power of Big Data

in Cybersecurity
Song Luo, Malek Ben Salem, and Yan Zhai

Contents
1.1 Introduction to Big Data Analytics...............................................................4
1.1.1 What Is Big Data Analytics?..............................................................4
1.1.2 Differences between Traditional Analytics and Big Data Analytics....4
1.1.2.1 Distributed Storage..............................................................5
1.1.2.2 Support for Unstructured Data............................................5
1.1.2.3 Fast Data Processing............................................................6
1.1.3 Big Data Ecosystem...........................................................................7
1.2 The Need for Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity........................................8
1.2.1 Limitations of Traditional Security Mechanisms...............................9
1.2.2 The Evolving Threat Landscape Requires New Security
Approaches......................................................................................10
1.2.3 Big Data Analytics Offers New Opportunities to Cybersecurity......11
1.3 Applying Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity............................................11
1.3.1 The Category of Current Solutions..................................................11
1.3.2 Big Data Security Analytics Architecture........................................12
1.3.3 Use Cases.........................................................................................13
1.3.3.1 Data Retention/Access.......................................................13
1.3.3.2 Context Enrichment..........................................................14
1.3.3.3 Anomaly Detection...........................................................15
1.4 Challenges to Big Data Analytics for Cybersecurity....................................18
References............................................................................................................20

3
4 ◾ Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

This chapter introduces big data analytics and highlights the needs and importance
of applying big data analytics in cybersecurity to fight against the evolving threat
landscape. It also describes the typical usage of big data security analytics including
its solution domains, architecture, typical use cases, and the challenges. Big data
analytics, as an emerging analytical technology, offers the capability to collect,
store, process, and visualize big data, which are so large or complex that traditional
data processing applications are inadequate to deal with them. Cybersecurity, at
the same time, is experiencing the big data challenge due to the rapidly growing
complexity of networks (e.g., virtualization, smart devices, wireless connections,
Internet of Things, etc.) and increasing sophisticated threats (e.g., malware, multi-
stage, advanced persistent threats [APTs], etc.). Accordingly, traditional cybersecu-
rity tools become ineffective and inadequate in addressing these challenges and big
data analytics technology brings in its advantages, and applying big data analytics
in cybersecurity becomes critical and a new trend.

1.1 Introduction to Big Data Analytics

1.1.1 What Is Big Data Analytics?
Big data is a term applied to data sets whose size or type is beyond the ability
of traditional relational databases to capture, manage, and process. As formally
defined by Gartner [1], “Big data is high-volume, high-velocity and/or high-variety
information assets that demand cost-effective, innovative forms of information pro-
cessing that enable enhanced insight, decision making, and process automation.”
The characteristics of big data are often referred to as 3Vs: Volume, Velocity, and
Variety. Big data analytics refers to the use of advanced analytic techniques on big
data to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer
preferences and other useful business information. Advanced analytics techniques
include text analytics, machine learning, predictive analytics, data mining, statis-
tics, natural language processing, and so on. Analyzing big data allows analysts,
researchers, and business users to make better and faster decisions using data that
was previously inaccessible or unusable.

1.1.2 Differences between Traditional

Analytics and Big Data Analytics
There is a big difference between big data analytics and handling a large amount
of data in a traditional manner. While a traditional data warehouse mainly focuses
more on structured data relying on relational databases, and may not be able to han-
dle semistructured and unstructured data well, big data analytics offers key advan-
tages of processing unstructured data using a nonrelational database. Furthermore,
data warehouses may not be able to handle the processing demands posed by sets
 The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity ◾ 5

of big data that need to be updated frequently or even continually. Big data analyt-
ics is able to deal with them well by applying distributed storage and distributed
in-memory processing.

1.1.2.1 Distributed Storage
“Volume” is the first “V” of Gartner’s definition of big data. One key feature of big
data is that it usually relies on distributed storage systems because the data is
so massive (often at the petabyte or higher level) that it is impossible for a single
node to store or process it. Big data also requires the storage system to scale up with
future growth. Hyperscale computing environments, used by major big data com-
panies such as Google, Facebook, and Apple, satisfy big data’s storage requirements
by constructing from a vast number of commodity servers with direct-attached
storage (DAS).
Many big data practitioners build their hyberscale computing environments
using Hadoop [2] clusters. Initiated by Google, Apache Hadoop is an open-source
software framework for distributed storage and distributed processing of very large
data sets on computer clusters built from commodity hardware. There are two key
components in Hadoop:

◾◾ HDFS (Hadoop distributed file system): a distributed file system that stores
data across multiple nodes
◾◾ MapReduce: a programming model that processes data in parallel across
multiple nodes

Under MapReduce, queries are split and distributed across parallel nodes and
processed in parallel (the Map step). The results are then gathered and delivered (the
Reduce step). This approach takes advantage of data locality—nodes manipulating
the data they have access to—to allow the dataset to be processed faster and more
efficiently than it would be in conventional supercomputer architecture [3].

1.1.2.2 Support for Unstructured Data

Unstructured data is heterogeneous and variable in nature and comes in many for-
mats, including text, document, image, video, and more. The following lists a few
sources that generate unstructured data:

◾◾ Email and other forms of electronic communication

◾◾ Web-based content, including click streams and social media-related content
◾◾ Digitized audio and video
◾◾ Machine-generated data (RFID, GPS, sensor-generated data, log files, etc.)
and the Internet of Things
6 ◾ Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

Unstructured data is growing faster than structured data. According to a 2011

IDC study [4], it will account for 90% of all data created in the next decade.
As a new, relatively untapped source of insight, unstructured data analytics can
reveal important interrelationships that were previously difficult or impossible to
determine.
However, relational database and technologies derived from it (e.g., data ware-
houses) cannot manage unstructured and semi-unstructured data well at large scale
because the data lacks predefined schema. To handle the variety and complexity of
unstructured data, databases are shifting from relational to nonrelational. NoSQL
databases are broadly used in big data practice because they support dynamic
schema design, offering the potential for increased flexibility, scalability, and cus-
tomization compared to relational databases. They are designed with “big data”
needs in mind and usually support distributed processing very well.

1.1.2.3 Fast Data Processing

Big data is not just big, it is also fast. Big data is sometimes created by a large num-
ber of constant streams, which typically send in the data records simultaneously,
and in small sizes (order of kilobytes). Streaming data includes a wide variety of
data such as click-stream data, financial transaction data, log files generated by
mobile or web applications, sensor data from Internet of Things (IoT) devices, in-
game player activity, and telemetry from connected devices. The benefit of big data
analytics is limited if it cannot act on data as it arrives. Big data analytics has to
consider velocity as well as volume and variety, which is a key difference between
big data and a traditional data warehouse. The data warehouse, by contract, is usu-
ally more capable of analyzing historical data.
This streaming data needs to be processed sequentially and incrementally on
a record-by-record basis or over sliding time windows, and used for a wide variety
of analytics including correlations, aggregations, filtering, and sampling. Big data
technology unlocks the value in fast data processing with new tools and meth-
odologies. For example, Apache Storm [5] and Apache Kafka [6] are two popu-
lar stream processing systems. Originally developed by the engineering team at
Twitter, Storm can reliably process unbounded streams of data at rates of millions
of messages per second. Kafka, developed by the engineering team at LinkedIn,
is a high-­throughput distributed message queue system. Both streaming systems
address the need of delivering fast data.
Neither traditional relational databases nor NoSQL databases are capable
enough to process fast data. Traditional relational database is limited in perfor-
mance, and NoSQL systems lack support for safe online transactions. However,
in-memory NewSQL solutions can satisfy the needs for both performance and
transactional complexity. NewSQL is a class of modern relational database man-
agement systems that seek to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL
systems for online transaction processing (OLTP) read-write workloads while still
 The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity ◾ 7

maintaining the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) guarantees

of a traditional database system [7]. Some NewSQL systems are built with shared-
nothing clustering. Workload is distributed among cluster nodes for performance.
Data is replicated among cluster nodes for safety and availability. New nodes can
be transparently added to the cluster in order to handle increasing workloads. The
NewSQL systems provide both high performance and scalability in online trans-
actional processes.

1.1.3 Big Data Ecosystem

There are many big data technologies and products available in the market, and the
whole big data ecosystem can be divided generally into three categories: infrastruc-
ture, analytics, and applications, as shown in Figure 1.1.

◾◾ Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the fundamental part of the big data technology. It stores,
processes, and sometimes analyzes data. As discussed earlier, big data infra-
structure is capable of handling both structured and unstructured data at
large volumes and fast speed. It supports a vast variety of data, and makes it
possible to run applications on systems with thousands of nodes, potentially

Big data landscape 2016 (version 3.0)

Infrastructure Analytics Applications

Cross-infrastructure/analytics

Open source

Data sources and APIs Incubators and schools

Last updated 3/23/2016  Matt Turck (@mattturck), Jim Hao (@jimrhao), and FirstMark Capital (@firstmarkcap)

Figure 1.1 Big data landscape.

8 ◾ Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

involving thousands of terabytes of data. Key infrastructural technologies

include Hadoop, NoSQL, and massively parallel processing (MPP) databases.
◾◾ Analytics
Analytical tools are designed with data analysis capabilities on the big
data infrastructure. Some infrastructural technologies also incorporate data
analysis, but specifically designed analytical tools are more common. Big data
analytical tools can be further classified into the following sub-categories [8]:
1. Analytics platforms: Integrate and analyze data to uncover new insights,
and help companies make better-informed decisions. There is a particular
focus on this field on latency, and delivering insights to end users in the
timeliest manner possible.
2. Visualization platforms: Specifically designed—as the name might
­suggest—for visualizing data; taking the raw data and presenting it in
complex, multidimensional visual formats to illuminate the information.
3. Business intelligence (BI) platforms: Used for integrating and analyzing
data specifically for businesses. BI platforms analyze data from multiple
sources to deliver services such as business intelligence reports, dash-
boards, and visualizations
4. Machine learning: Also falls under this category, but is dissimilar to the
others. Whereas the analytics platforms input processed data and out-
put analytics or dashboards or visualizations to end users, the input of
machine learning is data where the algorithm “learns from,” and the out-
put depends on the use case. One of the most famous examples is IBM’s
super computer Watson, which has “learned” to scan vast amounts of
information to find specific answers, and can comb through 200 million
pages of structured and unstructured data in minutes.
◾◾ Application
Big data applications are built on big data infrastructure and analytical
tools to deliver optimized insight to end-users by analyzing business specific
data. For example, one type of application is to analyze customer online
behavior for retail companies, to have effective marketing campaigns, and
increase customer retention. Another example is fraud detection for finan-
cial companies. Big data analytics helps companies identify irregular patterns
within account accesses and transactions. While the big data infrastructure
and analytical tools have become more mature recently, big data applications
start receiving more attention.

1.2 The Need for Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

While big data analytics has been continuously studied and applied into differ-
ent business sectors, cybersecurity, at the same time, is experiencing the big data
 The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity ◾ 9

challenge due to the rapidly growing complexity of networks (e.g., virtualization,

smart devices, wireless connections, IoT, etc.) and increasingly sophisticated threats
(e.g., malware, multistage, APTs, etc.). It has been commonly believed that cyberse-
curity is one of the top (if not the most) critical areas where big data can be a barrier
to understanding the true threat landscape.

1.2.1 Limitations of Traditional Security Mechanisms

The changing and increasing complex threat landscape makes traditional cyber-
security mechanisms inadequate and ineffective in protecting organizations and
ensuring the continuity of their business in digital and connected context.
Many traditional security approaches, such as network-level and host-level
firewalls, have typically focused on preventing attacks. They take perimeter-based
defense techniques mimicking physical security approaches, which focus primarily
on preventing access from the outside and on defense along the perimeter. More
defense layers can be added around the most valuable assets in the network in
order to implement a defense-in-depth strategy. However, as attacks become more
advanced and sophisticated, organizations can no longer assume that they are
exposed to external threats only, nor can they assume that their defense layers can
effectively prevent all potential intrusions. Cyber defense efforts need to shift focus
from prevention to attack detection and mitigation. Traditional prevention-based
security approaches would then constitute only one piece of a much broader secu-
rity strategy that includes detection methods and potentially automated incident
response and recovery processes.
Traditional intrusion and malware detection solutions rely on known signa-
tures and patterns to detect threats. They are facing the challenge of detecting new
and never-before-seen attacks. More advanced detection techniques are seeking to
effectively distinguish normal and abnormal situations, behaviors, and activities,
either at the network traffic level or at the host activity level or at the user behavior
level. Abnormal behaviors can further be used as the indicator of malicious activity
for detecting never-before-seen attacks. A 2014 report from the security firm Enex
TestLab [9] indicated that malware generation outpaced security advancements
during the second half of 2014 to the point that in some of its monthly e-Threats
automated malware tests, solutions from major security vendors were not able to
detect any of the malware they were tested against.
Security information and event management (SIEM) solutions provide real-
time monitoring and correlation of security events as well as log management
and aggregation capabilities. By their very nature, these tools are used to confirm
a suspected breach rather than proactively detecting it. More advanced security
approaches are needed to monitor the behaviors of networks, systems, applications,
and users in order to detect early signs of a breach before cyber attackers can cause
any damages.
10 ◾ Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

1.2.2 The Evolving Threat Landscape Requires

New Security Approaches
New technologies, such as virtualization technologies, smartphones, IoT devices,
and their accelerated pace of change are driving major security challenges for orga-
nizations. Similarly, the huge scale of organizations’ software operations is add-
ing to the complexity that cyber defenders have to deal with. Furthermore, the
expanded attack surface and the increasingly sophisticated threat landscape pose
the most significant challenges to traditional cyber security tools.
For example, the rapid growth of IoT connects a huge number of vulnerable
devices to the Internet, therefore exponentially expands the attack surface for
hackers. The IDC study of worldwide IoT market predicts that the installed base
of IoT endpoints will grow from 9.7 billion in 2014 to more than 25.6 billion
in 2019, hitting 30 billion in 2020 [10]. However, the fast growth of IoT also
exponentially expands the attack surface for hackers. A recent study released by
Hewlett Packard [11] showed that 70% of IoT devices contain serious vulnerabili-
ties. The scale of IoT and the expanded attack surface make traditional network-
based security controls unmanageable and unable to secure all communications
generated by the connected devices. The convergence of information technology
and operations technology driven by the IoT further complicates the task of net-
work administrators.
As another example, advanced persistent threat (APT) has become a serious
threat to business, but traditional detection methods are not effective defending
against it. APT is characterized by being “advanced” in terms of using sophisticated
malware to explore system vulnerabilities and being “persistent” in terms of using
an external command and control system to continuously monitor and extract data
from a specific target. Traditional security is not effective on APT because

◾◾ APT often uses zero-day vulnerabilities to compromise the target. Traditional

signature-based defense does not work on those attacks.
◾◾ Malware used by APT usually initiates communication to the command and
control server from inside, which makes perimeter-based defense ineffective.
◾◾ APT communications are often encrypted using SSL tunnels, which makes
traditional IDS/firewall unable to inspect its contents.
◾◾ APT attacks usually hide in the network for a long time and operate in stealth
mode. Traditional security, which lacks the ability to retain and correlate
events from different sources over a long time, is not capable enough to detect
them.

In short, new cybersecurity challenges make traditional security mechanisms

less effective in many cases, especially when big data is involved.
 The Power of Big Data in Cybersecurity ◾ 11

1.2.3 Big Data Analytics Offers New

Opportunities to Cybersecurity
Big data analytics offers the opportunity to collect, store, and process enormous
cybersecurity data. This means that security analytics is no longer limited to ana-
lyzing alerts and logs generated by firewalls, proxy servers, IDSs, and web applica-
tion firewalls (WAFs). Instead, security analysts can analyze a range of new datasets
in a long time period that gives them more visibility into what’s happening on their
network. For example, they can analyze network flows and full packet captures for
network traffic monitoring. They can use communication data (including email,
voice, and social networking activity), user identity context data, as well as web
application logs and file access logs for advanced user behavior analytics.
Furthermore, business process data, threat intelligence, and configuration
information of the assets on the network can be used together for risk assessments.
Malware information and external threat feeds (including blacklists and watch-
lists), GeoIP data, and system and audit trails may help with cyber investigations.
The aggregation and correlation of these various types of data provides more con-
text information that helps broaden situational awareness, minimize cyber risk, and
improve incident response. New use cases are enabled through big data’s capabili-
ties to perform comprehensive analyses through distributed processing and with
affordable storage and computational resources.

1.3 Applying Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

1.3.1 The Category of Current Solutions
Existing efforts of applying big data analytics into cybersecurity can be grouped
into the following three major categories [12]:

◾◾ Enhance the accuracy and intelligence of existing security systems.

Security analytics solutions in this category use ready-to-use analytics to
make existing systems more intelligent and less noisy so that the most egre-
gious events are highlighted and prioritized in queues, while alert volume
is reduced. The big data aspect of this solution domain comes in a more
advanced phase of deployment, where data and alerts from separate systems,
e.g., data loss prevention (DLP), SIEM, identity and access management
(IAM), or endpoint protection platform (EPP), are enriched with contextual
information, combined and correlated using canned analytics. This gives an
enterprise a more intelligent and holistic view of the security events in its
organization.
12 ◾ Big Data Analytics in Cybersecurity

◾◾ Combine data and correlated activities using custom or ad hoc analytics.

Enterprises use big data analytics solutions or services to integrate internal and
external data, structured as well as unstructured, and apply their own customized
or ad hoc analytics against these big data sets to find security or fraud events.
◾◾ External cyber threat and fraud intelligence.
Security analytics solutions apply big data analytics to external data on
threats and bad actors, and, in some cases, combine external data with other
relevant data sources, like supply chains, vendor ranking, and social media.
Most vendors of these solutions also create and support communities of
interest where threat intelligence and analytics are shared across customers.
Vendors in this category actively find malicious activities and threats from
the Internet, turn this information into actionable data such as IP addresses
of known bad servers or malware signatures, and share with their customers.

1.3.2 Big Data Security Analytics Architecture

In general, a big data security analytics platform should have five core components
as shown in Figure 1.2.

◾◾ A basic data storage platform to support long-term log data retention and
batch processing jobs. There are a few offerings in the market that skip this
layer and use a single NoSQL database to support all the data retention,
investigation access, and analytics. However, considering all the available
open-source applications in the Hadoop ecosystem, a Hadoop-based plat-
form still gives a more economical, reliable, and flexible data solution for
larger data sets.
◾◾ A data access layer with fast query response performance to support inves-
tigation queries and drill-downs. Because the data access inside Hadoop

Services/apps

Data presentation

Integration
consumption

Data access
Data

Data storage

Figure 1.2 Big data security analytics architecture.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
be clarified, and with which the birds must be covered, when cold, to
the thickness of at least half an inch in each pot. These will be
excellent, taken cold.

russian polony.
Your success in this undertaking chiefly depends upon the choice
of the meats made use of. Take of
The lean of Belfast smoked hams, 1 year old 3 lb.
The fat of Belfast smoked hams, 1 year old 3 lb.
High flavoured hung beef 3 lb.
Smoked ox tongues 3 lb.
Hard back fat of bacon 4 lb.
Peel the tongues after being boiled and reject the roots and tips. Cut
the four first of the above up into dice and pound them separately
into smooth pastes, with mucilage of gum tragacanth and fresh
butter. Next cut the fat bacon into dice or cubes as large as the finest
growth of peas, no rind or gristles to be retained; then mix intimately
together,
Garlic, minced 1½ oz.
Shalots, minced 6 oz.
Juniper berries, in fine powder 3 oz
Jamaica pepper, in fine powder 3 oz.
Black peppercorns 3 oz.
Bay salt, in fine powder 1 lb.
Coarse sugar ¾ lb.
and blending all the meats well, season highly with the mixture, and
put it down in a jar for a week to mellow. Then work the mass well for
half an hour. Get some of the largest ox intestines, and soak them in
luke-warm salt and water, wipe them dry and proceed to fill them,
keeping out the air as much as possible, which you will effect by
regular and even pressure, and pricking, only where necessary, with
a stocking-needle. Make your polonies about a foot long each, and
put them aside as done until the next day; then repeat the pressure
and tie them up finally. They must be put into boiling-water with a
little salt and saltpetre, and after once boiling, simmer only for half an
hour. Then take them up, wipe dry, and hang in a current of air for a
week, being turned daily without fail. Then smoke them with
Oak lops 2 parts
Beech chips 2 parts
Fern 1 part
Peat 1 part
for a month. Stow them away in malt cooms. They will be prized by
those persons who delight in high flavours. They need no coating;
nay, many foreigners prefer them mouldy on the outsides.

german saveloys.
Take rough Hambro’ smoked beef 2 lb.
Neats’ tongues,
smoked 1 lb.
Smoked ham 1 lb.
Fat of bacon 2 lb.
Boil the tongue moderately, peal and cut off the gross root tip. Cut up
the whole of the meat into large dice, and pound it thoroughly, mixing
the fat in equally in all parts of the mass. Pick out all skins, sinews,
&c., and mix a pound of good moist sugar throughout it, so let it lie
two days. Then take
Sage leaves, in fine powder 3 oz.
Garlic, minced finely 2 oz.
Shalots 2 oz.
Bay leaf, in powder 2 oz.
Chillies, or capsicum, in
powder 3 oz.
mix them well and then sift them, and blend them well with the meat,
so that all parts may partake of the flavour alike; put it into a jar,
which bung up close and set it aside for a week to get mellow. Now
try a small quantity of it: if it suits your taste, well and good, if not add
seasoning. Now fill your sausage skins, and when nice and solid
prick them a little, and put them into a pan of boiling water to simmer
slowly three quarters of an hour. Then take them out and let go cold,
and next day wipe them and smoke them three weeks with
Oak lops and dust 3 parts
Fern or grass turfs 3 parts
then hang them up in a dry room and keep them with hams, tongues,
&c. These will be excellent in a month, just popped into boiling water
for five minutes, or fried in olive oil and eaten cold.

jersey black puddings.

In France, in the Channel Islands, and Belgium these delicacies
are introduced at the tables of the highest families, a distinction
which they richly deserve, while in England very few persons make
them at home, but purchase at the shops an indescribable mass of
groats, blood, bread, herbs, &c., and frequently, to cover the
indolence of the pork-butcher, loaded with such an amount of the
commoner spices, as to render the whole anything but palatable.
Then, again, the fat, which seems to be the only recommendation, is
found here and there in lumps so large, that before they become
heated through, it is certain the other of part of the mass must be
burnt nearly to a cinder. I think that we can produce an article well
worthy of the trouble and slight expense incurred by the trial. Take a
couple of dozen of large onions, peel them, cutting off the bottoms,
cut them into small pieces, and put them into a stewpan along with
ten ounces of sweet lard, and stew them slowly till of a light brown
colour. Cut three pounds of pig’s leaf that is perfectly sweet and dry
into dice, pick out all the skins. Boil half a dozen heads of endive,
chop them fine and add to the fried onions; season them with
Table salt 2 oz.
 White pepper ¾ teaspoonful
Parsley, finely
chopped 4 tablespoonfuls
Thyme, in fine powder 1 tablespoonful
Bay leaves 2 tablespoonfuls
Half a nutmeg, grated
Now add three quarts of pig’s blood—calf’s, or sheep’s is as good—
that has not been long taken from the animal, and if still warm is
preferable. Mix all intimately, and if you find the mixture is too thin to
work well, add a handful or two of stale bread crumbs, or half to
three quarters of a pound of rice, boiled just tender but not mashed.
Take now the smaller pudding skins which have been properly
scraped and cleaned, wash them in salt and water, and with a tin
funnel tie one end of the skin tightly upon it, and the other end up in
a knot, two feet or a yard will be a convenient length. Proceed now to
fill your skins by pressing the meat through the funnel, pricking with a
pin to let out the air. When nicely and firmly filled, tie up the end, and
put the puddings into a flat large pan, with plenty of water tasting
slightly of salt, and already boiling, and let them simmer twenty
minutes, or rather more, attentively watching and pricking them to
prevent bursting. When the blood oozes out no longer, they are fully
cooked, then take them up and let them lie all night on a sieve. Cut
them into pieces four to six inches long, and when wanted for table
wipe them lightly over with a linen rag dipped in olive oil, and broil
them ten minutes. Serve them plain, but very hot. If you cannot
procure endive, you may substitute celery, which must be boiled
along with three or four laurel leaves; the tender parts only must be
used. Leeks also are generally liked, but in that case part of the
onions must be omitted.

marinated salmon.
Take six or eight pounds of the middle of a large fish, in
preference to a similar weight of the whole of a grilse or salmon
trout, scale it and cut off the fins, split it open at the back and reserve
the roe and liver; wipe the fish out nicely, and strew moist sugar all
over the red side, put it away on a dish until the next day. Then make
the following mixture,
Bay leaf, in powder 1 oz.
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Cloves, in powder ¾ oz.
White pepper, in powder ¾ oz.
Table salt 1¼ lb.
Take out the backbone neatly and rub the fish on both sides well with
the mixture and the former sugar; lay three or four laurel leaves upon
the red face of the thick side, turn the thin side over upon them, and
set it away in a cool place for twenty-four hours. Then take it up,
wipe dry, and cut the sides into fitting pieces, and place them in a
deep dish upon the spices, and half a pint of Rhenish wine or Cape
Madeira; tie double paper over and bake it in a slow oven till done
enough. Pour off the pickle while yet warm, and set the pieces on a
sieve to drip until the next day—covered close with a cloth to prevent
the action of the air upon it, and thus to preserve the colour. Now
choose your pots according to the size of your family, and into each
one place a piece of the fish, the red face downwards, and fill up with
genuine olive oil, let remain until the next day, when add more oil,
and again on the third day replenishing what has been absorbed by
the fish. Then tie wetted bladder over the pots and keep them in a
cool dry air. This cannot fail of gaining the approval of all who
partake of it, and is the most certain method of obtaining fresh
salmon in the winter months. The same oil will do again and again
for a similar purpose.

marinated tench and carp.

How often have I seen twenty or thirty brace of these delicious
and exceedingly nutritious fish exposed for sale in some provincial
market-place, and spoiling for want of purchasers, some
neighbouring baronet or esquire having been drawing his pits and
preserves. But why no purchasers? Simply because, although the
spectators might nearly beg them, the price being so low, few
persons only would know what to do with them, they not being “poor
men’s fish;” and the sauces, &c., required to dress them would be
too expensive; the operatives have not seen pies made of them, like
eels, so even the million as they are termed do not enjoy them, and
ten to one the beautiful fish are lost; whilst if they were near
Houndsditch or the Minories, amongst the Israelites, they would not
remain half an hour unsold even at half-a-crown the brace, because
they know how to prepare them, and delicious indeed are the
majority of their fish dishes. Take three brace of these fish, scale
them, cut off the tails and fins, split them open at the back, take out
all the garbage, gills and eyes, and wash them quickly in salt and
water; now wipe them dry, and have ready the following mixture:
Fresh parsley, minced
finely 2 tablespoonfuls
Thyme, in powder 2 tablespoonfuls
Marjorum, in powder 2 tablespoonfuls
Moist sugar ½ lb.
Table salt ¾ lb.
Make two sides of each fish and cut them across, again place these
pieces in alternate layers with the mixture in an oblong pot closely
covered up, and set them aside for forty-eight hours; then unpack
the fish and replace them in the same receptacle, having rubbed
them well and turned each piece over; so let remain twenty-four
hours longer, the thickest pieces lying nearest the bottom of the jar.
Now unpack again and wash the pieces separately in weak vinegar
and water with a trifle of saltpetre in it, and wiping, leave them
between cloths while you are preparing, by boiling the used herbs
and liquor with half a pint of vinegar and water for ten minutes, and
skimming well, strain it through a fine sieve and set it aside. Now
take
Mace, bruised ½ oz.
Cloves, bruised 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper 1 teaspoonful
Twelve bay leaves, shred
 Four laurel leaves, green
Of the strained liquor ½ pint
Boil these for fifteen minutes, skim thoroughly, strain through a fine
sieve and add port wine half a pint, return this to the saucepan,
simmer it covered close for twelve minutes, and let remain by the
fireside. Lay your pieces of fish in a pie dish that will just hold them,
the thickest near the bottom, and pour the liquor in the saucepan
over the fish, tie paper doubled over the dish and bake till done
moderately, which can always be ascertained by the fish leaving the
bone upon a knife being applied. Now pour off the liquor, take out the
fish and set it to drain all night, covered up; place the pieces in the
best adapted pots and fill up with olive oil, renewing on the third day
what had been absorbed by the fish, and tie bladder over. In this and
similar cases take care that the oil is sufficient in quantity to cover
the contents to the thickness of three quarters of an inch at least.
These will be remarkably fine eating in a month. You cannot
purchase such at the shops.

marinated shrimps.
To ensure this delicacy of first-rate quality you must buy your
shrimps alive, and boil and pick them at home with all possible
despatch. Set a gallon of live shrimps in three quarts of boiling water,
in which one and half pounds of bay or rock salt has been dissolved,
and boil them fifteen minutes, then strain off the water and as soon
as possible commence shelling them, and keep them covered with
cloths as you proceed. Be particular that no refuse or pieces of the
shells remain to disgrace the preparer, and laying them lightly on
clean dishes, mix amongst them the following seasoning in very fine
powder, being well sifted and dried the day previous and kept bottled
up. I repeat that the shrimps must have been deprived of all their
moisture with the assistance of a moderately cool oven, and not two
fish to be seen sticking together. Nor can any excuse avail in this
instance, as the less time that is occupied in potting these sorts so
much better chance will there be of your total success in the product.
Mace, in finest powder 1 oz.
 Nutmeg, in finest powder 2 oz.
Cloves, in finest powder 2 oz.
Table salt, in finest powder 1 lb.
Loaf sugar, in finest
powder ¾ lb.
When seasoned to your entire satisfaction, the fish however fully
retaining their own fine flavour, fill your pots, which must be the
cleanest and best dried possible; press the shrimps well down, and
set them as you proceed at the mouth of your cool oven until there is
no evaporation observable. Now take them up, press down again,
and laying one or two bay leaves on the top, fill up with the best olive
oil, and set away in a cool dry room. Next day replenish the oil that
has been absorbed, and not till after the third day tie bladder over.
Plenty of oil must cover the fish, and although potted shrimps are not
expected to keep well after three or four days, yet you may expect
every satisfaction from this process. If decay soon takes place, it will
be owing to the fish not having been well dried in the process. As to
the preservation of the true flavour of the fish, this preparation
demands our decided preference.

marinated trout and grayling.

Fish about a pound weight each are the best for this purpose, but
provided that they are perfectly fresh, have a clear red gill, and bright
eye, we should be induced to thus preserve fish of any size, because
by this process the true flavour of the fish may be effectually
retained. Take two dozen fish, from twelve to twenty ounces each,
scale them, take off the heads, tails, and fins, open them at the belly,
take out the garbage, and washing them quickly in salt and water,
dry them with cloths and leave them covered up. Make the following
seasoning:
Table salt 1 lb.
Cayenne pepper ¾ oz.
Sifted loaf sugar ½ lb.
Dried parsley 1 oz.
 Thyme ½ oz.
All these must be in finest powder, and sifted, and with a good
mixture of them rub the insides and outsides of the fish well. If you
have any roes of them, wash them well, roll them in the powder and
place them inside the fish, bring the sides together, and tie round
with thread; place them in a convenient pot of earthenware, and with
half a pint of good sherry wine, paper tied closely over, bake them
sufficiently; then, while warm, pour off the gravy and let the fish lie by
till next day, basting them two or three times with the liquor, and
removing to the top those which laid on the bottom. Now pour off the
gravy, strain it, and put it aside bottled up close. Take out the fish
and pay the backbones inside with a camel’s-hair brush and this
mixture:
Essence of cassia 1 tablespoonful
Essence of mace 1 tablespoonful
Essence of nutmegs 2 tablespoonfuls
Essence of bays 3 tablespoonfuls
Lay the fish on their backs and repeat this brushing over the bone
two or three times, then lay the fish on their flat, mix the strained
liquor in the bottle with whatever you have remaining of your
essence mixture, and six tablespoonfuls of good old malt whisky,
and pour this over the fish; baste well with it two or three times daily
for a week or until they have imbibed a fine flavour of the ingredients,
and tying over with leather. Now dry the fish by wiping outside only,
and place pieces in fitting oblong pots and cover with olive oil of first
quality. (See Note, No. 11.) Replenish the oil, and after the third day
make safe with wetted bladder and remove to a cool dry room. In a
month they will be very good, but if you could keep some three
months they would be much improved.

marinated silver eels.

Take ten pounds of fine fresh river eels, each one and a half
pound to two pounds, skin them, cut off the heads, tails, and fins, lay
them open at the backs and remove all visible bones, and wash in
salt and water; then dry them, cut them into pieces four inches long,
and lay them in salt and water with a bit of saltpetre in it for ten
hours; then make a seasoning thus:
Allspice, ground finely 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper, ground
finely 1 teaspoonful
Bay leaf, in fine powder 1 oz.
Parsley, dried and rubbed
fine 2 oz.
Dry the fish well with cloths, rub them all over plentifully with this
mixture, and let them lie packed closely for twenty-four hours; roll
them up neat into little collars, tie them round, and bake them in a
wide-mouthed jar with a teacupful of water and vinegar at the
bottom. Next day pour off the liquor, take out the collars and put
them singly into white earthenware pots, and cover with olive oil,
observing to replenish the oil before finally closing up with bladder.

superior marinated silver eels, of very high flavour.

Get fresh eels of ten to fifteen ounces each, skin them, take off
heads, tails, and fins, open them at the bellies, and, clearing away all
refuse, wash them in salt and water and dry with cloths. Then for ten
pounds of fish take
Garlic, minced finely ½ oz.
Chillies, minced finely 1 oz.
Juniper berries, minced
finely ¾ oz.
Jamaica pepper, powdered 1 oz.
Bay salt 1 lb.
Saltpetre ¼ lb.
Vinegar 1 pint
Boil these twenty minutes, skimming well, and let go cold. Cut the
fish into pieces, place them in a deep dish and pour this pickle over
them, so let them lie till next day. Take out the fish and rub each
piece separately with the mixture, replace the fish in the vessel and
let them lie so for twenty-four hours longer. Now wipe them and hang
them up in a current of air for two days; then with a soft brush take
off the herbs and spice and roll up tightly each piece into a collar,
which secure with narrow tapes. Choose pots of white earthenware
that will each just hold a collar, and so as to allow of the fish being
totally surrounded by oil, and fill up with olive oil and replenishing as
before directed previous to finishing with wetted bladder. Keep these
three months at least, when they will be a fine relish at a moderate
expense. They should be boiled in hot water, and when cold enough
the tapes taken off and the fish eaten cold.

pickled smelts, preferred to anchovies.

This is an elegant preparation of the smaller fish, the large ones
being chosen for the dinner table. Cut open the fish at the belly, and
wipe them well out with damp cloths, lay in a light coat of the
following seasoning, the roes being replaced, and put them in layers
with the mixture alternately, in a deep jar wide at the top:
Saltpetre, in powder ½ oz.
Bay salt, in powder 9 oz.
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Cloves, in powder 1 oz.
Black pepper, in
powder 1 oz.
Cochineal, in powder ¾ oz.
These must have been well mixed. Press the fish well down in the
jar, and boiling sufficient of the best pickling vinegar with bay leaves,
and four or five laurel leaves, pour it upon the fish when cold, and tie
leather over the jar. They will require three months at least to
become mellow, and are much improved by keeping twice that
length of time.
 pickled lobsters.
In our hot summer months, and when lobsters are plentiful, it
would be wise to save some that would come in opportunely for
sauce and many dishes, when lobsters are scarce and high priced.
Take fresh boiled lobsters, split them, take out the meat as whole as
you can, and make a seasoning of
Mace, in fine powder 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper ¾ oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
Table salt, in fine
powder 6 oz.
by well mixing them. Rub the meat well with this and equally, so that
no part is left undefended. Put the fish down in an earthen jar, and
repeat the rubbing for a day or two. Pack it then in small jars and
pour the following pickle over it, so that it may be covered to
thickness of an inch:
Best vinegar 1 pint
Chillies 1 oz.
Cucumber vinegar ½ pint
Sal prunelle ¾ oz.
and in similar proportions for each pint of vinegar used. Mind that the
vinegar pickle covers well, and then put over all as much olive oil as
will cover to the depth of half an inch. Tie wetted bladder over and
leather upon that for safe keeping. It will be well recommended after
a trial.

marinated herrings.
The freshest full-roed herrings must be taken for this purpose.
Scale twenty of the shortest and fattest you can get in the middle of
the season, take off the heads, tails, fins, and open them at the
bellies, clean all out, scrape the backbone, and washing the fish in
salt and water, wipe them dry and let them lie until next day, after
rubbing a dessert-spoonful of good moist sugar into the inside of
each fish. Lay them upon their backs in any vessel not too deep, and
cover the fish over with the following mixture—the roes should be
nicely washed, dried, and laid by the side of the fish:
Coarse sugar 1 lb.
Bay salt, in fine
powder ¾ lb.
Black pepper 1 oz.
Eschalots, minced 1 oz.
Nutmegs, grated 1 oz.
putting half the fish in one layer then a layer of the mixture, and then
a layer of fish above that, and the spices covering all; so let them lie
covered up with a cloth three days. Then wipe the fish dry, place the
roes inside, cut them across in two parts, tie up in rolls with calico,
and lay them with plenty of bay leaves and four laurel leaves in a
deep dish and bake them, just covered over with good sound porter;
then while warm pour off the liquor, and set the fish on a sieve to go
cold, and next day put each one into a white earthenware jar and
cover with olive oil with the same precautions as before. In two
months they will be mellow and rich and greatly liked. The porter in
which they were baked, being boiled twenty minutes with a dozen of
shalots and cayenne, will be a very good cold sauce for chops,
steaks, fish, &c.

marinated sprats.
These shall be superior to what were called “sardines in oil,”
some thirty years ago, and sold in London at 4s. 6d. at first in small
tin boxes, and afterwards at 2s. 6d., each tin containing about
sixteen sprats—for sprats they certainly were. Take a peck of fresh
sprats and pick out for your present use as many of the largest and
most sound as will suit your purpose. Pull off the heads, cut off the
fins and tails, and draw out the little guts, wash them quickly through
salt and water, and dry them between cloths. Have ready the
following:
 Mace, in finest powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in finest powder 2 oz.
Nutmeg, in finest
powder 1 oz.
Saltpetre, in finest
powder 3 oz.
Table salt, in finest
powder 1 lb.
Bay leaf, in finest
powder 3 oz.
with which rub each fish on the inside first, and then throughout the
bulk; put them into small pots of white earthenware, closely packed;
tie bladder over them, merely to keep out the water, and place them
in a stewpan, adding water to reach half way up the sides of the jars,
cover the pan and set it on a slow fire to simmer until the fish are
cooked; then take them up, remove the covers, and set them aside
till the next day, when, pouring off any oil or fat that may have been
given out in cooking, fill up with olive oil and tie bladders safely over.

potted smelts.
For this purpose the smaller fish will do very well. Cut them open
at the belly, clean out and wash in salt and water, having first cut off
the tails and fins; now season them inside with
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Nutmeg, in powder 1 oz.
Table salt 3 oz.
Cayenne pepper ½ oz.
Bay leaf ¾ oz.
and let them lie till next day, when lay them in oblong pots and cover
them with clarified butter; bake them in a slow oven, and when done
enough pour off the butter, and drain effectually, and let them remain
twelve hours. Now warm up the butter again in a water bath, and
running it through a warmed sieve, pour the clear again over the fish,
adding more clarified butter to cover well. Tie bladder over and keep
dry.

potted lobsters.
Take a couple of fine lobsters, place them in a tub with plenty of
weak salt and water, and brush them well from froth and slime, then
wash in pure water and pop them into boiling water in which some
salt and saltpetre have been dissolved. When done lay them on a
sieve to get cold, and next day cut open the shells, crack the claws
and take out the meat, which then pick over carefully from skins and
specks, the coral also must be separated and examined. Now cut
the meat into dice and pound it finely in a mortar, till of a nice smooth
consistence, adding clarified butter at pleasure. Then season with
Mace, in fine powder ¾ oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
Bay leaf, in fine powder 1 oz.
White pepper, in fine
powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in fine powder ¾ oz.
and working the paste well proceed to fill white pots, and putting a
part of the coral into the middle of each pot. Press well in and set
aside for the night. Put the pots next into a slow oven, and let the
steam escape that might arise, and when you have got them as dry
as it is possible, without changing the colour of the preparation, set
them by to go cold; then cover with clarified butter effectually and
writing paper over the tops of the pots.

potted crabs.
To meet with well potted crabs is a very rare occurrence, and,
speaking generally, is attributable to the carelessness of the
preparer. Crabs are very often out of season, that is, cannot be got
without great trouble and expense, and they are very much liked;
these admissions furnish reasons why we should have some well
preserved. Take half a dozen eastern coast crabs—those of
Hartlepool and neighbourhood are always sound and well flavoured,
while those on the western coast and about Ireland are little worth—
plug up all the holes with wooden pegs, throw them into a tubful of
salt and water and brush them thoroughly, then wash in pure water
and put them into boiling water to be cooked; then take them up and
lay them to get cold; pull off the claws and put the large shells into a
slow oven after having run off any water that may have collected in
them, and when no more steam arises from the slow drying, set
them also to get cold. Take all the meat out of the claws, pick out
very carefully all the little skins and strings, cut it into dice and pound
it in a mortar with clarified butter until of a nice plastic mass, which
cover up in a cloth. Now attack the body shells, pick out all the solid
meat, and, setting the coral aside, throw out all the skins and refuse
you can find, and beat up this also with best Durham mustard, as for
the table, some cayenne, chillie vinegar, and table salt. Place some
of this at the bottom of each pot, and having ready this seasoning,
mix what is requisite with the meat from the claws:
Mace 1 oz.
Cloves 1½ oz.
Nutmeg 1 oz.
Bay leaf 1 oz.
Table salt 6 oz.
White pepper 2 oz.
Work this well into the mass, and having put a portion of the hard
coral into each pot, fill up with the seasoned claw meat. Set the pots
in a slow oven to evaporate what moisture you can, then set aside
and when cold pour clarified butter plentifully over, which, when cold,
must again be covered with writing paper. If your ingredients were
genuine, your butter sweet, and well managed, and the fish of prime
quality, you will have a choice or rare preparation of these generally
admired fish.

side of venison collared.

 As this sort of animal food can only be got at one season of the
year, I recommend any person who is fond of good eating at a
moderate cost, to get the two sides or flitches of a prime fat buck,
and cure them in the two different ways herein described, with full
assurance that the result will be perfectly satisfactory. Take a side
and hang it up in a free current of air as long as ever you can trust it,
wiping it daily with a coarse cloth, and dusting it over, particularly the
fat parts, with ground black pepper, to prevent the flies settling on it.
With a sharp knife take off the outer skin, and, removing all sinews,
bone it nicely; divide it next into pieces fit for collars, that is, so that
when rolled up the ends may be level and firm. Rub vinegar well
over the meat and leave it packed closely in a deep dish and
covered up till the next day. Make ready a mixture of
Mace, in fine powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in fine powder 2 oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
White pepper, in fine
powder 2 oz.
Bay salt ¾ lb.
Common or rock salt ½ lb.
Bay leaves, shred 3 oz.
and with this rub the meat, which should have been dried with cloths
well, and pack them down to lie forty-eight hours. Then take them
up, and cutting slices of hard fat bacon, half an inch wide and six or
eight inches long, insert them in channels cut in the venison and
about two and a half inches apart; this should be done with
consummate nicety. Now roll up the meat into collars and bind tightly
with broad tape, and sew strong unbleached calico all round the
length. Lay paper shavings in the bottom of a deep straight-sided jar,
and upon them six or eight laurel leaves and twice as many bay
leaves, and place the collars lightly upon them, then pouring in half a
pint of water, tie doubled paper over the jar and bake slowly for three
hours at least, or until nicely cooked; then while warm pour off the
gravy into a basin to get cold, and taking out the collars set them to
drain all night. Next day, after wiping them dry, place the rolls of meat
in a jar that will just hold them without squeezing, and pour clarified
mutton suet with sweet lard in the proportion of a quarter of a pound
of the latter to twelve ounces of the former, and when cold covering
the meat to the thickness of two inches. Tie wet bladder over and put
away in a cold airy room. This should not be broached under two
months, and then by placing the jar in a pan of boiling water for
twenty minutes you can take out a collar and put away the jar, taking
care that the meat is totally covered by the suet and made safe from
the air. Pop the collar into a saucepan of boiling water and salt for
fifteen minutes, then take it out, wipe it dry, and when nearly cold
take off the envelopes and set it by till next day. Serve it garnished
with fresh parsley and slices of lemon or pickled red beetroot, which
two latter may be eaten with it, and then I think you will confess that
this “common part of venison” is very first-rate eating.

the other side smoked.

Proceed as with the former side, and having rubbed it well with
vinegar, make a mixture of
Allspice, ground 3 oz.
Black pepper, ground 2 oz.
Eschalots, minced 2½ oz.
Garlic, minced 1½ oz.
Bay salt ¾ lb.
Coarse sugar ¾ lb.
Bay leaves 2 oz.
and rub all parts thoroughly, and let them lie placed down in a deep
pan for forty-eight hours; then take them up, wipe dry and lard them
well with shreds of the best sweet fat bacon and roll up tightly into
collars, which bind with tape and envelope in calico or thin canvas,
and stow them away in a deep jar that will hold them conveniently till
the next day. Boil up the used spices, herbs, and salts with as much
porter as you think will cover the meat, well skimming it till no more
scum arises, and pour it hot over the meat; so let it remain covered
with leather for a week. Then hang up the collars in a draught of air,
minding to turn them every morning regularly, or the neglect is
certain to be detected when brought to table. Next suspend them in
your chimney, and smoke them for a fortnight with
Oak lops or sawdust 2 parts
Beech chips 2 parts
Fern 1 part
Peat 1 part
When cold you can coat them with gelatine composition and keep
them in malt cooms. Slices cut off these collars and broiled will be
excellent in three months, or, if you choose to boil them and eat cold,
take care they are put on the fire in ready boiling water, as we do not
want venison broth. (See Note, No. 10.)

young pig collared.

Your porkman having supplied you with a short, round pig, say
about ten to twelve weeks old, the neck taken off close up to the
shoulders and split down the back, you will proceed to take out the
bones and gristles and wash it five minutes in salt and water, then
wipe dry and rub the following mixture—
Mace, beaten finely ½ oz.
Cloves, beaten finely 1 oz.
Nutmeg, beaten finely 1 oz.
Pepper, beaten finely 1 oz.
Salt, beaten finely 1½ lbs.
—in all parts well, and let them lie pressed closely for twenty-four
hours, then take them up, wipe dry, roll the one half up into a collar,
with tape and new linen, and boil it in a pickle made by boiling up the
former used spices—adding thereto
Six laurel leaves, green
Twelve bay leaves
Vinegar 1 pint
 Ginger, beaten 1 oz.
coarsely
Bay salt ¾ oz.
—until tender. Examine the collars when nearly cold, and tighten the
binding if requisite. Cut them through, in the middle, straight across,
put each roll into a jar just capable of holding it; boil up the pickle
again, adding vinegar and porter, if not enough to cover your meat
completely; tie bladder over and keep a month, when it will be very
rich, yet delicate. The pickle must have been well skimned and all fat
removed from it. The other half may be thus treated, making an
agreeable change, though this latter will be much higher flavoured:
Proceed as with the last, until having rolled it up in a nice tight collar,
you will make this pickle:
Sage leaves, shred ½ handful
Capsicums, mixed ½ oz.
Juniper berries,
bruised 1 oz.
Six laurel leaves, shred
Garlic, shred ½ oz.
Porter or ale 1 quart
Salt ½ lb.
Boil these twenty minutes, skim well and pour over the meat, placed
in a deep jar that will just hold it, and tying leather over let it remain
three weeks. Then take it up, wipe dry, hang it in a current of dry air
for a week, turning it daily, and smoke it with
Oak lops or sawdust 2 parts
Fern 2 parts
Beech or birch chips 2 parts
for three weeks. When cold you can coat it with gelatine, or if packed
with hams, tongues, &c. &c., in malt cooms, will be a high, much
esteemed article, after being kept a month or two to become mellow.
Care must be taken in the broiling, as the meat will be extremely rich
and tender.
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