GRADE 11

BIOLOGY NOTES
TEACHER MISS MELESSA CHICHESTER
TOPIC: THE SKIN

In the animal kingdom, birds and mammals are able to maintain a fairly constant body
temperature. They are described as being homeothermic (warm-blooded). This fairly constant
body temperature is maintained by using physiological mechanisms or processes which occur
within the body, for example respiration, which generates heat, and constriction of blood vessels
which reduces blood to flow to the skin and therefore heat loss. All invertebrates, fish,
amphibians and reptiles are unable to regulate their body temperature by physiological means.
They are described as poikilotermic. They rely on heat derived from the environment to keep
the body warm. Control of body temperature is achieved by behavioral mechanisms. For
example, moving to a cool place under a rock and basking in the sunshine. The body temperature
of poikilotherms usually depends on their environment.

HOMEOSTASIS

The regulation and maintenance of constant conditions within an organism is called homeostasis.
Therefore, keeping the temperature of the tissue fluid surrounding cells fairly constant is an
example of homeostasis.

The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is made up of three layers:
• the epidermis which is the outermost
layer
• the dermis which is below the
epidermis
• the subcutaneous layer which is the
bottom layer made up mainly of fat cells.
The skin plays a vital role in detecting
various stimuli such as touch, protecting
the body against infection by pathogens
and excessive water loss, and regulating
body temperature.

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 GRADE 11
BIOLOGY NOTES
TEACHER MISS MELESSA CHICHESTER
TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN HUMANS

Metabolic reactions generate heat and this heat is transported by the blood throughout the body
to keep it warm at 370C. some of the heat is lost to the environment through the skin. The loss of
this generated heat is regulated and controlled; for example, in cold environment less heat is lost
and more is conserved. Regulation of body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus of the
brain. The organ which brings out the changes if necessary, to conserve or lose heat, is the skin.
Temperature receptors in the skin receives the stimulus of changing external temperature. They
send impulses to the hypothalamus, which monitors these stimuli as well as the internal body
temperature. If the body temperature is changing, the hypothalamus responds by sending
impulses to effectors in the skin to bring about the response below:

To lose heat To conserve heat

Sweating increases-evaporation of water Sweating decreases
removes heat from the body
Vasodilation occurs- capillaries in the dermis Vasoconstriction occurs- capillaries of the
dilates so blood flow through the skin constrict so blood flow to the skin decreases,
increases, heat is lost from the blood. heat is retained in blood vessels deeper in the
body.
Hair erector muscle relax- hairs lie flat so Hair erector muscle contract- hairs stand up
moving air can get closer to the skin and trapping a layer of warm air next to the skin
remove heat. (insulation)
In addition to the responses in Table above the following occur:
 If the body temperature rises above 37 °C, the metabolic rate decreases so that less heat is
produced in the body.
 If the body temperature drops below 37 °C, the metabolic rate increases so that more
heat is produced and shivering may occur in muscles to generate even more heat.
Humans can generate an excessive amount of heat during exercise or increased activities. To
maintain a constant temperature, we have to lose this excess heat. Temperature regulation is
physiological in humans since we are mammals. However, we may change our behavior to help
the process. If you are hot because of strenuous exercise you could: remove some clothing, have
a cold drink, move to a cooler place or stop the activity. Humans do not have a thick layer of hair
and, if the environment is very cold they do not have effective insulation. Heat is generated by
the liver, but this may not be enough to keep the body temperature at the right level. Muscles
start to shiver involuntarily, to generate more heat. Humans get ‘goose bumps’ as the hair erector

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 GRADE 11
BIOLOGY NOTES
TEACHER MISS MELESSA CHICHESTER
muscles contract. We can help our body to warm up by: putting on thick clothing, having hot
drinks, moving to warmer places or move around to generate more heat.

THE SKIN AND PROTECTION

The skin plays a major role in protecting the body:
 The epidermis protects against the entry of pathogens.
 The epidermis, being waterproof, protects against water loss by evaporation from body
fluids.
 The melanin in the epidermis protects against the sun’s harmful ultra-violet rays.
 The epidermis protects against harmful chemicals in the environment.
 The subcutaneous layer protects against heat loss in low environmental temperatures.
 The subcutaneous layer protects against damage by acting as ‘padding’.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a network of

glands in your body that make the
hormones that help cells talk to each other.
They’re responsible for almost every cell,
organ, and function in your body. If your
endocrine system isn't healthy, you might
have problems developing during puberty,
getting pregnant, or managing stress. You
also might gain weight easily, have weak
bones, or lack energy because too much
sugar stays in your blood instead of
moving into your cells where it's needed
for energy.

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 GRADE 11
BIOLOGY NOTES
TEACHER MISS MELESSA CHICHESTER
Function of the endocrine system:

 Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs,
and reproduction
 Controls how your hormones are released
 Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts.

Parts of the endocrine system:

- Pituitary (Master gland)- It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands
in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone;
prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
(vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water.
- Thyroid- produces thyroxine. This controls metabolic rate. A lack in children produces
cretin (mentally- retarded dwarf). A lack in adult in adults produces myxedema (fat, slow
metabolism)
- Ovaries- produce female sex hormone oestrogen and progesterone, at puberty. These
cause development of the female secondary sexual characteristics and take part in the
menstrual cycle. Oestrogen causes repair of the uterus wall and swelling and heaviness of
breasts. Progesterone causes uterus wall to become thick and full of blood.
- Testes- produce male sex hormone testosterone, at puberty which causes development of
male secondary sexual characteristics.
- Adrenals- produces adrenaline which prepares the body for fight or flight in response to
a dangerous or emotional situation. Causes: increase in breathing and heart rate. Change
of glycogen to glucose in the blood. Widening of blood vessels to muscles to bring more
food and oxygen for physical exertion.
- Pancreas- produces insulin, which: make cell take up glucose for their normal use for
energy release and cause glucose to change to glycogen for storage, thus reducing blood
sugar level. Lack of insulin causes diabetes (build-up of glucose in the blood and
excretion in the urine).
- Hypothalamus-This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system.
Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.

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 GRADE 11
BIOLOGY NOTES
TEACHER MISS MELESSA CHICHESTER
- Pineal gland- It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go
to sleep.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Feedback is the process which nervous and endocrine systems keep a steady state in the body.
The system sense the results of their actions, and, if the factor rises above normal levels, they
stimulate action which lowers it. If the factor falls too much, other actions occurs to cause its
increase. In both cases there is a return to normal level.

For example:

Glucose concentration

If increases, for example a lot of glucose after a meal secretion of insulin by the
pancreas which causes a steady amount of glucose in the blood.

If decreased, for example lack of food secretion of adrenaline to change glycogen to

glucose resulting in a steady amount of glucose in the blood.

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