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Major Approaches
in Psychology:
Cognitive Approach

1. Memory
Cognitive
Approach
2. Visual Perception

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Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach focuses on our internal mental processes.

These distinguish us from other species & they are linked to other approaches.

Memory Learning

Memory &
Learning They are interdependent because:
Learning involves
Remembering
accumulation of
something involves
knowledge/skills -
recall of previous
impossible in the
learning.
absence of memory.

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Memory & Learning

Stage 1: Encoding Stage 2: Storage Stage 3: Retrieval

• Processing • Some of encoded • Accessing the

meaning of the information is information from
material to be stored in long- long-term
learnt. term memory. memory.

Testing Memory

Recognition:
Free recall:
Cued recall: a test in which previously
a test in which words from
a test in which clues are presented information is
a list are produced in any
given to help memory. distinguished from that not
order.
previously presented.

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Testing Memory
Look at the following list of words:

CHAIR TABLE LEOPARD WATCH

FOREST MOUTH GARDEN

Write as many words as you

remember, in any order.
Exercise 1:
Free Recall

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Exercise 2:
Cued Recall

Guess the word

after being shown
WA___ TA___ CH___
the first two letters
of each word:

GA___ LE___ MO___ FO____

Exercise 3: Recognition
Select the words that were mentioned in the list:

CHAIN CHAIR CARPET MOUSE TABLE

PEN BIRD LEOPARD TIME FLOWER

WATCH GARAGE FOREST

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Exercise 3: Recognition
Select the words that were mentioned in the list:

CHAIN CHAIR CARPET MOUSE TABLE

PEN BIRD LEOPARD TIME FLOWER

WATCH GARAGE FOREST

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Different Types of Memory

Psychologists argue that there are different types of memory.

Models of memory provide a framework to explain how our memory system works.

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) regard our memory as being divided into stores.

They distinguished between short-term memory & long-term memory.

This is the Multistore Model of Memory

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Multistore Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

Sensory memory
• Information from the environment is stored very briefly, 1-2 seconds.
• This information is initially received by sensory stores, one for each sense.
• Example: hearing a mobile number.
• Some of this information is attended to & processed further in the short-term store.

Short-term memory (STM)

• Memory for information which is currently in mind.
• It has very limited capacity (6-7 items) & is short-lived (easily forgotten).
• Example: remembering a mobile number for a few seconds.
• Information moves from short-term store to long-term store, through rehearsal.

Long-term memory (LTM)

• Contains stored information that need not be presently/consciously accessible.
• It has unlimited capacity & is stored for longer periods (less easily forgotten).
• Example: remembering your own mobile number.

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Multistore Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

This model shows how information flows between the different stores of memory.

It is a linear model – no steps are skipped.

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Multistore Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

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Multistore Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
(STM) (LTM)
Capacity Vast 7 items (± 2) Unlimited

Duration 0.25 – 2 seconds Up to 30 seconds Indefinite

Atkinson & Shiffrin argued that information in the STM is very fragile
& lasts for about 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.

The multistore model suggests that the longer the information is held
& rehearsed in the STM, the more likely it is transferred to the LTM.

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Multistore Model of Memory – Case Studies

PATIENT K. F. PATIENT H.M.
( SHAL LICE & WAR RING TON, 1 97 0 ) ( SCOV IL LE & MILNER, 19 5 7)

K.F. suffered brain damage in his His hippocampi were removed to treat
temporal lobe in a motorcycle accident. his epileptic seizures.

Poor performance of STM tasks  Good STM 

• 1-2 digit span • His digit span was normal.

Good LTM  Bad LTM 

• He could remember digits after rehearsing • He was very distressed when learning about
them. the death of his uncle.
• But later would react in the same way to the
news – as if it is the first time he is hearing it.
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Distinction between STM & LTM

The case studies support the
distinction between STM & LTM.

K.F. shows poor STM but good LTM

There is a double dissociation.

H.M. shows good STM but poor LTM

We can conclude that these two stores

of memory are separate (i.e. located in
different areas of the brain).

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This is one of many models of memory:

Multistore Model Working Memory Model Level of Processing Model
(Atkinson & Shiffrin) (Baddeley & Hitch) (Craik & Lockhart)

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The Capacity of Short Term

Memory

Digit Span Technique (Jacobs, 1887)

Joseph Jacobs showed participants a list of letters or digits, then

instructed them to repeat them in the correct order.

Participants could recall more digits than letters.

The average span for digits: 9.3 The average span for letters: 7.3

Jacobs concluded we can hold between 5-9 items in our STM depending on
the items we are trying to retain.

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Chunking (Miller, 1956)

The Capacity of
Short Term Memory George Miller argued that the average person can
retain about 7 items in STM.

He described the STM capacity as 7 (± 2)

However, he also suggested that this number can

be increased if we focus on chunks instead of
separate items.

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Chunking (Miller, 1956)

Chunking is when a person groups items into larger units.

Example: E-O-N-T-S-R-T-S-T-O-E-E
• It is too difficult for our STM to remember this string of 12 letters.
• But if we chunk them into one word (TESTOSTERONE) it only takes up 1 space in the STM,
leaving room to retain other items.
Miller also claimed that regardless of the size of the chunk, it will only take 1 space in
the STM’s capacity.

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The Working Memory Model offers an alternative view (from the Multistore Model)
on how the STM works.

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) suggest replacing the term STM with working memory.

• We use it in complex tasks & to store information needed for later processing.

It refers to a system that combines processing & short-term memory functions.

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Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Memory is an active process

in this model.
• This contrasts the passive process of
information flow in the stores of the
Multistore Model.

STM is not a unitary store, but

composed of various stores.
• They have limited capacity & process
information independently.

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The Four Components of the Working Memory Model

1. Central Executive

It controls & It is used in It can process

It acts as an
coordinates the complex cognitive information from
attentional
other tasks such as any sensory
controller.
components. problem-solving. modality.

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The Four Components of the Working Memory Model

2. Phonological Loop
It processes & briefly It is involved in verbal Example: when
stores verbal rehearsing & speech rehearsing words for a
information. perception. memory task.

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The Four Components of the Working Memory Model

3. Visuospatial Sketchpad

It processes & briefly stores Example: remembering the way

visual & spatial information. from the bus stop to school.

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The Four Components of the Working Memory Model

4. Episodic Buffer
It combines & integrates information
It is a passive & brief ‘backup’ store. from the phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad & LTM.

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Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

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Episodic Memory

Declarative/Explicit
Semantic Memory
Memory

Autobiographical
Memory
Long Term Memory

Priming
Non-Declarative/Implicit
Memory
Skill Learning/
Procedural Memory

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Declarative vs. Non-Declarative Memory

Declarative (Explicit) Memory
• Conscious & intentional recollection of
information.
• It is concerned with personal experiences
& general knowledge.
• Examples: knowing the name of your best
friend, the colours of your national flag.

Non-Declarative (Implicit) Memory

• It does not involve conscious recollection
but reveals itself through behaviour.
• It is concerned with motor & other skills.
• Examples: running, typing, conditioned
reflexes.

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Declarative/Explicit Memory

Contains information
1. Episodic Memory:
about what, where &
when we remember
when something
personal events.
happened.

It is a constructive Examples:
rather than • What you ate last night.
reproductive process, • The last country you
prone to errors & visited.
illusions.

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Declarative/Explicit Memory

2. Semantic Consists of our

Memory: knowledge of
when we remember language & the
facts & information. world.

Examples:
Less vulnerable to • That Rome is the
brain damage than capital of Italy.
episodic memory. • That ice-cream melts in
the Sun.

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Declarative/Explicit Memory
3. Autobiographical Very similar to episodic
Memory: memory, but episodic
when we remember memory is concerned
personal experiences of with relatively trivial
importance in our lives. experiences.

Some autobiographical Examples:

memories may involve • Your first date.
episodic memory, whilst • The day you failed your
others involve semantic exam.
memory.

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Non-Declarative/Implicit Memory
1. Priming: involves the facilitated processing of
(& response to) a target stimulus because the
same/similar stimulus was presented previously.

Repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to more

efficient processing & use of less resources.
• Therefore it requires less brain activity.

You are primed by your experiences – if you saw

something recently/repeatedly you are primed to recall it
more quickly.

Example: Name an American city which starts with the

letters CH.
• Most people would answer Chicago unless you have a close
personal connection or recent experience with another city
(Charlotte, Cheyenne, Charleston, etc.)

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Non-Declarative/Implicit Memory
2. Skill Learning/Procedural
Memory: enables us to carry out
commonly learned tasks without
consciously thinking about them.

It is our how to knowledge.

Examples:
• Learning how to ride a bicycle.
• Learning how to play a video game.

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Priming vs. Skill Learning

Priming occurs
rapidly.
It is only linked to
specific stimuli.

Skill learning is slow

& gradual.
It generalises to
other stimuli.

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Case Study: Amnesia

Amnesia: a condition caused by brain
damage in which patients have intact
STM but poor LTM.
Example: Despite having impaired
declarative memory, HM generally
had good non-declarative memory.
Some patients perform well on
priming & skill learning tasks.

This confirms that declarative

(explicit) & non-declarative (implicit)
memory are different/distinct from
each other.
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Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

This is an approach based on the assumption that meaning must be processed for good
long-term memory
Craik & Lockhart argued that we remember things that are meaningful to us

Information can be encoded & processed at different levels.

The deeper the level the more likely that the information is remembered.

Shallow Processing Deep Processing

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Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

• What does the word
Structural look like?
Level • E.g. – upper or lower
case letters?

• What does the word sound

Phonological like?
Level • E.g. – does it rhyme with cat?

• What does the word mean?

Semantic • E.g. – is it a type of animal?
Level

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Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

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Levels of Processing Theory - Assumptions

LTM depends on the processes occurring at the
Structural
time of learning.
Level
If meaning is processed at learning, then LTM will
be better than if meaning is not processed.

Phonological Processing of meaning = deep processing

Level Failure to process meaning = shallow processing

Elaborative Rehearsal improves LTM.

Maintenance Rehearsal does not.
Semantic • Maintenance rehearsal – just repeating words over
Level & over.
• Elaborative rehearsal – repeat reasoning behind
thought.

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Organisation in Memory

Human memory is generally highly organised.

Information which is well-organised is easier to remember.

Categorical
Schema Theory Rationalisation
Clustering

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Categorical Clustering
goat basketball Philip roses football

daffodil dog Tom Jane tulip

cat sunflower tennis Rita gymnastics

Example: Free recall of the following list of words.

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Categorical Clustering Words are not recalled in a random

order.
• They are mostly recalled category by category.

Example:
• Animals: goat, dog, cat
• Sports: basketball, football, tennis, gymnastics
• Flowers: roses, daffodil, tulip, sunflower
• Names: Philip, Tom, Jane, Rita

This is categorical clustering.

It is based on knowledge stored in

LTM.

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Schema Theory
People use previous relevant knowledge to assist their learning & memory in the form of
schemas.

Schemas: organised packets of information about the world, events, or people stored in
LTM & used to guide action.

Schemas often enhance LTM because new information is linked to information that is
already known.

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Schema Theory
Example - schema for going to the cinema
buy
tickets
find & buy
sit on snacks
seat & drinks

Cinema
go to toilet
during
find the
intermission theatre

watch sit
first down
part on seat

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Reconstructive Memory
Barlett (1932) argued that our schematic knowledge can disrupt our
long-term memory.

He presented English students with stories from a different culture to

produce a conflict between the story & their prior knowledge.

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Reconstructive
Barlett gave students a Native American story &
Memory asked them to recall it.
• Students shortened the story or gave a simpler
version of it.

The students’ schematic knowledge caused

systematic distortions which made their story
conform to their cultural expectations.

This type of reconstruction is called

rationalisation.
• Rationalisation is the tendency in story recall to
produce errors conforming to expectations based on
an individual’s schemas.

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Organisation in Memory: Summary

Rationalisation:
Schemas:
Categorical the tendency in
organised
Clustering: story recall to
knowledge about
the tendency in produce errors
the world,
free recall to conforming to
events, or people
produce words expectations
in long-term
on a category-by- based on an
memory & used
category basis. individual’s
to guide action.
schemas.

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Organisation in Memory: Summary

Schematic knowledge of the
world is used when we learn &
remember.

Schemas provide an
organisational framework that
enhances LTM.

 However, many errors &

distortions in LTM are due to the
influence of schematic information.

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Visual Perception
It is concerned with the
acquisition & process of visual
information to see objects in
the world.

We will be dealing with the

following:
• Perceptual Organisation
• Depth Perception
• Object Recognition
• Size Constancy
• Visual Illusions
• Change Blindness

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Perceptual Organisation
Gestalt psychologists studied perceptual organisation in the early 20th
century.

Law of Prägnanz:
Visual perception tends to be organised as simply as possible.

Examples:
• 1. Law of proximity
• 2. Law of similarity
• 3. Law of good continuation
• 4. Law of closure
• 5. Figure-ground segmentation

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Visual elements close to each other

1. Law of Proximity tend to be grouped together.

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Visual elements are grouped together

2. Law of Similarity if they are similar in shape, size,
colour, or other characteristics.

Vertical columns are seen rather

than horizontal rows, since similar
visual elements (shapes) are
grouped together.

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Visual elements producing the fewest

3. Law of Good interruptions to smoothly curving
Continuation lines are grouped together.

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Missing parts of a figure are filled in to

4. Law of Closure complete it.

We tend to ignore gaps &

complete contour lines.

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5. Figure-Ground The perception of a visual scene as

consisting of a figure/object standing
Segmentation out from a less distinct background.

One part of the visual field is identified as the figure

(central object) whereas the rest forms the ground.
The figure has a distinct shape & the ground lacks
form.

The figure is perceived in front of the ground (given

more attention).

The outline separating the figure from the ground

belongs to the figure.

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5. Figure-Ground Segmentation : More Examples

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Gestalt psychologists discovered several

major laws of perceptual organisation.

 They correctly emphasised the importance

of perceptual organisation & figure-ground
segregation.
However they exaggerated the importance
of innate factors - perceptual organisation
also depends on experience & learning.
Perceptual
The Gestalt laws are descriptive rather than
Organisation explanatory – they do not explain why
similar/close elements are grouped.

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Depth Perception
It focuses on our ability to perceive depth.

It uses the two-dimensional image on the

retina of our eye to produce our perception
of a three-dimensional world.

There are numerous cues used to achieve

accurate depth perception:
• Monocular cues
• Binocular cues
• Oculomotor cues

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Monocular Cues
Depth cues that require the use of only one eye.

These are sometimes called pictorial cues.

• Artists have used them to create the impression of 3D scenes
on 2D canvases.

Examples:
• 1. linear perspective
• 2. texture gradient
• 3. interposition
• 4. shading
• 5. motional parallax

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Monocular Cues
1. Linear Perspective:
a strong impression of depth in
2D images created by lines
converging on the horizon.

The distances between objects

appear smaller the further away
they are from us.

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Monocular Cues
2. Texture Gradient:
a depth cue provided by the
increased rate of change in texture
density of a slanting object.

The relative coarseness or

smoothness of an object is used as a
cue for distance.

Closer objects appear to have a

coarser (more detailed) texture than
more distant objects.

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Monocular Cues
3. Interposition:
a depth cute in which a closer object partly
hides another object which is further away.

• Thus, when objects block our view of others, we

perceive the obscured objects as further away.

Example: Kanizsa’s illusory square

• It looks as if there is a square in front of four
circles, even though most of the square’s
contours are missing.
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Monocular Cues
4. Shading:
patterns of light & dark, create
the appearance of 3D objects
or curving surfaces.
• We perceive objects that are
lighter on top & darker on the
bottom to be bumps.
• Whilst we perceive objects darker
on top & lighter on the bottom to
be dents.

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Monocular Cues 5. Motion Parallax:

a depth cue provided by the
movement of an object’s image
across the retina.

Example: Looking into the

distance from a moving car.
• The speed of objects passing by seems
faster the closer they are to you.
• Distant objects seem to move in the same
direction as the car, whilst nearby objects
apparently move in the opposite direction.

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Depth cues The most

Binocular Cues requiring the use important of such
of both eyes. cues is stereopsis.

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Binocular Cues
Stereopsis:
a depth cue to based on the fact that objects produce slightly
different images on the retinas of the two eyes.

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Binocular Cues - Stereopsis

Although we receive two different images
through our eyes, we do not usually see
double images.
• Our brain is able to fuse these two images.

The greater the difference in position of the

object, the nearer it is.

• Therefore stereopsis is only effective at

relatively short distances.

Stereopsis plays an important role in 3D films.

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Oculomotor Cues
Depth cues based on the contractions of muscles around the eye.

These cues are kinaesthetic

Examples:
Convergence Accommodation

These cues are only of use with objects very close to the observer, so
contribute little to depth perception.
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Oculomotor Cues
Convergence:
Depth cue provided by the greater inward turning of eyes when
looking at a close object than at one further away.

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Oculomotor Cues
Accommodation:
Depth cue involving a thickening of the eye’s lenses when
focusing on close objects.

The brain determines how

tense the muscles are to focus
on an object & uses this to
determine how near/far the
object is.

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Integrating Cue Information

In the real world we have access to several cues at the

same time.

We assign more importance to reliable cues to ensure

accuracy of depth perception.

Reliable cues provide unambiguous information

which is consistent with that provided by other cues.

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Object Recognition
We recognise many
objects:

over a wide
which vary in range of
size, colour viewing
& shape. distances &
orientations.

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Recognition-by-components theory
Objects consist of basic components – Irving Biederman
geons (geometric ions).

Geons – basic shapes combined in

object recognition (e.g. blocks,
cylinders, spheres, arcs, wedges, etc.)

There are a lot of different geons

which make up a lot of different
possible combinations

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Recognition-by-components theory
According to Biederman, this geon-based information about
objects is stored in long-term memory.
Hence, object recognition is based on the identification of geons.

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1. Viewpoint-invariant perception
Biederman states that we have viewpoint-
invariant perception.
• Viewpoint-invariant perception:
It is equally easy for us to recognise objects from different
viewpoints unless one or more geons are hidden from view.

Object recognition is much harder when parts of

the outline which provide information about
concavities are omitted, than when other parts of
the outline are deleted.
• Concavities:
hollows in the objects’ outline which are of major importance
in object recognition.

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2. Viewpoint-dependent perception

Contrary to Biederman’s claim,

object recognition is often
viewpoint-dependent.

Viewpoint-dependent perception:
Object recognition is usually faster
& easier when objects are seen
from certain angles (especially
typical ones).

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Summary
Object Recognition
1. viewpoint invariant 2. viewpoint-
perception dependent perception
• It is equally easy to • It is easier to recognise
recognise objects from from some viewpoints than
many different viewpoints. from others.

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Object recognition is sometimes

(a) viewpoint invariant
When it involves making easy discriminations.
• i.e. it involves simple categorisation

Example: Which of these images show a car?

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Object recognition is sometimes

(b) viewpoint dependent

When we need to do
difficult within-category
discriminations.
• i.e. more complex identification

Example: Which one of

these cars is a Peugeot?

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Size Constancy
Definition: The tendency for any
given object to appear the same
size in spite of wide variations in
the size of the retinal image.
Familiar objects look more or less
the same size regardless of their
distance away from us.

Example: Retinal image of an

object 10m away is much smaller
than retinal image of the same
object 1m away.

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Size Constancy
Why?
We take account of
an object’s Perceived distance
apparent distance is influenced by
when judging its familiar size.
size.

Size Distance

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Size Constancy: Ames Room

Ames room has a very unusual shape
that looks like an ordinary room under
some viewing conditions.

It is an example of distortion based on

size constancy.

It shows that perceived distance can

influence size perception.

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Size Constancy: Ames Room

Our expectation that

rooms are A person walking
rectangular & have backwards &
equal distances of forwards in this
length/depth make room seems to be
us see the room as growing & shrinking.
normal.

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Ames Room

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Visual Illusions
Visual illusions are drawings or other visual stimuli
that are misperceived by nearly everyone.

The Müller-Lyer illusion is a well-known example.

Which line is longer?

• They are the same size!

The Line A seems longer than Line B.

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Visual Illusions

Although the two lines in Müller-Lyer illusion are in 2D, our expectations about
how these figures would look like in 3D create the illusion effect (Gregory, 1970).
• Line A looks like the inside of a room.
• Line B looks like the outside corner of a building.

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Visual Illusions
The incorrect comparison theory may explain why we fall into these visual traps.

We are influenced by parts of the figure that we do not judge.

Example: Müller-Lyer illusion was greatly reduced when the arrows were a different
colour to the vertical lines.
• These made them more obvious & easier to detect.

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Two Perception Systems (Milner & Goodale)

How have we survived if our visual perceptual processes are so error-prone?

Milner & Goodale argued that we have two visual systems:

1. Vision-for-perception system – used to identify objects.

E.g. deciding whether we are confronted by a cat or
Also known as the what system.
tiger.

2. Vision-for-action system – used for visually guided action, such as our position with
respect to objects.
Also known as the how system. E.g. when avoiding a speeding car.

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Two Perception Systems

Visual illusions are strongly influenced by
our expectations concerning the world
around us only when we use the vision-for-
perception system.
• This system is fooled by illusions.

There is little/no illusion effect & our

expectations are unimportant when using
the vision-for-action system.

• This system is not fooled by illusions

(e.g. allows us to avoid falling over cliffs).

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Failure of Visual Awareness

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Inattentional Blindness
Inattentional blindness – the failure to perceive presence of
an unexpected object in the visual environment.

When is inattentional blindness found?

The similarity between an unexpected object & other

objects in the visual environment.
But 83% noticed the gorilla when
58% of participants did not see gorilla. observed team wore black.
(more similar to gorilla)

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Inattentional Blindness vs. Change Blindness

Inattentional blindness – the failure to perceive presence of an
unexpected object in the visual environment.

A similar concept is change blindness.

Change blindness – the failure to detect that a visual stimulus has

moved, changed, or been replaced by another stimulus.
It describes our exaggerated belief about our ability to detect
visual changes.
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Inattentional Blindness vs. Change Blindness

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Change Blindness Video

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When is change blindness found?

When difference is of marginal interest rather than
central interest it is more difficult for us to detect.

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What causes change blindness?

Attentional processes play an important role in change blindness.

Lack of attention increases chance of change blindness.

Change is more likely to be detected when the changed object had received
attention before the change took place.

Easier change detection when object is swapped with a different type of object
rather than by a similar object.
Example: pen replaced by a book vs. red book replaced by green book.

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MATSEC QUESTION – May 2016

Homework: (a) Outline the main ideas on perception

put forward in Gestalt Theory.
Short Essay
(300 words (b) Describe short-term memory and long-
total) term memory and explain the relationship
between them.
Homework to be submitted on Teams in
Word (.doc) format.

100

50