Science, Technology and Society

Historical Perspectives and Intellectual

2 Revolutions of Science & Technology

Learning Targets
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Identify major historical events in the field of Science,

Technology, and Society (STS).
2. Describe the key contributions of significant figures during
these intellectual revolutions.
3. Explain how these revolutions changed society and
influenced modern STS perspectives
 Science, Technology and Society

Introduction

Understanding the historical evolution of Science, Technology,

and Society (STS) provides valuable insights into how current
scientific and technological advancements shape and are shaped by
societal changes. This chapter will explore three major historical
revolutions that have profoundly impacted STS: the Scientific
Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and the Digital Revolution.
We will examine the key figures involved, their contributions, and
how these events transformed society.

Early Tools and Science Across Asia,

Mesoamerica, and Europe Before the
Scientific Revolution

Asia
1. Agricultural Tools and Techniques

• Origins: Early Asian civilizations, particularly in the fertile

river valleys of the Indus, Yellow, and Yangtze Rivers,
developed sophisticated agricultural techniques. They used
tools like the plow, which was initially made of wood and
later reinforced with metal parts.
• Discoveries: The use of irrigation systems in Mesopotamia
and the development of terrace farming in China allowed
for the efficient cultivation of crops. The Chinese also
pioneered the use of manure as fertilizer and crop rotation
techniques to maintain soil fertility.

2. Housing and Construction

• Origins: In ancient Asia, particularly in China and India,

early people built structures using locally available
materials such as bamboo, timber, and clay. The use of
mud bricks and the development of urban planning in cities
like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa exemplify advanced
construction techniques.
• Discoveries: The use of the arch and vault in ancient China
and the development of stilt houses in flood-prone areas
show an early understanding of engineering principles.
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3. Writing and Printing

• Origins: The earliest writing systems in Asia include

cuneiform in Mesopotamia and Chinese characters. The
invention of paper and printing techniques, such as
woodblock printing, originated in China.
• Discoveries: The Chinese developed paper around 105 CE,
which revolutionized record-keeping and communication.
Woodblock printing, invented during the Tang Dynasty,
allowed for the mass production of texts and played a
significant role in spreading knowledge.

4. Metallurgy and Tools

• Origins: Early metallurgy in Asia saw the development of

bronze tools and weapons, crucial for agriculture and
warfare.
• Discoveries: The Chinese were among the first to discover
and use cast iron, which was more durable than bronze. The
development of the compass, initially for divination,
eventually revolutionized navigation.

Mesoamerica
1. Agriculture and Irrigation

• Origins: Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya, Aztecs,

and Olmecs developed advanced agricultural techniques in
diverse environments, including tropical rainforests and
highlands.
• Discoveries: The Maya utilized raised fields and complex
irrigation systems to enhance crop production. The
chinampa system, or floating gardens, developed by the
Aztecs, allowed for highly productive farming in swampy
areas.

2. Architecture and Urban Planning

• Origins: Mesoamerican societies built impressive

structures using local materials like stone and adobe.
• Discoveries: The construction of monumental pyramids
and temples, such as those found in Teotihuacan and Tikal,
demonstrated advanced understanding of engineering and
astronomy. The Mayans used precise astronomical
alignments in their architectural designs.
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3. Writing and Calendar Systems

• Origins: Mesoamerican civilizations developed complex

writing systems and calendar systems.
• Discoveries: The Maya created a sophisticated writing
system with hieroglyphs and developed an intricate
calendar system that combined lunar and solar cycles. Their
understanding of time and astronomy was advanced for
their era.

4. Medicine and Astronomy

• Origins: Mesoamerican cultures had extensive knowledge

of herbal medicine and astronomy.
• Discoveries: The use of medicinal plants for treating
various ailments and the Mayan's detailed astronomical
observations for agricultural and ritual purposes highlight
their scientific knowledge.

Europe
1. Agriculture and Tool Development

• Origins: In prehistoric Europe, the development of

agriculture was marked by the use of tools such as the plow
and sickle.
• Discoveries: Early European farmers used stone and
bronze tools for planting and harvesting crops. The
development of the heavy plow in the Middle Ages
improved farming efficiency and productivity.

2. Architecture and Engineering

• Origins: Ancient European civilizations, including the

Greeks and Romans, were renowned for their architectural
and engineering achievements.
• Discoveries: The Romans built aqueducts, roads, and
monumental structures like the Colosseum, demonstrating
advanced engineering techniques. The use of concrete
allowed for more durable and complex constructions.

3. Writing and Record-Keeping

• Origins: The Greeks and Romans made significant

contributions to writing and record-keeping.
• Discoveries: The Greeks developed an alphabetic writing
system, which influenced later European languages. The
Romans improved upon this with the development of
parchment and codex formats for books.
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4. Mathematics and Science

• Origins: Greek and Roman scholars made early

contributions to mathematics and science.
• Discoveries: The Greeks, including figures like Euclid and
Archimedes, made advancements in geometry and
mechanics. The Romans adopted and adapted these ideas,
contributing to engineering and architecture.

5. Medicine and Natural Philosophy

• Origins: Ancient Greek medicine and natural philosophy

laid the groundwork for future scientific developments.
• Discoveries: Hippocrates and Galen made significant
contributions to medical knowledge and practice. Their
emphasis on observation and clinical practice set the stage
for later medical advancements.

The Rise and Fall of Mesopotamian and Egyptian

Civilizations

Mesopotamian Civilization
Rise:

• Geography and Agriculture: Mesopotamia, often referred

to as the "Cradle of Civilization," was located between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is modern-day Iraq. The
fertile land, known as the Fertile Crescent, allowed for the
development of agriculture, which in turn supported the
growth of cities and complex societies.
• Urbanization and Political Organization: Mesopotamia
was home to some of the earliest cities, such as Uruk, Ur,
and Babylon. The civilization was characterized by the
development of city-states, each with its own ruler. The
political organization of these city-states allowed for the
administration of large populations, the collection of taxes,
and the construction of monumental architecture like
ziggurats.
• Writing and Law: One of the most significant
achievements of Mesopotamian civilization was the
development of writing, particularly cuneiform. Writing
allowed for the recording of laws, transactions, and
literature, which in turn facilitated the administration of the
state. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest known
legal codes, is a testament to their advanced legal system.
• Advances in Science and Technology: The
Mesopotamians made significant advances in mathematics,
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astronomy, and engineering. They developed a base-60

number system, which is why we have 60 minutes in an
hour and 360 degrees in a circle. They also created an
accurate lunar calendar and made astronomical
observations that laid the groundwork for later
developments in the field.

Fall:

• Environmental Degradation: One of the critical factors in

the decline of Mesopotamian civilization was
environmental degradation. The intensive agriculture,
particularly the irrigation practices, led to the salinization
of the soil. Over time, this made the land less fertile,
reducing agricultural yields and weakening the economic
base of the civilization.
• Political Instability: The Mesopotamian city-states were
often in conflict with each other, leading to a fragmented
political landscape. This internal strife made the region
vulnerable to external invasions by groups such as the
Akkadians, Assyrians, and eventually the Persians.
• Invasions and Conquest: The continuous invasions by
outside groups further destabilized the region. The final
blow came when the Persian Empire, under Cyrus the
Great, conquered Babylon in 539 BCE, effectively ending
the independence of the Mesopotamian city-states.

Egyptian Civilization
Rise:

• Geography and the Nile River: Ancient Egypt was

centered around the Nile River, which provided fertile soil
for agriculture due to its regular flooding. This abundance
allowed for the development of a stable and prosperous
society. The Nile also served as a means of transportation
and communication, which was crucial for the
administration of the kingdom.
• Political Organization and the Pharaoh: The unification
of Upper and Lower Egypt under a single ruler, the
Pharaoh, created a centralized state with a strong
government. The Pharaoh was seen as a divine ruler, which
reinforced his authority and helped maintain social order.
• Advances in Science, Technology, and Architecture: The
Egyptians are renowned for their advances in engineering,
medicine, and astronomy. They built the pyramids, which
are still considered one of the greatest architectural feats in
history. They also developed a calendar based on the solar
year, which was highly accurate. In medicine, the
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Egyptians practiced surgery and had a deep understanding

of anatomy, largely due to their embalming practices.
• Writing and Culture: The development of hieroglyphics
allowed the Egyptians to record their history, religious
texts, and administrative documents. Their culture was rich
in art, literature, and religion, with a strong emphasis on the
afterlife, which influenced their monumental building
projects.

Fall:

• Internal Strife and Division: One of the significant factors

leading to the decline of Ancient Egypt was internal
division and strife. Over time, the power of the Pharaohs
weakened, leading to periods of instability known as the
Intermediate Periods. These were times of political
fragmentation, when rival dynasties and foreign rulers vied
for control.
• Invasions by Foreign Powers: Egypt faced invasions from
various foreign powers, including the Hyksos, Nubians,
Assyrians, and Persians. Each invasion weakened the
Egyptian state, leading to a loss of autonomy. The final
conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE marked the
end of Pharaonic Egypt and the beginning of the Hellenistic
period under the Ptolemaic dynasty.
• Economic Decline: The economy of Egypt was heavily
reliant on agriculture, which was dependent on the Nile's
flooding. However, changes in the flooding patterns,
possibly due to climate change, led to periods of famine
and economic decline. This undermined the state's ability to
maintain its infrastructure and military.
• Loss of Cultural Identity: As Egypt came under the
control of various foreign powers, it gradually lost its
cultural identity. The adoption of Greek culture under the
Ptolemies and later Roman influence led to the erosion of
traditional Egyptian customs and practices. By the time of
the Roman conquest in 30 BCE, Egypt had largely been
absorbed into the broader Greco-Roman world.

2.1 The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution, spanning the 16th and 17th centuries,

marked a significant shift in scientific thought and methodology. It
laid the groundwork for modern science by emphasizing empirical
evidence, experimentation, and the scientific method.
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Aristotelian vs. Copernican Perspectives

Aristotelian Perspective: Geocentrism and Natural Philosophy

• Geocentric Model: Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was an

ancient Greek philosopher whose views on the universe
were widely accepted for centuries. One of his most
influential ideas was the geocentric model of the universe,
which posited that the Earth was at the center, with the Sun, Aristotle (384-322
Moon, planets, and stars revolving around it. This model BC): The influential
aligned with the observable motion of celestial bodies and philosopher whose
geocentric model
was consistent with the philosophical and religious views positioned the Earth at
of the time. the center of the
• Natural Philosophy: Aristotle's natural philosophy also universe, shaping
astronomical thought
included the idea that the heavens were perfect and for centuries until the
unchanging, made of a different substance (aether) than the Copernican revolution
Earth. He believed that all celestial bodies moved in perfect challenged his views.
circles, reflecting the ideal and unchangeable nature of the Source:
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integrated with the teachings of the Catholic Church during r
the Middle Ages.

Copernican Perspective: Heliocentrism and Scientific

Revolution

• Heliocentric Model: Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), a

Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, challenged the
Aristotelian view with his heliocentric model, as detailed in
his seminal work "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium"
(On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). Copernicus
proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was at the center of
the universe, and that the Earth, along with other planets,
revolved around the Sun. This revolutionary idea marked
the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
• Impact on Science: The Copernican model fundamentally Nicolaus Copernicus
changed how humanity understood its place in the universe. (1473-1543): The
pioneering astronomer
It laid the groundwork for modern astronomy and physics, who revolutionized our
influencing later scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Johannes understanding of the
Kepler, and Isaac Newton. The heliocentric model not only universe by proposing the
heliocentric model, placing
challenged the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views but also the Sun at the center
faced opposition from religious authorities who saw it as rather than the Earth
contradicting biblical teachings.

Flaws in the Arguments

Aristotelian Perspective:

• Observational Limitations: One of the main flaws of the

Aristotelian geocentric model was its reliance on
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observational data available at the time, which could not

account for the complexities of planetary motion. The
model required increasingly complex adjustments, like
epicycles (small circles within the larger circular orbits), to
explain observed phenomena, such as retrograde motion of
planets.
• Incompatibility with New Discoveries: As observational Contrasting Views of the
technology improved, particularly with the invention of the Universe: The Geocentric
telescope, the geocentric model became increasingly Model (left) places Earth at
the center, reflecting ancient
difficult to defend. Discoveries such as the phases of Venus beliefs influenced by Aristotle
and the moons of Jupiter provided strong evidence against and Ptolemy. The
the idea that all celestial bodies revolved around the Earth. Heliocentric Model (right),
proposed by Copernicus,
positions the Sun at the
Copernican Perspective: center, marking a remarkable
shift in our understanding of
the cosmos.
• Initial Resistance: The Copernican model, while simpler
and more accurate in explaining planetary motion, faced
significant resistance, especially from the Catholic Church.
This resistance was rooted in the model's challenge to long-
standing religious and philosophical views, making it
difficult for Copernicus' ideas to gain immediate
acceptance.
• Incompleteness: The Copernican model, although
revolutionary, was not entirely accurate in its original form.
It still relied on circular orbits for planets, which were later
corrected by Kepler's laws of planetary motion that
introduced elliptical orbits. Additionally, the Copernican
system did not provide an explanation for the apparent lack
of parallax (the apparent shift in position of stars due to
Earth's movement), which would only be resolved with
more advanced observational tools and a better
understanding of the vast distances involved.

Impact on Society: Copernicus' model reshaped our

understanding of the universe, leading to advancements in
astronomy and influencing the scientific method.

Isaac Newton vs. Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): Father of Modern Observational

Astronomy

• Support for Heliocentrism: Galileo was one of the first

scientists to provide empirical support for the heliocentric
model of the universe proposed by Copernicus. Using his
telescope, Galileo observed the phases of Venus, the moons
of Jupiter, and other celestial phenomena that contradicted
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the Aristotelian geocentric model and supported the idea

that planets orbit the Sun.
• Conflict with the Church: Galileo's support for
heliocentrism brought him into conflict with the Catholic
Church, which held to the geocentric view. In 1616, the
Church condemned heliocentrism as heretical, and in 1633,
Galileo was tried by the Roman Catholic Inquisition, forced
to recant his views, and spent the remainder of his life
under house arrest.
• Scientific Method and Mechanics: Galileo also made
significant contributions to the development of the
scientific method and the study of mechanics. He
conducted experiments on motion, such as his famous
studies of falling objects, which challenged Aristotelian
physics and laid the groundwork for Newton's later work.

Isaac Newton (1643–1727): Father of Classical

Physics

• Universal Gravitation and the Laws of Motion: Newton

is best known for his formulation of the laws of motion and
universal gravitation, which he presented in his seminal
work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica"
(Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) in 1687.
Newton's laws described the motion of objects on Earth and
in space, and his law of universal gravitation explained the
forces that govern planetary orbits, building on the work of
Galileo and Kepler.
• Synthesis of Physics: Newton synthesized the work of his
predecessors, including Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes, into
a coherent framework that explained a wide range of
physical phenomena. His work marked the culmination of
the Scientific Revolution and laid the foundation for
modern physics.
• Optics and Mathematics: Newton also made important
contributions to the study of light and optics, showing that
white light is composed of a spectrum of colors, and he
developed calculus, a mathematical tool essential for
understanding change and motion.

Flaws in the Arguments

Galileo's Perspective:

• Incomplete Understanding of Gravity: While Galileo's

observations and experiments were revolutionary, his
understanding of gravity was still limited. He correctly
identified that all objects fall at the same rate regardless of
their mass, but he did not have a comprehensive theory to
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explain why this was the case. This would later be

addressed by Newton's law of universal gravitation.
• Conflict with the Church: Galileo's confrontation with the
Catholic Church highlights the challenge of advancing
scientific knowledge in the face of institutional opposition.
Although Galileo was correct in his support for
heliocentrism, the political and religious climate of his time
severely limited his ability to promote his ideas.

Newton's Perspective:

• Determinism and Mechanics: Newton's laws of motion

and universal gravitation provided a deterministic view of
the universe, where all physical events could be predicted
with precision if initial conditions were known. While
highly successful in many contexts, this deterministic view
was later challenged by the advent of quantum mechanics
in the 20th century, which introduced the concept of
probabilistic outcomes at the atomic and subatomic levels.
• Limitations of Classical Physics: Newton's laws work
exceptionally well at the scales of everyday life and
planetary motion, but they break down in extreme
conditions, such as near the speed of light or in strong
gravitational fields, which are better explained by Einstein's
theory of relativity. This indicates that while Newton's
work was groundbreaking, it is not the final word in
physics.

Darwinian vs. Creationist Perspectives

Darwinian Perspective: Evolution by Natural Selection

• Charles Darwin's Theory: The Darwinian perspective is

based on Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural
selection, which he famously outlined in his book "On the
Origin of Species" (1859). Darwin argued that all species of
life have evolved over time from common ancestors. This
evolution occurs through a process called natural selection,
where organisms with traits that are better suited to their
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce,
passing those advantageous traits to their offspring.
• Mechanism of Evolution: According to Darwin, natural
selection acts on variations within a species. Over many
generations, these small changes accumulate, leading to the
emergence of new species. This process explains the
diversity of life on Earth and suggests that all living
organisms share a common ancestry.
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• Scientific Support: Darwin’s theory is supported by a vast

body of scientific evidence from various fields, including
paleontology, genetics, and molecular biology. The fossil
record shows gradual changes in species over time, and
modern genetics has provided insights into how traits are
inherited and how mutations can lead to variation within
populations.

Creationist Perspective: Belief in a Divine Creator

• Literal Interpretation of Religious Texts: Creationism is

the belief that the universe and all life were created by a
divine being, as described in religious texts like the Bible.
Many creationists adhere to a literal interpretation of the
Book of Genesis, which describes God creating the world
and all living things in six days.
• Intelligent Design: Some creationists advocate for the
concept of Intelligent Design, which suggests that certain
features of the universe and living organisms are best
explained by an intelligent cause, rather than by natural
processes like evolution. This perspective argues that life is
too complex to have arisen through random mutations and
natural selection alone.
• Rejection of Evolution: Creationists often reject the theory
of evolution, arguing that it conflicts with their religious
beliefs. They may propose alternative explanations for the
origin of life and the diversity of species, such as the idea
that God created all species in their present forms, and that
they have not changed significantly over time.

Flaws in the Arguments

Darwinian Perspective:

• Complexity of Life: Critics of Darwin’s theory argue that

it does not fully account for the complexity of life,
especially at the molecular level. Some scientists and
philosophers suggest that certain biological structures, like
the eye or the bacterial flagellum, are too complex to have
evolved through gradual changes, as Darwin proposed.
• Gaps in the Fossil Record: Although the fossil record
provides evidence for evolution, it is not complete. There
are gaps where transitional fossils are missing, leading
some to question the continuity of evolutionary processes.
However, many scientists argue that these gaps do not
invalidate the theory of evolution but reflect the limitations
of the fossilization process and the incomplete nature of the
record.
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Creationist Perspective:

• Lack of Scientific Evidence: The main critique of

creationism is its lack of empirical evidence. Creationist
views are based on religious beliefs rather than scientific
observations. While faith-based beliefs are important to
many, they do not adhere to the scientific method, which
relies on testable and falsifiable hypotheses.
• Misinterpretation of Complexity: The argument for
Intelligent Design often misunderstands the processes of
evolution. While certain structures may appear too complex
to have evolved naturally, evolutionary biology explains
how small, incremental changes can lead to complex
features over long periods.
• Conflict with Established Science: Creationism,
particularly in its rejection of evolution, often conflicts with
established scientific consensus in fields like biology,
geology, and cosmology. This can lead to a rejection of
scientific evidence and methodologies in favor of religious
doctrine.

In the Philippines, the debate between Darwinian evolution and

creationism is particularly relevant due to the country’s strong
religious traditions and its educational system.

• Religious Influence: The Philippines is predominantly

Christian, with Roman Catholicism being the most widely
practiced religion. As a result, many Filipinos are taught
the creationist view from an early age, and this belief is
reinforced by religious institutions. The creationist
perspective is often seen as aligned with the cultural and
spiritual values of the community.
• Education and Science: Despite the strong religious
influence, the Philippine education system includes the
teaching of evolutionary theory as part of the science
curriculum. This can create a tension between religious
teachings at home or in church and scientific teachings in
schools. Students and educators may face challenges in
reconciling these differing perspectives.
• Public Discourse: In the broader public discourse, the
debate between Darwinian evolution and creationism is
often seen in discussions about the role of religion in
education and the acceptance of scientific principles. This
reflects a global conversation about how to balance
religious beliefs with scientific understanding.
• Cultural Adaptation: Some Filipinos navigate the tension
between these views by adopting a more metaphorical
interpretation of religious texts, seeing the creation story as
a symbolic or allegorical explanation of the origins of life,
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rather than a literal account. This approach allows for the

acceptance of evolutionary theory while maintaining
religious faith.

Questions Debated on Darwinism and Creationism

Here are some thought-provoking questions to spark a deep and
analytical debate on the topics of Darwinism and Creationism.
Answer them first in the perspective of Darwin and the Creationist,
then develop your own reasoning based on your own philosophy.

Philosophical and Theological Questions:

• Nature of Existence: Is the universe a product of chance or
intelligent design?
• Purpose of Life: Do humans have a predetermined purpose
or are we simply the result of evolution?
• Morality and Ethics: How do our beliefs about creation
influence our understanding of right and wrong?
• Religious Texts: How do religious texts align or conflict
with scientific theories like evolution?

Scientific and Evidential Questions:

• Fossil Record: How do transitional fossils support or
refute the theory of evolution?
• Genetic Evidence: What role does DNA play in
understanding common ancestry and the diversity of life?
• Complexity of Life: Can the complexity of biological
systems be explained by natural processes or does it require
a supernatural designer?
• Irreducible Complexity: Are there biological structures
that cannot function in a less complex form, suggesting a
designer?

Cultural and Societal Questions:

• Impact on Society: How have beliefs about creation and
evolution influenced societal values, laws, and policies?
• Education and Science: Should schools teach both
creationism and evolution, or should one be prioritized?
• Conflict and Consensus: Can there be a reconciliation
between religious beliefs and scientific theories?
• Personal Belief: How do personal experiences, cultural
backgrounds, and upbringing influence one's stance on
creationism or evolution?

2.2 The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century

and continued into the 19th century, transformed economies and
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societies through technological innovations and industrialization. It

marked a shift from agrarian economies to industrialized and
urbanized societies.

Key Figures and Contributions:

• James Watt (1736-1819): Improved the steam engine,

making it more efficient and practical for industrial use.
Watt's enhancements to the steam engine played a crucial
role in powering machinery and transportation during the
Industrial Revolution.

Impact on Society: Watt's steam engine revolutionized

industries such as manufacturing and transportation,
leading to increased productivity and economic growth.
James Watt: The Innovator
of the Steam Engine, whose
• Richard Arkwright (1732-1792): Invented the water improvements to steam
technology during the
frame, a spinning machine that greatly improved the Industrial Revolution
efficiency of textile production. Arkwright's innovations transformed industries and
contributed to the growth of the textile industry and the powered the modernization of
economies, forever changing
development of factory systems. the course of human
progress.
Impact on Society: Arkwright's inventions accelerated the
production of textiles, leading to the expansion of the textile
industry and the rise of factory-based manufacturing.

• Henry Bessemer (1813-1898): Developed the Bessemer

process, a method for producing steel efficiently and cost-
effectively. This process revolutionized steel production
and had a profound impact on construction and
transportation industries.

Impact on Society: The Bessemer process enabled the mass

production of steel, which facilitated the construction of
infrastructure such as bridges, railways, and skyscrapers.

2.3 The Digital Revolution

The Digital Revolution, which began in the late 20th century, is

characterized by the rapid advancement of digital technology and
the widespread adoption of computers and the internet. This
revolution has transformed communication, information access,
and many aspects of daily life.
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Key Figures and Contributions:

• Alan Turing (1912-1954): Pioneered the concept of the

Turing machine and made significant contributions to
computer science and artificial intelligence. Turing's work
laid the theoretical foundations for modern computing. His
work on breaking the ENIGMA CODE was one of the
noteworthy contributions to ending the World War II.

Impact on Society: Turing's ideas were instrumental in the

development of early computers and artificial intelligence,
shaping the future of technology. Alan Turing. The Father of
Modern Computing, whose
groundbreaking work in
mathematics, cryptography,
and artificial intelligence laid
• Tim Berners-Lee (1955-): Invented the World Wide Web, the foundation for today's
which revolutionized the way information is accessed and digital age. His brilliance
shared. Berners-Lee's invention made the internet more during World War II, notably
breaking the Enigma code,
user-friendly and accessible to the general public. remains a defining
achievement in both science
Impact on Society: The World Wide Web transformed and history.
communication, commerce, and information dissemination,
leading to the digital age we live in today.

• Steve Jobs (1955-2011): Co-founded Apple Inc. and

played a key role in popularizing personal computers,
smartphones, and other digital devices. Jobs' vision and
innovation in technology have had a profound impact on
modern digital culture.

Impact on Society: Jobs' contributions to personal

computing and mobile technology have shaped the way we
interact with technology and each other. Steve Jobs: The
Visionary Entrepreneur,
co-founder of Apple
Inc., whose
revolutionary
STS in the Philippine Setting innovations in personal
computing, mobile
devices, and design
In the Philippine context, the impacts of these revolutions can be aesthetics reshaped the
observed in various ways. For instance: technology industry and
transformed how the
world interacts with
• Scientific Revolution: The adoption of scientific principles technology.
in agriculture and health has improved practices and
outcomes in rural areas.
• Industrial Revolution: The growth of manufacturing and
infrastructure in the Philippines reflects the influence of
industrialization, although at a different pace compared to
Western countries.
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• Digital Revolution: The widespread use of mobile phones

and the internet in the Philippines has transformed
communication, business, and education, bridging gaps in
information access.

• Engineering and Technology: Innovations from the

Industrial and Digital Revolutions continue to drive
advancements in engineering and technology.
• Education: The principles of the Scientific Revolution
underpin modern scientific education and research
methodologies.
• Communication: The Digital Revolution has reshaped
how we communicate, access information, and conduct
business.

2.4 Key Intellectual Movements

In addition to major historical events, several key intellectual

movements have shaped the development of Science, Technology,
and Society (STS). These movements include Enlightenment and
Rationalism, Postmodernism and Technology Critique, and the
role of philosophy in scientific thought. Each movement has
influenced how we understand science, technology, and their
impacts on society.

2.4.1 Enlightenment and Rationalism

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an

intellectual and cultural movement in the 17th and 18th centuries
that emphasized reason, logic, and individualism over tradition and
dogma. Rationalism, a key aspect of the Enlightenment, focused on
the use of reason as the primary source of knowledge.

Key Figures and Contributions:

René Descartes (1596-1650)

René Descartes: The
A prominent rationalist philosopher known for his contributions to Father of Modern
epistemology and mathematics. Descartes' famous statement, Philosophy, whose
profound insights into
"Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), emphasized the doubt, reason, and the
importance of reason and skepticism in the pursuit of knowledge. nature of existence—
epitomized by his
statement 'I think, therefore
Descartes' philosophy is centered on the idea of doubt and I am'—laid the foundation
certainty. He wanted to find something absolutely certain, so he for Western philosophy and
started by doubting everything he could. This led him to his rationalism.
famous statement:
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"I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum).

What Descartes meant by this is that even if you doubt everything

around you—whether the world is real or even if you're
dreaming—the fact that you're doubting proves that you're
thinking. And if you're thinking, you must exist. That was the one
thing he was sure of: his own existence as a thinking being.

For Example: Imagine you're in a room, and you're not sure if the
room is real. You start doubting everything—Is the chair you're
sitting on real? Is the air you’re breathing real? Maybe you’re in a
dream? But one thing you can't doubt is the fact that you're
thinking about all this. The very act of questioning means that your
mind exists. This was Descartes' way of proving that thinking
proves existence.

From there, Descartes built his philosophy, exploring how we can

come to know other things, but it all starts with this one undeniable
truth: If you’re thinking, you exist.

Flaws in Descartes’ Philosophy

René Descartes' philosophy, while groundbreaking, has some flaws

that critics have pointed out over time. Here are a few key
criticisms:

1. Over-reliance on Rationalism
Descartes believed that we could discover the truth about the world
through reason alone, without needing experience. This rationalist
approach overlooks the importance of sensory experience
(empiricism) in understanding reality. Critics argue that reason
alone isn't enough to fully explain the complexities of the world.

Example:
If you’ve never experienced fire, no amount of thinking could fully
explain what it feels like to touch it. Experience is important for
knowledge.

2. Mind-Body Problem
Descartes believed that the mind and body are separate entities,
with the mind being non-physical and the body being physical.
This leads to the mind-body problem—if they are so different, how
do they interact?

Example:
When you decide to raise your hand (a mental decision), your body
moves. How does a non-physical mind cause a physical action?
Critics argue that Descartes' explanation is unclear or incomplete.
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3. “I Think, Therefore I Am” Assumption

Descartes assumes that the fact that he is thinking proves his
existence. However, some philosophers question whether the act of
thinking alone can prove the existence of a self. They argue that
thinking could occur without necessarily implying that a stable,
continuous self exists.

Example:
Just because thoughts happen doesn't necessarily mean there is a
permanent "I" or a self behind those thoughts. It could be that
thoughts exist, but the self is not a constant or is an illusion.

Descartes’ famous phrase “I think, therefore I am” (Cogito, ergo

sum) is meant to prove the existence of the self through the act of
thinking. His argument is that if you're able to think, doubt, or
question, then you must exist as a thinking being. However, many
philosophers have questioned whether this reasoning truly proves
the existence of a stable, continuous self, or if it only proves that
thinking is occurring.

Key Criticism: Is the Self Really a Stable Entity?

Descartes assumes that because thinking is happening, there must
be a stable “I” (the self) behind it. But some philosophers argue
that the act of thinking doesn't necessarily prove that the self is a
permanent or consistent entity. Instead, they suggest that thoughts
may simply exist or happen without there being a unified “I”
controlling or generating them.

Example of this Criticism:

Think of your mind as a stream. Descartes’ philosophy assumes
that because water (thoughts) flows, there must be a single,
permanent source (the self) generating the flow. But critics argue
that the flow of water itself doesn't prove a permanent source.
Thoughts might come and go, like waves in the stream, without
needing a constant or unified “I” behind them.

This critique suggests that consciousness might be more like a

collection of experiences, feelings, and thoughts that appear
momentarily, rather than coming from a single, enduring self.
Some traditions, like Buddhism, suggest that the self is an illusion,
and what we perceive as "I" is actually just a bundle of changing
mental states.

Philosophers Who Question the “I”

1. David Hume argued that when we introspect, we don’t
find a permanent “self” but instead a series of impressions
and ideas that constantly change. According to him, the
“self” is just a bundle of perceptions that are in flux.
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2. Friedrich Nietzsche critiqued Descartes by saying that

thoughts could happen without a thinker. For Nietzsche, the
"I" is just a construct that we assume must exist because we
experience thoughts, but it's not something that is proven
by those thoughts.

Example for Further Clarification:

Imagine you're watching clouds pass by in the sky. Each cloud
represents a thought. Descartes would argue that since the clouds
exist, there must be a permanent sky (the self) holding them.
Critics, however, say that clouds (thoughts) could exist without
necessarily proving the sky is one constant thing—perhaps there’s
just an ever-changing space where clouds temporarily appear and
disappear.

In this way, Descartes’ claim that thinking proves the existence of

a constant self has been questioned, suggesting instead that thought
might not require a stable “I” behind it.

Lastly, While Descartes believed that the act of thinking

guarantees the existence of a stable self, critics argue that this
doesn’t necessarily follow. Thoughts may exist, but the self could
be more fragmented or even an illusion.

4. Skepticism About the External World

Descartes doubted everything, including the existence of the
external world. While he eventually argues that God guarantees the
reality of the world, many philosophers find his reasoning for
trusting the senses after doubting them to be weak or circular.

Example:
After doubting whether the world outside our minds exists,
Descartes argues that God wouldn’t deceive us, so the world must
be real. But this reasoning relies on an assumption that God exists
and is trustworthy, which isn't universally accepted.

5. God as a Guarantee of Knowledge

Descartes relied on the existence of a perfect God to secure
certainty in knowledge. He claimed that because God is perfect
and wouldn’t deceive us, we can trust our perceptions of the world.
Critics argue that this leap in logic isn’t fully justified and raises
more questions, especially for those who don't accept the premise
of God’s existence.
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Impact on Society: Descartes' emphasis on reason and methodical

doubt laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry and
rationalist philosophy.

John Locke (1632-1704)

An influential philosopher whose ideas on empiricism and political

theory had a significant impact on Enlightenment thought. Locke's
work emphasized the role of experience and observation in the
acquisition of knowledge and the protection of individual rights.

1. Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate)

Locke believed that when we are born, our minds are like blank
slates. This means we start with no ideas or knowledge. We learn John Locke (1632-
everything from our experiences and what we see around us. 1704): The Father of
Liberalism, whose
ideas on individual
Example: A baby doesn’t know what colors are at first. As they rights, government by
see different colors, they learn to recognize and name them. consent, and the
importance of
experience shaped
2. Natural Rights modern democratic
Locke said everyone has natural rights, which are basic rights thought.
every person is born with. The main natural rights are: Source:
https://tinyurl.com/yu7r38ku
• Life: The right to live and not be harmed by others.
• Liberty: The right to be free and make choices for
yourself.
• Property: The right to own things, like land and personal
items.

He believed these rights are important and should be protected by

the government.

3. Social Contract
Locke introduced the idea of a social contract, which is an
agreement among people to form a society and create a
government.

• Key Points:
o People agree to give up some freedom to live in a
safe and organized society.
o In return, the government promises to protect their
rights.

4. Government’s Role
Locke thought the main job of the government is to protect the
natural rights of the people. He believed that:
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• The government gets its power from the people. This

means that the government must listen to what the people
want.
• If the government doesn’t protect people’s rights or abuses
its power, people have the right to change or get rid of that
government.

5. Impact on Democracy
Locke’s ideas helped shape modern democracy. He taught that
individual rights are important and that governments should be fair
and accountable to the people.

In simple terms, John Locke believed we learn from our

experiences, everyone has basic rights to life, freedom, and
property, and governments are there to protect those rights. If they
fail to do so, people can take action against them. His ideas still
influence how we think about rights and government today.

Though Locke presented compelling ideas and reason, his

theory experienced criticism as well. Some of it are the
following:
1. Overemphasis on Individualism
Locke focused a lot on individual rights, which can ignore the
importance of community and helping each other.

• Example: If everyone only thinks about their own rights,

they might not help a neighbor in need. For instance, if
someone is struggling financially, individualism might lead
others to say, "That's not my problem," rather than offering
support.

2. Limited View of Human Nature

Locke believed people are always rational and will make good
choices. However, people can be emotional and make poor
decisions.

• Example: In a heated argument, someone might react

without thinking, saying hurtful things they later regret.
This shows that emotions can lead to irrational behavior.

3. Assumption of Equality
Locke thought everyone is equal and should have the same rights.
However, in real life, not everyone has the same opportunities or
treatment.

• Example: In some countries, women may not have the

same rights as men. This inequality shows that Locke's idea
of equal rights isn't always true in practice.
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4. Property Rights
Locke emphasized the right to own property, which can lead to
problems like greed and environmental harm.

• Example: A factory owner might prioritize making money

over protecting the environment, leading to pollution. This
focus on property can harm communities and nature.

5. Limited Scope of the Social Contract

Locke’s idea of a social contract assumes that everyone agrees to
form a government. But in reality, many people don’t have a say in
this process.

• Example: In a dictatorship, leaders might take power

without the consent of the people. Citizens may not have a
real choice about their government, which contradicts
Locke's idea.

6. Right to Revolt
Locke said people can revolt against unfair governments. While
this sounds good, it can lead to violence and chaos.

• Example: If a group decides to rebel against a government,

it can lead to riots or civil war, which may cause more
harm than good. Not every revolt leads to a better situation
for everyone.

While John Locke’s ideas were important, they have flaws. His
focus on individual rights can ignore community needs, and his
assumptions about human nature and equality don't always reflect
reality.

Impact on Society: Locke's ideas contributed to the development of

modern democratic principles and the concept of individual rights.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

A central figure in Enlightenment thought, Kant's work on

epistemology and ethics emphasized the importance of reason and
autonomy. His "Critique of Pure Reason" explored the limits and
capabilities of human understanding.

He was influenced by the debates between these two schools of

thought. He recognized that while rationalists provided strong
arguments for the role of reason, empiricists showed the
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importance of experience. Kant wanted to find a middle ground,

leading him to develop his own epistemology that incorporated
both reason and experience. He sought to bridge the gap between
rationalism (which emphasized reason and innate ideas, as seen in
philosophers like Descartes) and empiricism (which emphasized
experience and observation, as seen in philosophers like Hume).

Kant was critical of traditional metaphysics, which dealt with

concepts beyond human experience, such as the existence of God, Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804): A
the soul, and the universe's nature. He felt that many metaphysical groundbreaking
claims were unprovable. Kant’s skepticism, especially influenced philosopher whose
by Hume's empiricism and his critique of causation and necessity, ideas on knowledge,
morality, and
led him to question how we can know anything about the world autonomy shaped
beyond our immediate experiences. modern philosophy
and the foundations of
ethical thought.
Kant lived during the Enlightenment, a time when reason and
individualism were being emphasized. He believed that moral
principles should be based on rationality and should apply
universally, rather than being based on tradition or religious
authority. The Enlightenment's focus on human rights and
autonomy inspired Kant to develop a moral philosophy that
emphasized individual rationality and the ability to make ethical
decisions independently.

Summary of Kant’s Idea

Immanuel Kant's philosophy centers on the idea that human

knowledge and morality arise from a combination of experience
and reason. He proposed that our understanding of the world is
shaped by both the sensory experiences we have and the innate
structures of our minds, leading to his famous distinction between
a priori and a posteriori knowledge.

In ethics, he introduced the Categorical Imperative, a principle that

emphasizes acting according to universal moral laws derived from
rational thought, highlighting the importance of treating
individuals with respect and dignity.

The essence of Kant's philosophy lies in its commitment to

autonomy, reason, and universal principles, making it crucial for
modern discussions on ethics, human rights, and the nature of
knowledge, as it laid the groundwork for Enlightenment ideals and
continues to influence contemporary thought.
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Here are some common flaws and criticisms of Immanuel Kant's

1. Rigidity of the Categorical Imperative

Kant's rule that actions must be universal can be too strict. This
means that some actions might seem wrong, even if they could
help in certain situations.

• Example: If lying could save someone’s life, Kant would

say it's wrong because lying can’t be a rule everyone
follows. This can lead to tough moral problems or moral
dilemma.

2. Neglect of Emotions
Kant focuses a lot on reason and duty, but he doesn’t pay much
attention to emotions, which are important in making decisions.

• Example: If someone is upset and needs help, just being

rational without considering their feelings can seem cold or
uncaring.

3. Assumption of Rationality
Kant believes everyone can think rationally and come to the same
moral conclusions. However, not everyone thinks the same way or
has the same experiences.

• Example: People from different cultures might have

different values, and Kant’s ideas may not fit well for
everyone.

4. Ambiguity in Practical Application

Kant's ideas can be hard to apply in real life. Deciding what counts
as a universal rule can be confusing.

• Example: In tricky situations, people might disagree on

what rules should apply, making it hard to know what is
right.

5. Neglect of Consequences
Kant doesn’t consider the results of actions much; he focuses on
intentions instead. Critics say that outcomes are important too.

• Example: If someone tries to do something good but it

leads to bad results, Kant’s theory might still see it as okay,
which doesn’t seem fair.
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Impact on Society: Kant's philosophy influenced the development

of modern ethics, epistemology, and political theory.

2.4.2 Postmodernism and Technology Critique

Postmodernism, emerging in the mid-20th century, challenged the

notions of objective truth and universal narratives that were central
to Enlightenment thinking. It emphasizes the subjective nature of
knowledge and the impact of language and power structures on
understanding.

Key Figures and Contributions:

• Michel Foucault (1926-1984): A French philosopher and

social theorist known for his work on power, knowledge,
and discourse. Foucault's ideas on the relationship between
power and knowledge influenced critical theory and
postmodern thought.

Impact on Society: Foucault's work encouraged critical

examination of institutions and societal norms, highlighting
the role of power in shaping knowledge and truth.

• Jacques Derrida (1930-2004): A key figure in

deconstruction, Derrida challenged the stability of meaning
and text. His work emphasized that meanings are not fixed
but are constantly shifting based on context and
interpretation.

Impact on Society: Derrida's ideas influenced literary

theory, cultural studies, and the critique of scientific
objectivity.

• Jean-François Lyotard (1924-1998): Known for his work

on the "postmodern condition," Lyotard critiqued the idea
of grand narratives and emphasized the plurality of
perspectives and localized knowledge.

Impact on Society: Lyotard's work highlighted the diversity

of knowledge and the challenge of creating universal
theories in a fragmented world.

2.4.3 The Role of Philosophy in Scientific Thought

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Philosophy has played a crucial role in shaping scientific thought

and understanding the nature of scientific inquiry. Key
philosophical questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and
the scientific method have influenced how science is conducted
and interpreted.

Key Figures and Contributions:

• Karl Popper (1902-1994): Known for his philosophy of

science, Popper introduced the concept of falsifiability as a
criterion for distinguishing scientific theories from non-
scientific ones. His work emphasized the importance of
empirical testing and the provisional nature of scientific
knowledge.

Impact on Society: Popper's ideas have influenced how

scientific theories are evaluated and the approach to
scientific research.

• Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996): Author of "The Structure of

Scientific Revolutions," Kuhn introduced the concept of
paradigm shifts to explain how scientific progress occurs.
His work highlighted the non-linear nature of scientific
development and the role of scientific communities in
shaping knowledge.

Impact on Society: Kuhn's ideas have reshaped our

understanding of scientific progress and the dynamics of
scientific change.

• Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951): Wittgenstein's work on

the philosophy of language and meaning has influenced
how scientific concepts and language are understood. His
ideas on the limits of language and the role of language
games have impacted the philosophy of science.

Impact on Society: Wittgenstein's contributions have

influenced how scientific and philosophical language is
used and understood.

Science Education in the Philippines: Current

Landscape and Challenges

The Philippines has faced persistent challenges in improving the

quality of its science education system. While science and
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technology are recognized as critical drivers for national

development, the country continues to lag behind many of its
ASEAN neighbors, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand, in
terms of science education performance and technological
advancement. Several international assessments, including the
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), show that
Filipino students perform below the global average in science,
mathematics, and reading. This issue raises serious concerns about
the preparedness of Filipino learners for the demands of a
knowledge-based, technology-driven global economy.

Why the Philippines Falls Behind in ASEAN

The reasons for the Philippines’ underperformance in science
education compared to its ASEAN neighbors are multifaceted:

1. Lack of Infrastructure and Resources

Many schools in the Philippines, especially those in rural areas,
suffer from inadequate infrastructure, such as laboratories, science
equipment, and ICT tools necessary for effective science learning.
While countries like Singapore have heavily invested in state-of-
the-art facilities, many Filipino students still lack access to basic
scientific instruments, which limits their ability to conduct
experiments and apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings.

2. Teacher Training and Professional Development

There is a significant gap in teacher qualifications and continuous
professional development in science education in the Philippines.
Many science teachers lack specialized training or advanced
knowledge in the subjects they teach. Continuous professional
development programs, which are crucial for keeping teachers up
to date with the latest scientific advancements and pedagogical
approaches, are limited in both frequency and quality.
Comparatively, countries like Singapore and Malaysia provide
robust support and regular training opportunities for their science
educators.

3. Overcrowded Curriculum
The Philippine science curriculum often tries to cover too many
topics within limited time frames. This can lead to superficial
learning, where students are exposed to a wide range of concepts
but do not gain deep understanding. In contrast, countries like
Finland and Singapore focus on fewer topics but explore them in
depth, allowing students to master core scientific principles before
advancing to more complex topics.

4. Cultural Attitudes Toward Science

Cultural attitudes play a role in how science is perceived by
students and society at large. In the Philippines, there is a tendency
 Science, Technology and Society

to emphasize rote memorization rather than critical thinking,

problem-solving, and innovation. These cultural factors may
discourage curiosity-driven scientific inquiry, which is essential for
students to truly engage with science and technology.

5. Economic Disparities
Economic inequality in the Philippines exacerbates the challenges
in science education. Students from low-income families may not
have access to the same educational resources, such as internet
connectivity, textbooks, or private tutoring, as wealthier students.
As a result, the disparity in educational outcomes between socio-
economic groups is significant, limiting the overall advancement
of science education.

New Learnings and Insights for Improving the

Science Education System

Addressing these issues requires a multi-faceted approach that

focuses on reforming various aspects of the educational system.
Below are some strategies that can be implemented to improve
science education in the Philippines:

1. Investment in Infrastructure
To bridge the gap between Filipino students and their ASEAN
counterparts, the government must allocate more funds for
improving the infrastructure of public schools. This includes
upgrading science laboratories, providing digital tools for virtual
experiments, and ensuring that even remote schools have access to
modern scientific equipment. Partnerships with the private sector
can also provide schools with the resources they need to improve
science instruction.

2. Teacher Training and Professional Development

Science teachers should be given more opportunities for
professional development. The government, in collaboration with
universities and scientific organizations, should offer regular
workshops, training programs, and scholarships for science
teachers to enhance their subject knowledge and teaching methods.
Mentorship programs between experienced and novice science
teachers can also help share best practices.

3. Curriculum Focus on Depth Over Breadth

The science curriculum needs to be streamlined to focus on key
concepts in science rather than trying to cover too much content in
a short period. Mastery learning, where students deeply explore
fewer topics before moving on, should be prioritized. This will
allow students to develop strong foundational knowledge and
 Science, Technology and Society

critical thinking skills that are essential for success in more

advanced scientific learning.

4. Inquiry-Based Learning and Experiential Learning

Shifting from a traditional, lecture-based approach to a more
inquiry-based and experiential learning model can spark greater
interest in science. By encouraging students to ask questions,
conduct experiments, and explore real-world applications of
scientific concepts, they are more likely to engage with the
material and retain their knowledge. Schools should promote
project-based learning and integrate science with everyday life.

5. Promoting Science Literacy in Society

Science literacy should be promoted at a societal level to foster a
culture that values science and technology. Media, community
outreach programs, and school partnerships can help make science
accessible to the general public, encouraging curiosity and interest
in scientific discovery among students from a young age.
Celebrating the achievements of Filipino scientists and integrating
local scientific contributions into the curriculum can also inspire
future generations.

6. Public-Private Partnerships and Global Collaboration

The government should actively pursue public-private partnerships
to enhance science education in the country. Collaboration with
ASEAN countries through exchange programs or joint research
projects could allow Filipino students and educators to benefit
from the advancements in science education systems in
neighboring countries. Global collaborations can also provide
access to new technologies and teaching methods that can enhance
the learning experience.

Why the Spiral Curriculum in Science Education May

Not Work in the Philippines

The spiral curriculum is a pedagogical approach where students

revisit key concepts repeatedly over different grade levels, each
time building on previous knowledge with increased complexity.
While this model has been successfully implemented in countries
like Singapore, it presents several challenges in the context of the
Philippine education system:

1. Lack of Teacher Expertise

In a spiral curriculum, teachers need to have a deep understanding
of how scientific concepts build on one another over time.
However, many Filipino teachers are not adequately prepared to
handle this complexity, especially if they lack specialized training
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in science subjects. Without properly trained educators, the spiral

curriculum can lead to disjointed instruction, where students
struggle to connect earlier knowledge with new material.

2. Inconsistent Implementation
For the spiral curriculum to work, there needs to be consistency in
its implementation across different schools and regions.
Unfortunately, educational resources and teacher training vary
widely across the Philippines, leading to gaps in the delivery of
science content. These inconsistencies mean that many students
may not get a strong foundation in key concepts, which
undermines the effectiveness of the spiral model.

3. Overcrowded Curriculum
The spiral curriculum often requires teachers to revisit the same
topics multiple times, which can contribute to an overcrowded
curriculum. This system assumes that students retain knowledge
between years and can pick up where they left off. However, due
to the lack of mastery in earlier stages (as mentioned), students
may find themselves constantly playing catch-up, preventing them
from fully absorbing and applying scientific concepts.

4. Low Student Retention and Engagement

The success of a spiral curriculum depends heavily on student
retention of earlier material. In the Philippines, where classrooms
are often large and individual student support is limited, many
students may struggle to retain key information over time. As a
result, they may become disengaged from the material, feeling as
though they are repeating topics without making progress.

5. Resource Constraints
Effective implementation of a spiral curriculum requires resources
such as supplementary materials, assessments, and laboratory
activities at each stage of learning. In the Philippines, where
schools frequently lack these resources, the spiral approach can
become theoretical rather than practical. Without the tools to
reinforce learning through hands-on activities, students miss out on
the key experiences that solidify their understanding of scientific
principles.

Moving Forward: Alternative Curriculum Models

To address these challenges, the Philippines might benefit from

exploring alternative curriculum models, such as mastery-based
learning or inquiry-based learning, which focus on ensuring
students have a deep understanding of concepts before moving
forward. A linear curriculum that builds sequentially on
foundational knowledge may be more suitable for the current
 Science, Technology and Society

educational context, where there are gaps in teacher training and

resources.

Summary

This chapter explored key intellectual movements that have shaped

Science, Technology, and Society (STS), including Enlightenment
and Rationalism, Postmodernism and Technology Critique, and the
role of philosophy in scientific thought. We examined the
contributions of significant figures and discussed how these
movements have influenced our understanding of science and
technology. These intellectual developments continue to impact
various aspects of society and academic discourse.

Glossary

• Enlightenment: An intellectual movement emphasizing

reason, logic, and individualism over tradition and dogma.
• Rationalism: A philosophical approach that prioritizes
reason as the primary source of knowledge.
• Postmodernism: An intellectual movement that challenges
universal narratives and emphasizes the subjective nature
of knowledge.
• Deconstruction: A philosophical approach that analyzes
the instability of meaning in texts and language.
• Falsifiability: The criterion proposed by Karl Popper for
distinguishing scientific theories from non-scientific ones
based on their ability to be proven false.
•
 Science, Technology and Society

Practice Questions

1. Which intellectual movement emphasized reason and

individualism over tradition?
o A) Postmodernism
o B) Enlightenment
o C) Rationalism
o D) Structuralism
2. Who introduced the concept of falsifiability as a
criterion for scientific theories?
o A) Karl Popper
o B) Immanuel Kant
o C) Michel Foucault
o D) Thomas Kuhn
3. What is a key focus of Postmodernism?
o A) The stability of scientific knowledge
o B) The critique of grand narratives and the
emphasis on localized knowledge
o C) The development of universal scientific theories
o D) The empirical validation of scientific theories

ESSAY. The following are the controversial topics in science and

technology. Write an argumentative essay about them. You may
select at least 5 topics listed below. Follow the guidelines provided
therein.

1. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in Agriculture

o Question: "Should the Philippines fully embrace
the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
in agriculture to increase food production and
address food security?"
o Take a Stand: Students must choose whether they
believe GMOs are the key to solving food shortages
or whether they pose risks to health, the
environment, and local farmers.

2. Nuclear Power as an Energy Source

o Question: "Should the Philippines invest in nuclear
energy as a solution to its growing energy demands,
considering the risks and rewards?"
o Take a Stand: Students must decide whether they
support or oppose nuclear energy development,
weighing its potential for providing a stable energy
source against environmental and safety concerns.
3. Artificial Intelligence in Education
 Science, Technology and Society

o Question: "Is the increasing use of artificial

intelligence (AI) in education beneficial for
students' learning, or does it pose risks to creativity
and human interaction?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue whether AI
tools in education enhance or hinder the learning
experience and the development of critical thinking
and interpersonal skills.

4. Climate Change: Economic Growth vs. Environmental

Protection
o Question: "Should the Philippines prioritize
economic growth over environmental protection to
reduce poverty, even if it may contribute to climate
change?"
o Take a Stand: Students should choose whether the
country should focus on industrial and economic
expansion despite the environmental costs or
prioritize sustainability and climate change
mitigation.

5. Vaccination and Public Health

o Question: "Should vaccinations be mandatory for
all citizens in the Philippines to prevent the spread
of diseases, or should individuals have the right to
choose?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue either for
mandatory vaccinations as a public health
responsibility or support personal freedom of
choice, considering the implications for community
health.

6. Space Exploration Funding

o Question: "Should countries like the Philippines
allocate significant funds to space exploration and
research, or should these resources be directed to
pressing domestic issues like poverty and
education?"
o Take a Stand: Students must choose whether space
exploration is a necessary investment for scientific
progress or whether the country should focus on
more immediate challenges at home.

7. CRISPR and Genetic Engineering in Humans

o Question: "Should the Philippines legalize the use
of CRISPR technology for genetic modifications in
humans to prevent hereditary diseases?"
o Take a Stand: Students must decide whether they
support the potential health benefits of genetic
 Science, Technology and Society

modification or oppose it due to ethical concerns

about altering human DNA.

8. Online Privacy and Government Surveillance

o Question: "Should the Philippine government
increase its surveillance on online activities to
ensure national security, even if it may compromise
individual privacy?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue whether
national security justifies increased online
surveillance or whether privacy should remain a
fundamental right.

9. Biotechnology in Food Production

o Question: "Is the widespread adoption of
biotechnology in food production the solution to
global food shortages, or does it present more
ethical and environmental risks?"
o Take a Stand: Students will need to decide whether
biotechnology is the answer to world hunger or
whether the unknown consequences are too
dangerous to pursue on a large scale.

10. The Role of Technology in Climate Change Mitigation

o Question: "Can technological innovations solve the
climate crisis, or should the focus be on changing
human behavior and consumption patterns to
address global warming?"
o Take a Stand: Students must decide whether
technology alone can save the planet or if human
lifestyle changes are more critical in reducing our
carbon footprint.

11. Robotics and Automation in the Workplace

o Question: "Should the Philippines embrace robotics
and automation to improve productivity and
efficiency, even if it leads to job displacement in
certain sectors?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue whether the
benefits of automation outweigh the potential job
losses or whether other solutions should be
prioritized to protect workers.

12. Stem Cell Research

o Question: "Should the Philippines invest in stem
cell research as a potential cure for various diseases,
despite the ethical controversies surrounding the use
of embryonic stem cells?"
 Science, Technology and Society

o Take a Stand: Students must choose whether the

potential medical breakthroughs justify the ethical
challenges or if the risks outweigh the benefits.

13. Technological Dependency in Education

o Question: "Is the increasing dependence on
technology in the Philippine education system
making students more informed and engaged, or is
it undermining traditional learning skills such as
critical thinking and problem-solving?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue whether
technology is enriching the educational experience
or if it is detracting from students' ability to learn
and think independently.

14. Data Privacy in the Age of Social Media

o Question: "Should social media companies in the
Philippines be allowed to collect and use user data
to enhance services and personalization, or should
stricter regulations protect user privacy?"
o Take a Stand: Students must decide whether the
benefits of tailored social media experiences justify
the collection of personal data or if stronger privacy
protections are needed.

15. Hydroponic Farming vs. Traditional Farming

o Question: "Is hydroponic farming the future of
sustainable agriculture in the Philippines, or should
the country stick with traditional farming methods?"
o Take a Stand: Students must choose between
supporting innovative, water-efficient farming
practices or argue for the preservation of traditional,
soil-based agriculture.

16. E-Waste and the Tech Industry

o Question: "Should the Philippine government
impose stricter regulations on technology
companies to reduce e-waste, even if it slows the
pace of technological innovation?"
o Take a Stand: Students will argue whether the
environmental impact of electronic waste should
take precedence over rapid technological
advancement or whether innovation should continue
despite its environmental toll.
 Science, Technology and Society

17. Renewable Energy vs. Fossil Fuels

o Question: "Should the Philippines immediately
transition to 100% renewable energy sources, or
should fossil fuels remain part of the energy mix to
support the country’s economic development?"
o Take a Stand: Students must weigh the
environmental and economic trade-offs, deciding if
the country should prioritize renewables or balance
them with traditional energy sources.

18. Human Cloning: Medical Miracle or Ethical

Nightmare?
o Question: "Should the Philippines allow scientific
research and development in human cloning to
explore its potential for medical advancements, or
should cloning be banned for ethical reasons?"
o Take a Stand: Students will need to present either
the benefits of cloning for health and science or the
ethical issues that arise from tampering with human
reproduction.

19. Digital Addiction in the Age of Smartphones

o Question: "Has the rise of smartphones and digital
technology contributed positively to society by
increasing connectivity and access to information,
or has it led to a dangerous level of digital
addiction, especially among young people?"
o Take a Stand: Students must argue whether
smartphones enhance life or cause more harm by
fostering addiction and social isolation.

20. Environmental Regulations vs. Economic Growth

o Question: "Should the Philippines impose stricter
environmental regulations, even if it slows down
economic development in certain industries such as
mining and logging?"
o Take a Stand: Students will need to decide if
environmental conservation should take priority
over industries that drive economic growth, or if a
balance between the two is possible.

Guidelines for Writing the Essay:

1. Choose a side and present a clear thesis statement in the

introduction.
2. Research the topic to gather supporting evidence for your
argument.
3. Acknowledge counterarguments and explain why your
position is stronger.
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4. Use real-world examples, case studies, or relevant

scientific data to strengthen your position.
5. End with a strong conclusion that reaffirms your stance
and offers potential solutions or considerations for the
future.
6. Paper format should be single-space, arial, 14 font, normal
margins, A4 sized white bond paper.
7. You may submit your entries in the google drive provided
by your teacher for this class.