o practical application of such new

or revised theories or laws.

INQUIRY, INVESTIGATION, ❖ It is also a practice of collecting
AND IMMERSION information about a particular subject.
❖ Research provides the best solution to
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND some of the world’s problems
❖ It also enhances the knowledge of the
RESEARCH researchers.
❖ It can give explanations to certain
INQUIRY questions stated in the research problem.
❖ Through the explanations, it serves as a
❖ Systematic search for information, tool for building knowledge and for
knowledge and truth about certain things facilitating new learning.
is the process of solving a problem ❖ It also introduces new ideas, helps the
through researching and probing. researchers identify problems and
❖ Involves questioning and interrogations. appropriate solutions in new ways, and
provides a new framework to guide
INVESTIGATION thinking and action.
❖ It informs action, proves a theory, and
❖ Systematic examination to uncover
contributes to developing knowledge in
facts regarding the matter.
a field or study.
❖ It is done carefully and by thoroughly
❖ it understands various issues and
inspecting details in an organized
increases public awareness.
manner and assessing facts that are
uncovered in the process.
The types of research are namely:
IMMERSION 1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCHES
❖ The act of becoming completely - Involves processes, feelings, and
involved in something like an activity or motives (the why’s and the how’s)
interest. The payoff of immersion is and produce in-depth and holistic
usually immense as the researchers can data
gain more information than through - Usually concerned with generating
another method. hypothesis from data rather than
testing a hypothesis
- Uses either unstructured or semi-
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
structured instruments
❖ Research is an investigation or - Uses small sample sizes chosen
experimentation aimed at: purposely
o the discovery and interpretation of - Has high validity
facts, - Used to gain greater
o revision of accepted theories or understanding of individual
laws in the light of new facts, or
 differences in terms of feelings, TYPES:
motives and experiences
1. ONE-ON-ONE INTERVIEW:
- Uses more flexible processes
• Conducting in-depth interviews is one
- Methods include field research,
of the most common qualitative
case study and secondary analysis
research methods.
• It is a personal interview that is
2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHES
carried out with one respondent at a
- Aims to characterize trends and
time.
patterns
• This is purely a conversational
- Usually starts with neither a
method and invites opportunities to
theory nor hypothesis about the
get details in depth from the
relationship between two or more
respondent.
variables
- Uses structured research • One of the advantages of this method
instruments like questionnaires or is that it provides a great opportunity to
schedules gather precise data about what
- Uses large sample sizes that are people believe and their
representatives of the population motivations.
- Has high output replicability • If the researcher is well experienced
- Used to gain greater asking the right questions can help
understanding of group him/her collect meaningful data.
similarities • If they should need more information
- Uses structured processes the researchers should ask such
- Methods include census, survey, follow-up questions that will help
experiments and secondary them collect more information.
analysis • These interviews can be performed
face-to-face or on the phone and
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH usually can last between half an hour
to two hours or even more.
Qualitative research is a market research
• When the in-depth interview is
method that focuses on obtaining data through
conducted face to face it gives a
open-ended and conversational
better opportunity to read the body
communication. This method is about “what”
language of the respondents and
people think and “why” they think so.
match the responses.
For example, consider a convenience store
looking to improve its patronage. A systematic 2. FOCUS GROUPS:
observation concludes that more men are visiting • A focus group is also one of the
this store. One good method to determine why commonly used qualitative research
women were not visiting the store is conducting methods, used in data collection.
an in-depth interview with potential customers. • A focus group usually includes a
limited number of respondents (6-10)
from within your target market.
 • The main aim of the focus group is to into a valuable quality research
find answers to the “why” “what” and method.
“how” questions. • As the name suggests it is used for
• One advantage of focus groups is, you explaining an organization or an
don’t necessarily need to interact entity.
with the group in person. Nowadays • This type of research method is used
focus groups can be sent an online within several areas like education,
survey on various devices and social sciences, and similar.
responses can be collected at the click • This method may look difficult to
of a button. operate, however, it is one of the
simplest ways of researching as it
3. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH: involves a deep dive and thorough
• It is the most in-depth observational understanding of the data collection
method that studies people in their methods and inferring the data.
naturally occurring environment.
• This method requires the researchers 5. RECORD KEEPING:
to adapt to the target audiences’ • This method makes use of the already
environments which could be existing reliable documents and
anywhere from an organization to a city similar sources of information as the
or any remote location. data source.
• Geographical constraints can be an • This data can be used in new
issue while collecting data. research.
• This research design aims to • Similar to going to a library.
understand the cultures, • There one can go over books and other
challenges, motivations, and reference material to collect relevant
settings that occur. data that can likely be used in the
• Instead of relying on interviews and research.
discussions, you experience the
natural settings first-hand. 6. PROCESS OF OBSERVATION:
• This type of research method can last • Qualitative Observation is a process
from a few days to a few years, as it of research that uses subjective
involves in-depth observation and methodologies to gather systematic
collecting data on those grounds. information or data.
• It’s a challenging and time- • The focus on qualitative observation is
consuming method and solely the research process of using
depends on the expertise of the subjective methodologies to gather
researcher to be able to analyze, information or data.
observe and infer the data. • It is primarily used to equate quality
differences.
4. CASE STUDY RESEARCH: • Qualitative observation deals with the
• The case study method has evolved 5 major sensory organs and their
over the past few years and developed
 functioning – sight, smell, touch, CHARACTERISTICS:
taste, and hearing.
1. OBJECTIVE. Quantitative research seeks
• This doesn’t involve measurements
accurate measurement and analysis of
or numbers but instead
target concepts. It is not based on mere
characteristics.
intuitions and guesses. Data are gathered
before proposing a conclusion or solution
CHARACTERISTICS : to a problem.

1. Qualitative research methods usually

2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH
collect data at the sight, where the
QUESTIONS. In quantitative research, the
participants are experiencing issues or
researchers know in advance what they
problems. These are real-time data and
are looking for. The research questions
rarely bring the participants out of their
are well-defined for which objective
geographic locations to collect
answers are sought. All aspects of the
information.
study are carefully designed before data
2. Qualitative researchers typically gather
are gathered.
multiple forms of data, such as
interviews, observations, and documents,
3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH
rather than rely on a single data source.
INSTRUMENTS. Data are normally
3. This type of research method works
gathered using structured research
towards solving complex issues by
tools such as questionnaires to collect
breaking them down into meaningful
measurable characteristics of the
inferences that are easily readable and
population like age, socio-economic
understood by all.
status, and number of children, among
4. Since it’s a more communicative
others.
method, people can build their trust in the
researcher and the information thus
4. NUMERICAL DATA. Data are in the form of
obtained is raw and unadulterated.
numbers and statistics, often organized
and presented using tables, charts,
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH graphs, and figures that consolidate large
Quantitative research is an objective, numbers of data to show trends,
systematic empirical investigation of relationships, or differences among
observable phenomena through the use of variables.
computational techniques. It highlights
numerical analysis of data hoping that the 5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at a more
numbers yield unbiased results that can be reliable data analysis, a normal
generalized to some larger population and population distribution curve is
explain a particular observation. preferred. This requires a large sample
size, depending on how the
characteristics of the population vary.
Random sampling is recommended in
determining the sample size to avoid the
 researcher’s bias in interpreting the 1. Quantitative research requires a large
results. number of respondents, it is assumed
that the larger the sample is, the more
6. REPLICATION. Reliable quantitative statistically accurate the findings are.
studies can be repeated to verify or 2. It is costly. Since, there are more
confirm the correctness of the results in respondents compared to qualitative
another setting. This strengthens the research, the expenses will be greater in
validity of the findings thus eliminating the reaching out to these people and in
possibility of spurious conclusions. reproducing the questionnaires.
3. The information contextual factors to
7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using complex help interpret the results or to explain
mathematical calculations and with the variations are usually ignored. It does not
aid of computers, if-then scenarios may consider the distinct capacity of the
be formulated thus predicting future respondents to share and elaborate
results. further information unlike the qualitative
research.
4. Many information are difficult to gather
STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: using structured research instruments,
specifically on sensitive issues like pre-
The advantages of quantitative research include:
marital sex, domestic violence, among
1. It is objective. Since it provides numerical others.
data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted. 5. If not done seriously and correctly, data
2. The use of statistical techniques from questionnaires may be incomplete
facilitates sophisticated analyses and and inaccurate. Researchers must be on
allows you to comprehend a huge amount the look-out for respondents who are just
of vital characteristics of data. guessing in answering the instrument.
3. The numerical data can be analyzed
quickly and easily. By employing
statistically valid random models, findings KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
can be generalized to the population about
The kind of research is dependent on the
which information is necessary.
researcher’s aim in conducting the study and
4. Quantitative studies are replicable.
the extent to which the findings will be used. The
Standardized approaches allow the study
following are the various kinds of quantitative
to be replicated in different areas or over
research that a researcher may employ:
time with the formulation of comparable
findings. 1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH.
• This design is concerned with
describing the nature,
WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: characteristics, and components of
the population or a phenomenon.
The disadvantages of quantitative research are as
follows:
 • There is no manipulation of variables • It may be done in various ways like
or search for cause and effect face-to-face, phone, mail, and
related to the phenomenon. online.
• This design attempts to find general • The survey research may be cross-
attributes of the presently existing sectional if the information is
situation and determine the frequency collected from a sample at just a single
with which it occurs. point in time just like the child-rearing
practices of single parents, and
2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH. population control practices of
• It is the systematic investigation of the unmarried couples.
nature of relationships, or • The survey research is considered
associations between and among longitudinal if the researcher collects
variables without necessary information on the same subjects
investigation into causal reasons over a period sometimes lasting many
underlying them. years to study the changes through
• It is also concerned with the extent of the years.
relationships that exist between or • Longitudinal survey is utilized, for
among the variables. example, to determine the growth of
• Correlational research is employed if rice yield in the country and the rate of
you know, for example, if the following promotion of doctorate holders five
factors are related to each other: sex years after earning the degree.
and mathematical ability, marriage
and cancer recovery, occupation, and 5. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH.
life span. • It is also known as ex post facto (after
the fact) research.
3. EVALUATION RESEARCH. • This kind of research derives
• This kind of research aims to assess conclusions from observations and
the effects, impacts, or outcomes of manifestations that already
practices, policies or programs. occurred in the past and are now
• Assessing the implementation of compared to some dependent
nursing care in a hospital and variables.
determining the impact of a new • It discusses why and how a
treatment procedure for patients are phenomenon occurs.
examples of evaluation research. • For example, a researcher is interested
in how weight influences the stress-
4. SURVEY RESEARCH. coping level of adults Here, the
• A survey research is used to gather subjects would be separated into
information from groups of people by different groups (underweight, normal
selecting and studying samples weight, overweight) and their stress-
chosen from a population. coping levels measured. This is an ex
post facto design because a pre-
 existing characteristic (weight) was TYPES:
used to form the groups.
1. CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE
VARIABLES.
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH.
a. Continuous. A variable that can
• This research utilizes the scientific
take an infinite number of values
method to test cause-and-effect
that can occur within a population
relationships under conditions
is known as a continuous variable.
controlled by the researcher.
Its values can be divided into
• In this case, an effort is made to
fractions.
determine and impose control over
all other variables except one.
Examples: age, height, and
• An independent variable is temperature.
manipulated to determine the effects
on the dependent variables. b. Discrete Variable. It is also known
• For instance, a teacher would like to as a categorical or classificatory
know if a new teaching strategy is variable, on the other hand, is any
effective or not so he/she teaches one variable that has a limited number
section using the new strategy and of distinct values and which
teaches another comparable section cannot be divided into fractions
without the new strategy, then an
achievement test is given to the two Examples: sex, blood group, and
sections. The manipulated number of children in the family.
independent variable is the new
teaching strategy which is being tested 2. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT
if it has an effect on the dependent VARIABLES. In a typical study, the
variable is me achievement of the researcher starts with an effect and
students. Notice that the sections are investigates its possible causes.
comparable with one mother meaning a. Independent Variable. The cause
all other variables are controlled by the variable or the one responsible for
teacher. the conditions that act on
something else to bring about
RESEARCH VARIABLES changes is the independent
One of the aspects of research is to describe and variable.
explain variables. b. Dependent Variable. It is also
called the outcome variable is the
❖ Variable is a central concept in research.
result of the effect of the changes
❖ It is a measurable characteristic that
brought about by another variable.
changes in value.
❖ A variable is anything that assumes
varied numerical or categorical values.
Ex. Sex is a variable
CATEGORY OF CONTINUOUS VARIABLE: Now, to give you an idea of how to prepare for
research, you may do the inquiry-based learning
1. Interval variable.
using the following steps mentioned below:
• Is a measurement where the
difference between the values does 1. Focus. An ill-structured problem
have meaning. The difference demands consideration of diverse
between a temperature of 60 degrees perspectives.
and 50 degrees is the same as between 2. Decide on a topic. Think-aloud, asks
30 degrees and 20 degrees. probing questions, monitors, and
encourages participants to decide on a
2. Ratio variable. topic.
• Possesses the properties of interval 3. Understanding the problem. This will
variables and has a clear definition of include clarifications of misconceptions
zero indication that there is none of and possibilities.
that variable. 4. Design on the problem. This is the final
stage to address problems within
Examples of ratio variables include height,
manageable scales and extend their
weight, and distance. But temperature
learning pathways.
measured in degrees Celsius and degrees
Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because
0 under these temperature scales does
BRAINSTORMING is a way of inquiring about
not mean no temperature at all.
ideas that will help you to develop concepts and
CATEGORY OF DISCRETE VARIABLE: focusing techniques by asking questions and
knowing the interests of the persons involved
1. Nominal variable - This is a variable that
in the said issues. The potential ideas can be
has no quantitative value. Examples: eye
visualized for interpretation.
color, business type, and religion.
The following are the things that may be
2. Ordinal variable - Is a variable that has considered before starting the research activity:
two or more categories that can be ranked.
1. A problem that is most interesting to you
2. Existing problems in the
RESEARCH AS AN ART OF class/school/campus that one may want
INQUIRY to solve
3. Existing needs of the community or
An inquiry is a method that has the aim
society
of extending knowledge, undertaking doubt, or
4. Area of interest, specialization, or event
solving a problem.
from related fields
Theory of Inquiry - is an interpretation of the 5. Prevailing theories and philosophy
various types of inquiry and action of the ways
that each type of inquiry attains its aim.
CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC: ❖ It is the general orientation to the
problem area.
1. It should be something new or different
❖ For a good background, the researcher can
from what has already been written about.
state the antecedents of the study, and the
2. It must be original.
reasons why this topic is proposed relative
3. It should be significant to the field of
to previous studies.
study or discipline.
4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual THE BACKGROUND INCLUDES:
curiosity.
5. It should be of the researcher’s interest. 1. Discussion of the problem in general
6. It should be a modest one for a beginner and the specific situations as observed
to be carried out within a limited period. and experienced by the researcher (macro
7. It should be clear, not ambiguous. to micro approach).
8. It should be specific, not general. 2. Concepts and ideas related to the
9. It should consider the training and problem including clarification of
personal qualifications of the researcher. important terminologies; and
10. It should consider the availability of data 3. Discussion of the existing or present
involved in the study and the methods and conditions and what is aimed to be in the
techniques to be employed in gathering future or the gap to be filled in by the
them. research.
11. It should consider the availability of
effective instruments for gathering the CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK/
data and their treatment.
12. It should consider the financial capacity
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
of the researcher to support the project. ❖ THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK provides a
13. It should consider the time factor involved general representation of relationships
in the undertaking. between things in a given phenomenon.
❖ CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, on the
If you already identified the possible topic
other hand, embodies the specific
in the agenda of your research study, you may
direction by which the research will have
think of the identity of your research either a
to be undertaken.
qualitative or quantitative research then decide
❖ The process of designing a theoretical
on the methodology by not disregarding the
framework is developmental and
importance of your research to others, to the
experiential.
community, to the society or to the nation as well.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
❖ Theoretical framework can be thought of
❖ This part of the research includes as a map or travel plan.
information that would focus attention ❖ These are relevant theories
on the importance and validity of the underpinning the knowledge base of the
problem. phenomenon to be researched.
 ❖ This dwells on time-tested theories that need to be careful and thorough when
embody the findings of numerous building your research hypothesis.
investigations on how phenomena
occur. Your will be expressing your hypothesis in 3 ways:
❖ By addressing simple questions, the
1. As a one-sentence hypothesis.
researcher can begin to develop a loosely-
(example. It is hypothesized that the
structured theoretical framework to guide
recognition of the right to physician-
them. The following questions have been
assisted suicide is a protection of
adopted from Slevin and Basford
individual civil liberties.)
(1999:298):
2. As a research question. (example. Would
1. What do I know about the
the recognition of the right to physician-
phenomenon that I want to study?
assisted suicide be a protection of
2. What types of knowledge are
individual civil liberties?)
available to me (empirical, non-
3. As a title for your paper. (example. The
empirical, tacit intuitive, moral, or
Right to Physician-Assisted Suicide and
ethical)
Individual Civil Liberties)
3. What theory will best guide my
teaching practice? Your hypothesis will become part of your research
4. Is this theory proven through proposal.
theory-linked researched?
5. What other theories are relevant STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
to this practice?
❖ This is the basic difficulty, the issue, the
6. How can I apply these theories
area of concern, the circumstances
and finding in practice?
which exist, then, how they ought to be.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ❖ The statement of the problem tells what is
done to make the situation that exists
❖ This is the researcher’s idea on how the more like what it should be.
research problem will have to be ❖ It exposes anything that is wrong with
explored. the situation or condition or
❖ This is founded in the theoretical circumstance which is being described.
framework, which lies on a much broader
TWO MAIN ELEMENTS:
scale of resolution.
1. The objective; and
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 2. Research questions

❖ Research hypothesis is a statement that DEFINITION OF TERMS

introduces a research question and
❖ This gives your readers an understanding
proposes an expected result.
of the concepts or factors that will be
❖ It is an integral part of the scientific
discussed throughout your study.
method that forms the basis of
scientific experiments. Therefore, you
 ❖ Includes contextual information as to as the timeline when the study was
how you will be using those concepts in conducted.
your study.
DELIMIT

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY ❖ Delimit by citing factors or variables that

are not to be included and the boundary
❖ In this part of the research, the researcher
in terms of time frame, number of
defines who will benefit out of the
subjects, participants, or respondents
findings of the study.
who are excluded.
❖ He/She describes how the problem will be
❖ Specify that which you will not deal with
solved specifically pinpoints who will
within the study.
benefit from such findings or results.
❖ Usually, beneficiaries of the study are
those experts concerned about the REVIEW OF RELATED
problem, the administrators or policy- LITERATURE AND STUDIES
makers who make the decisions or
It is necessary for you to review
implement programs, the subjects
information, facts, data available, or theories that
themselves, future researchers and
have some relationship with your hypothesis
those who are directly or indirectly
which you posed in your stated problem or
affected by the problem.
research question. In fact, even before you were
conceptualizing your study, you should have
already read some volumes of literature on your
TIPS IN WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
topic or subject matter.
STUDY:
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
1. Refer to the statement of the problem.
STUDIES:
2. Write from general to specific. Write the
significance of the study by looking into ❖ The review of literature and studies
the general contribution of your study, involves the critiquing and evaluating of
such as its importance to society as a what other researchers have done in
whole, then to individuals which may relation to the problem to be studied
include yourself as a researcher. whether these studies affirmed or negate
the subject under study.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF ❖ These can be from books, conference
proceedings, referred journal (printed or
THE STUDY online) and other published article.

SCOPE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

❖ The scope describes the coverage of the ❖ Literature may be defined as “written
study. works collectively, especially, those
❖ It specifies what is covered in terms of enduring importance, exhibiting
concept, number of subjects or the creative imagination and artistic skill
population included in the study, as well which are mitten in a particular period,
 language, and subject (Funk & Wagnalls bearing to the present study are
Dictionary, 1976 as cited in Calmorin,). segregated into foreign and local
❖ In other words, any written materials studies.
published in book, journal, magazine, ❖ The presentation of foreign and local
novel, poetry, yearbook and encyclopedia studies is similar with related legal
are considered literature. bases and related literature which are
❖ The relevance of each literature presented arranged in chronological order from
to the present study is also explained recent to past.
thoroughly. ❖ Each related study has explanation on the
❖ It is unscientific if related literature is relevance of the present study. It is
presented has no explanation of its the unscientific if no explanation at all is
relevance to the present study. given.
❖ The format of a review of literature may
Reviewing the literature requires the
vary from discipline to discipline and
ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and
from assignment to assignment Some
evaluating relevant material to synthesizing
institutions require the researchers to
information from various sources, from critical
separate the literature and studies. Others
thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation
put it together, similar to international
skills (Budgen & Brereton, 2006). Pautasso (2013)
published paper.
enumerated ten simple rules for writing a
❖ A review may be a self-contained unit- an
literature review:
end in itself preface to and rationale for
engaging in primary research. 1. Define the topic and audience. There are
❖ A review is a required part of grant and so many issues in contemporary science
research proposals and often a chapter in which you could spend a lifetime of
in theses and dissertations. attending conferences and reading the
❖ Generally, the purpose of a review is to literature just pondering on what to review.
analyze critically a segment of a On the one hand, if the researcher will take
published body of knowledge through several years to choose, several other
summary, classification, and comparison people may have had the same idea in the
of prior research studies, reviews of meantime. Topics must be interesting,
literature, and theoretical articles. important and current.

2. Search and re-search the literature.

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES:
After having chosen the topic and the
❖ The review of related studies is equally audience, start downloading published
important to the review of related articles related to the topic. Some useful
literature. sites are: google scholar, proquest etc. Be
❖ Published and unpublished research sure to properly acknowledge sources.
studies such as thesis, dissertation, and
research proceedings are sources of 3. Take notes while reading. If you read the
materials that are included in this section papers first, and only afterwards start
the research studies which have direct writing the review you will need a very good
 memory to remember who wrote what, greatly helps improve a review draft.
and what your impressions and Having read the review with a fresh mind,
associations were while reading each reviewers may spot inaccuracies,
single paper. inconsistencies, and ambiguities that had
not been noticed by the writers due to
4. Choose the type of review you wish to rereading the typescript too many times.
write. Some journals are now favoring the
publication of rather short reviews 9. Include your own relevant research. In
focusing on the last few years, with a limit many cases, reviewers of the literature will
on the number of words and citations. The have published studies relevant to the
choice between different review types will review they are writing. A literature review
have to be made on a case-to-case basis, can be just a simple summary of the
depending not just on the nature of the sources, but it usually has an
material found and the preferences of the organizational pattern and combines both
target journal(s), but also on the time summary and synthesis.
available to write the review and the
number of co-authors (Dijkers, 2009). 10. Be up-to-date in your review of literature
and studies. Given the progressive
5. Keep the review focused, but make if of acceleration in the publication of scientific
broad interest. Arranged readings papers, today’s reviews of literature need
according to themes. The need to keep a awareness not just of the overall direction
review focused can be problematic for and achievements of a field of inquiry, but
interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is also of the latest studies, so as not to
to bridge the gap between fields (Wagner become out-of-date before they have
et al, 2011). been published.

6. Be critical and consistent. Reviewing the

WHAT WHERE AND HOW TO FIND
literature is not like arranging hollow
INFORMATION:
blocks. It is very important to have
consistency in your review. Because of the vastness of information
available, you must choose only those that are
7. Find a logical structure. Pautasso (2013) pertinent to your project. How will you go about
emphasized that like a well-baked cake, a this?
good review has a number of telling
1. List down all the important variables
features it is worth the reader’s time,
needed in your study.
timely, systematic, well written, focused,
❖ This include theories which you
and critical. It also needs a good structure.
think can generate your hypothesis
It must be arranged logically so as not to
and those that can explain the
destroy its implications.
relationship among your variables.
❖ Check all the variables that you
8. Make use of feedback. As a rule,
cited in your hypothesis.
incorporating feedback from reviewers
 2. Continue search for information related o These databases might be distributed by
to the problem being studied. a number of online computer services.
❖ Determine variables. o The number of database producers and
❖ Establish relationship between distributors is increasing very rapidly. For
variables and state preliminary instance, Dialog Information Services has
hypothesis or investigative over 200 databases over 100 million
question. records available.

In books, look over the table of contents and

3. Check the population you want to
circle those you think are relevant to your
include in your study.
project.
❖ What theories have been posited
that have significant bearing on o INDEX of textbooks gives specific page
your study? locations of key ideas in the book.
❖ What are the appropriate sources o GLOSSARY lists and defines key terms.
where you can find the desired Here you can get a great deal of
information? information about what is important.
❖ Are there documents in
government and private agencies
where you can get information o BIBLIOGRAPHY is a listing of resources
desired? an author has used or recommends
❖ Determine the best way to retrieve o Books that have “suggested” or “further
those information. reading lists at the ends of chapters can
❖ Conduct library research. also help as much as any other
❖ Conduct library research. bibliography
❖ Examine the materials.
❖ Write in index cards the information
gathered from each source. 4. Know how to write citations.
❖ Use all printed aids to help you, ❖ Include the author, the title, the
including those delivered publisher and the date of
electronically, online catalogs and publication, the volume number,
databases, computer search the page number, information
engines, periodical indexes and about the study and the findings.
CD-Roms, RO means “read-only ❖ You should be able to distinguish
memory”. the editorial styles of formats of
the following: the Modern
DATABASE Language Association (MLA)
o Refers to a collection of information which is popular today and the APA
assembled in computer accessible Style of the American
form. Psychological Association
o Are produced by both public and private
organizations.
 5. Review and synthesize those findings information because it is much faster than
that support or reject your hypothesis or manual searching.
research questions. o Begin with an on-line search using the
❖ There are many theories which are descriptors from your list of variables. This
useful for hypothesizing and is useful if you don’t know where to start.
explaining relationships in
For your related studies, professional journals
research. Explore on these.
and periodicals are usually good sources of
There are many available sources of information on studies conducted. Books are
information which the researcher may avail of in good for theoretical framework. Once all these
relation to the topic chosen. Also, there are many are available, then take time to make your
useful references where you can search for critiques. Critique the material as you read
related information. Records and report of them, particularly the research literature.
organizations, statistical data, census data,
a) What are the conclusions made by
government and business documents,
researcher?
periodicals and journals, theses and
b) Did he/she base these from valid findings?
dissertations, unpublished manuscripts, indexes
Valid instruments?
and abstracts, etc. The sources of information
c) Appropriate sampling technique?
which you have selected and amount of
d) Are the findings supported by the data?
information are no longer confined in libraries
e) Judge objectively and indicate the
with the advent of information assembled in
relevance or significant relationships
computer accessible form. These are produced
between your study and his study. You
by various types of organizations and which are
might later find out that not all are really
increasing steadily.
pertinent to your problem.

6. Use on-line computers for searching

7. Synthesize the reviewed literature.
and retrieval of information.
❖ Categorize them and cluster them
❖ Surf the internet. You can use a
according to whether these were
computer to find researches
conducted abroad or locally, or you
through search engines and Web
may categorize them according to
sites. Many search engine names
periods, to geographical location or
such as Yahoo, Alta Vista, Infoseek
origin, to similarity in their
and Lycos are very popular these
methodology, or contrast in their
days. Students usually consult
findings or even similarity in their
them when they write term papers.
conclusions
❖ When all these are done, then you
THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB are ready with Chapter 2 of your
project.
o Offer potential researchers so much
literature.
o It is more cost-effective to use on-line
computer searching and retrieval of
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS 3) Historical Review.
❖ The purpose of historical review is to
Literature reviews are designed to
systematically examine past events to
provide an overview of sources the researcher
give an account of what has happened
has explored while researching a particular
in the past.
topic and to demonstrate to the readers how
❖ It is not a mere accumulation of facts
the research fits within a larger field of study
and dates or even a description of past
(University of Southern California). The following
events.
are the basic types of literature review:
❖ Historical review is a flowing, dynamic
1) Argumentative Review. account of past events which involves
❖ This form examines literature an interpretation of these events in an
selectively in order to support or refute attempt to recapture the nuances,
an argument, deeply imbedded personalities, and ideas that
assumption, or philosophical problem influenced these events.
already established in the literature. ❖ The main focus of this is to
❖ The purpose is to develop a body of communicate an understanding of
literature that establishes opposite past events.
perspective.
❖ Given the value-laden nature of some 4) Methodological Review.
social science research (eg, ❖ A review does not always focus on
educational reform. Immigration what someone said but how they came
control), argumentative approaches to about (method of analysis).
analyzing the literature can be a ❖ Reviewing methods of analysis
legitimate and important form of provides a framework of understanding
discourse. at different levels (ie. Those of theory.
Substantive fields, research
2) Integrative Review. approaches, and data collection and
❖ This is considered a form of research analysis techniques), how researchers
that reviews, critiques, and draw upon a wide variety of knowledge
synthesizes representative literature ranging from the conceptual level to
on a topic in an integrated way such practical documents for use in
that new frameworks and perspectives fieldwork in the areas of ontological
on the topic are generated. and epistemological consideration,
❖ The body of literature includes all quantitative and qualitative
studies that address related or integration, sampling, interviewing,
identical hypotheses or research data collection, and data analysis.
problems. ❖ This approach helps highlight ethical
❖ A well-done integrative review meets issues which you should be aware of
the same standards as primary and consider as you go through your
research in regard to clarity, rigor, and own study
replication. This is the most common
form of review in the social sciences.
 5) Systematic Review. ❖ To have basis that will be used to support
❖ The purpose of a systematic review is findings of the study
to attain conclusion regarding the
chosen topic.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATERIALS CITED:
❖ This form consists of an overview of
existing evidence pertinent to a clearly ❖ Sarno (2010) enumerated the different
formulated research question, which characteristics of the literature and
uses pre- specified and standardized studies to be cited in the present study
methods to identify and critically ❖ The materials must be as recent as
appraise relevant research, and to possible, may be 10 years back
collect, report, and analyze data from ❖ Materials must be as objective and
the studies that are included in the unbiased as possible.
review. ❖ Materials must be relevant to the study.
❖ Coherence principle must be observed in
6) Theoretical Review. writing literature review.
❖ The purpose of this form is to examine
the body of theory that has CITATION
accumulated in regard to an issue, CITATION STYLE GUIDE
concept, theory, phenomena.
❖ The Theoretical literature review helps Reference is an important part of a
to establish what theories already research paper It must be consistent and easy to
exist, the relationships between them, read across different papers. There are
to what degree the existing theories predefined styles stating how to set them out
have been investigated, and to develop these are called citation styles. Different subjects
new hypotheses to be tested. prefer to use different styles. Referencing is a
❖ Often this form is used to help method used to demonstrate to the readers that
establish a lack of appropriate theories you have conducted a thorough and appropriate
or reveal that current theories are literature search, and reading.
inadequate for explaining new or ❖ APA (American Psychological
emerging research problems. Association), APA is an author/date-
❖ The unit of analysis can focus on a based style. This means emphasis is
theoretical concept or a whole theory placed on the author and the date of a
or framework. piece of work to uniquely identify it.
❖ MLA (Modern Language Association).
MLA is most often applied by the arts and
FUNCTIONS OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND humanities, particularly in the USA It is
STUDIES: arguably the most well used of all of the
❖ To provide justification of the study citation styles.
❖ To identify gaps, problems and needs of ❖ Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA.
related studies Where APA is primarily used in the USA,
❖ To provide rationale of the study as well as Harvard referencing is the most well used
the reasons of conducting study referencing style in the UK. And Australia,
 and is encouraged for use with the ❖ Citations from a secondary source
humanities.
Example: As Hall (1977) asserts, “culture also
❖ Vancouver. The Vancouver system is
defines boundaries of different groups” (as
mainly used in medical and scientific
cited in Samovar & Porter, 1997, p. 14).
papers.
❖ Chicago and Turabian. These are two APA Examples of References by Type
separate styles but are very similar, just In a reference list In- text citation
like Harvard and APA. These are widely 1. Book with one (King, 2000) or
author King (2000)
used for history and economics. Most of
King M. (2000). compares
the education researches and social Wrestling with the Frame…
science researches used American angel: A life of Janet
Frame. Auckland, New
Psychological Association (APA) Zealand: Viking
referencing. APA requires that information
2. Books with two (Dancey and
be cited in 2 different ways-within the text
authors Reidy, 2004) or
and in a reference list at the end of the Dancey, C.P., and Dancey and
paper. The reference list should be on a Reidy, J (2004). Reidy (2004)
Statistics without
new page, double spaced, and use the said…
maths for psychology:
hanging indent method (all lines after the Using SPSS for
first one are indented). Windows ( 3rd ed.).
Harlow, England:
Pearson/ Prentice
Hall.
IN-TEXT CITATION 3. Book with three to (Krause,
The University of Waikato released handout on five authors Bochner, &
Krause, K. -L., Bochner, Duchesne,
how to use APA reference format. S., & Duchesne, S. 2006)
(2006). Educational
❖ Direct quotation – use quotation marks psychology for learning
If used first time
around the quote and include page and teaching ( 2nd ed.). then in
South Melbourne, Vic., subsequent
numbers. Australia: Thomson. citations,
Example: Samovar and Porter (1997) point out (Krause et al.,
that “language involves attaching meaning to 2006)
symbols” (p.188). Alternatively, “Language
involves attaching meaning to symbols” MLA FORMATTING AND STYLE GUIDE
(Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.188)
Modern Language Association (MLA) is
❖ Indirect quotation/paraphrasing - no most often applied by the arts and humanities,
quotation marks particularly in the USA. It is arguably the most well
used of all of the citation styles. The MLA system
Example: Attaching meaning to symbols is
uses in-text citations rather than footnotes or
considered to be the origin of written language
endnotes. The citations in-text are very brief,
(Samovar & Porter, 1997).
usually just the author’s family name and a
relevant page number. These citations
correspond to the full references in the list of
works cited at the end of the document (Monash additional authors their names are not
University) inverted.
❖ If you cite more than one work by the same
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
author, give the names in the first entry
❖ If the author’s name is mentioned in the only. Thereafter, use three hyphens
sentence, only cite the page number. instead of the name.
❖ If the author’s name is not mentioned in ❖ If a reference does not have an author, list
the sentence, cite both the name and the it by title. Ignore the leading article (A. The
page number. etc.) when inserting the reference into the
❖ Font and capitalization must match that in alphabetical works cited list.
the reference list. ❖ If you cannot validate a reference’s
❖ Long quotations (more than three lines) authorship, date of publication or
should be indented. authoritativeness, especially if it is an
❖ If you are citing more than one reference at online resource; consider using another
the same point in a document. Separate similar reference that is more authoritative
the references with a semicolon (Example instead.
Faltado1110: Pogoy 101). ❖ For a journal article in an online database
❖ If the work has no author, use the title. (e.g. via the Library website) include the
❖ If you are citing two works by the same name of the database (italicized), the
author, put a comma after the author’s medium of publication (Web) and the date
name and add title words. (Boholano, of access .
“Fractality 23) to distinguish between ❖ When there are two or more cities or
them in the in-text citation. Do this when places listed for the one publisher select
citing each of the sources throughout the the first listed place of publication.
piece of writing. ❖ When the title page lists two or more
❖ If two authors have the same surname, publishers which are not just two or more
use their first initial (H. Boholano 65) offices of the same publisher, include all of
them, in the order given as part of the
publication information, putting a
LIST OF WORKS CITED
semicolon after the name of each
❖ The recommended heading for the publisher but the last.
reference list is Works Cited, which should
be centered.
❖ Each reference should be formatted with HARVARD REFERENCING GUIDE
double-spacing and a hanging indent.
Harvard is a style of referencing, primarily
❖ Capitalize the first word of the title or
used by university students, to cite information
subtitle, and all other significant words.
sources. It is the preferred referencing style for
❖ Author’s names should be listed with full
many disciplines of study at the University of
forenames if known.
Western Australia. It is an author-date referencing
❖ The name of the first author is inverted to
style. The Harvard citation style can vary in minor
list the family name first. If there are
features such as punctuation, capitalization
abbreviations, and the use of italics.
 In-text citations are used when directly those in literature, history and the arts. This style
quoting or paraphrasing a source. They are presents biographic information in notes and,
located in the body of the work and contain a often, a bibliography. It accommodates in variety
fragment of the full citation Reference lists are of sources, including esoteric ones less
located at the end of the work and display full appropriate to the author date system.
citations for sources used in the assignment.
Chicago Style Examples of References by
Harvard Examples of References by Type Type
In a reference list In-text citation In a reference list In-text
Book: single author (Holt 1997) or citation
Holt, DH 1997, Management Holl (1997) Book: single author Pollan,
principles and practices, Prentice- wrote that.... Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Omnivore’s
Hall, Sydney Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Dilemma, 3.
Book: more than 3 authors (Bond et al. Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006), 99-
Bond, WR, Smith, JT, Brown, KL & 1996) 100.
George, M 1996, Management of
small firms, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four
Book: editor (Jones 1998)
Meals. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Jones, MD (ed) 1998, Management
in Australia, Academic Press, Book: Two or more authors Ward and
Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The Burns, War,
London.
War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945 59-61.
(New York: Knopf, 2007), 52.
USING THE VANCOUVER REFERENCING STYLE
Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. The
War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945.
Vancouver referencing style is the New York: Knopf, 2007.
preferred referencing style for most faculty of
Medicine, Dentistry and Heath Sciences course. Book: Four or more authors, Barnes et al.,
When writing a reference list in Vancouver style, list all of the authors in the Plastics…
bibliography; in the note, list
the researcher needs to remember the following:
only the first author, followed by
❖ Arrange your list chronologically et al. ("and others")
❖ Number all references
❖ List the first 6 authors followed by et’al.’ If Book published Austen, Pride
electronically and Prejudice.
there are more than 6 authors Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (New
❖ Use official abbreviations for titles of York: Penguin Classics, 2007), Kindle
journals (if available) edition.

Journal Article in a print Weinstein,

CHICAGO STYLE CITATION journal "Plato's
Joshua 1. Weinstein, "The Market in Republic," 452-
According to Chicago manual of style Plato's Republic, Classical Philology 53.
online, it presents two basic documentation 104 (2009):440.
systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) Article in an online journal
GueorgiKossinets and Duncan J.
author-date. Choosing wo often depends on Watts, "Origins of Homophily in an Kossinets and
Watts, "Origins
subject matter and the nature of sources cited, as Evolving Social Network, “American
Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 411, of Homophily,
each system is favored by different groups of “439.
accessed February 28, 2010,
scholars. The notes and bibliography style are doi:10.1086/599247.
preferred by many in the humanities, including