Ecological hot spots have high—species diversity.

Species interactions Competition, predation, parasitism,

True or False: The majority of Earth’s tundra ecosystems mutualism (both species benefit), and commensalism (one
are located in the Southern Hemisphere—False. benefits, the other unaJected). Ecosystem productivity Primary
What is science? Science is the systematic study of the productivity refers to the amount of energy produced by
natural world through observation, experimentation, and photosynthesis, with the highest rates near the equator.
analysis. The major branches include physics, biology, Energy flow and matter cycling Energy flows through trophic
chemistry, and earth science. The scientific method levels (producers, consumers, decomposers), with only 10%
follows these steps: observation, hypothesis, transferred between levels.
experiment, conclusion, and theory. Succession Ecosystems recover from disturbances via: Primary
Environmental science The study of interactions succession: In lifeless areas. Secondary succession: In areas with
between humans and the environment, incorporating existing soil.
many disciplines (biology, chemistry, sociology). Taxonomic classification Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class →
Interdisciplinarity involves integrating multiple fields to Order → Family → Genus → Species. Example: Humans are
solve complex problems. classified as Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates,
Scales in environmental science Hominidae, Homo, Homo sapiens.
Spatial: Local, regional, or global. Temporal: Short-term Non-evolutionary adaptation mechanisms Organisms adapt
to long-term impacts. Taxonomic: Biological through phenotypic plasticity, where traits change in response to
classification from species to ecosystems. environmental conditions.
Major environmental issues Pollution, climate change, Major evolutionary processesMutation: Introduces new genetic
habitat destruction, resource depletion, and biodiversity material.Natural selection: Favors advantageous traits.
loss are key concerns. Geographic isolation: Leads to the formation of new species.
I=PAT Impact = Population × AJluence × Technology, Species diversity
explaining the environmental impact of human activities. Richness: Number of species in an area.
Sustainable development Development that meets Evenness: Distribution of individuals across species.
current needs without compromising the ability of future Biodiversity hotspots
generations to meet theirs. Regions with high species diversity, often under threat (e.g.,
Second law of thermodynamics Energy transfers are tropical rainforests).
ineJicient, increasing entropy (disorder) in systems. Threats to biodiversity (CHIPPO)
Earth’s energy budget The balance of energy from the Climate change, Habitat loss, Invasive species, Pollution,
sun and Earth's internal heat. Solar energy drives surface Population growth, Overexploitation.
processes, while Earth's core influences geological Conservation approaches
activity. Landscape-level conservation: Protects ecosystems.
Plate tectonics Convergent boundaries: Plates collide, Species-level conservation: Targets endangered species.
forming mountains or subduction zones. Divergent Explain how the scientific method works
boundaries: Plates pull apart, creating rifts. Transform Observation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, and theory are
boundaries: Plates slide past each other, causing the key steps.
earthquakes. Define science and environmental science
Biogeochemical cycles Carbon cycle: Involves the Science is the study of the natural world through observation and
exchange of carbon among living organisms, oceans, experimentation. Environmental science studies human-
and the atmosphere. environment interactions.
Nitrogen cycle: Includes processes like nitrogen fixation. Recall the scales of environmental science
Phosphorus cycle: Vital for DNA and energy transfer, with Spatial (local to global), temporal (short- to long-term), and
no atmospheric component. taxonomic (species to ecosystems).
Human impacts on biogeochemical cycles Recognize implications of thermodynamics
Deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and synthetic The second law increases disorder in systems.
fertilizers disrupt these cycles, contributing to pollution Describe Earth's energy budget
and climate change. Balance between incoming solar energy and outgoing heat.
Levels of organization in ecology Organism → Identify tectonic processes at plate margins
Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.
Biosphere. Explain biogeochemical cycles
Ecotones Transition zones between ecosystems. Open Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles circulate essential
communities have gradual transitions, while closed elements through ecosystems.
communities have sharp boundaries. Assess species interactions and ecosystems
Habitat fragmentation The division of habitats into Predation, competition, mutualism, and parasitism shape
smaller, isolated patches increases edge eJects and ecosystems. Ecological restoration—The process of assisting the
reduces biodiversity. recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded or destroyed.
Biomes Large areas defined by climate and species Restoration eJorts include reforestation, wetland rehabilitation,
(e.g., tundra, rainforest). and species reintroduction. Endemic species—Species that are
Ecosystem structure and function Niches are the roles native to a specific geographic area and found nowhere else, often
species play. Fundamental niches are potential roles, more vulnerable to extinction due to their limited range.
while realized niches are actual roles due to Carbon footprint—The total amount of greenhouse gases,
competition. primarily carbon dioxide, emitted by human activities, such as
transportation, industry, and agriculture.