CELL AND ITS ORGANELLES

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)

1. Describe the structure, functions and clinical significance
of subcellular organelles.
2. Describe the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
Mention the factors affecting the fluidity of plasma
membrane. Add a note on its functions.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. ABC family of transporters.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Marker enzymes.
2. Aquaporins.

ENZYMES
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define enzymes. Classify based on IUBMB in detail with
three (reaction step) examples for each.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Co-enzymes and co-factors with examples.
2. Explain mechanism of enzyme action with Koshland’s
induced fit theory.
 3. Explain factors affecting enzyme activity in detail with
diagram.
4. Describe enzyme inhibition with examples.
5. Describe enzyme specificity with examples.
6. Explain different types of enzyme regulation with
examples.
7. Isoenzymes - define, characteristics, importance, with
examples.
8. Enzymes – diagnostic and therapeutic uses.
9. Multiple enzyme complex – define, characteristics,
advantages, with examples.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Explain the following terms
i. Activation energy
ii. Binding energy
iii. Vmax and its significance
iv. Transition state
v. Km value and its significance
2. Define plasma functional and non-functional enzymes with
examples.

CHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
 1. Describe carbohydrates. Classify with suitable examples.
Add a note on biochemical importance of carbohydrates.
2. What are polysaccharides? Classify them and give
examples with their composition and biochemical
importance.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. List the monosaccharide derivatives and their clinical
significance.
2. What are disaccharides? Give suitable examples with
composing structure and biomedical importance.
3. What are glycosides? Give examples with biological
functions.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. What are amino sugars? Give examples with biomedical
importance.
2. Define glycation and glycosylation.

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Write in detail about digestion and absorption of
carbohydrates.
2. A healthy man experienced tiredness and muscle cramps
after playing football and the pain was reduced after
resting.
 a. What is the biochemical basis for muscle cramps?
Explain the pathway involved.
b. Explain the cycle involved in pain releif.
c. Explain the regulation and energetics involved in each
pathway.
3. Explain TCA cycle under the following headings
i. Site
ii. Steps involved
iii. Regulation
iv. Energetics
v. Significance of the pathway
vi. Metabolic defects
4. Explain gluconeogenesis under the following headings
i. Definition
ii. Site
iii. Substrates
iv. Steps involved
v. Regulation
vi. Significance of the pathway
vii. Clinical significance
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Lactose intolerance – causes, clinical features, treatment.
2. Classify glucose transporters and explain individual
transporter site of action.
3. Under hypoxic conditions, there is increase in release of
O2 to tissue even when pO2 is low
 a. Explain the biochemical basis
b. Explain the shunt pathway involved
4. Pyruvate acts as a junction point. Justify the statement.
5. Explain amphibolic role of TCA cycle with examples.
6. Explain anapleurotic role of TCA cycle with examples.
7. Explain HMP shunt pathway and its significance.
8. Describe glycogenesis, its regulation and significance.
9. Describe glycogenolysis, its regulation and significance.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Glycemic index.
2. Galactosemia.

CHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define lipids. Classify with suitable examples. Add a note
on their biomedical importance.
2. What are fatty acids? Classify them with suitable
examples. Enumerate the importance of essential,
monosaturated, polysaturated and trans fatty acids.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Composition of triacyl glycerol and its significance.
2. Classify phospholipids. Describe the functions with clinical
importance of each.
3. Mention the types of lipoproteins and their functions.
 4. Describe the structure of cholesterol and its biological
importance.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Amphipathic lipids.
2. Liposomes.
3. Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS).
4. Apolipoproteins.

LIPID METABOLISM
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Write in detail about digestion and absorption of lipids.
2. Explain beta-oxidation of fatty acids under the following
headings
a. Site
b. Steps involved
c. Regulation
d. Energetics
e. Clinical conditions associated
3. Write a note on ketosis with respect to causes, clinical
features. Describe the process of formation (ketogenesis)
and utilization (ketolysis) of ketone bodies.
4. Explain cholesterol under the following headings –
structure, functions, synthesis and regulation.
5. Explain the steps involved in de novo synthesis of fatty
acids and its regulation.
 6. Classify lipoproteins. Explain each of its synthesis,
metabolism and functions.
7. Hyperlipoproteinemia – classify, metabolic defect, features
and management.
8. Prostaglandins – sources, types and its biochemical
importance.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Synthesis of triacylglycerol in adipose tissue.
2. Describe oxidation of odd chain fatty acids.
3. Define fatty liver. What are the causes? List the lipotropic
factors.
4. Hypolipoproteinemias – classify, and its clinical features.
5. List the types of prostaglandins and its importance.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Steatorrhea.
2. Explain bile acids formation.
3. List the funtions of bile.
4. List the bile salts.
CHEMISTRY OF AMINO ACIDS
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define amino acids. Classify them with suitable examples.
2. Define proteins. Classify them with suitable examples.
 3. Explain structural organization of proteins (primary,
secondary, super secondary/motifs, tertiary and
quaternary structures) with suitable examples.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Standard and non standard amino acids.
2. Define peptide. List the biologically important peptides
and its functions.
3. Define denaturation. List the causes and properties with
its significance.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Isoelectric pH.

AMINO ACID METABOLISM

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain ammonia under the following headings- sources,
transport, fate , toxicity & disorders associated.
2. Explain urea cycle under following headings- steps
involved, energetics, regulation & disorders associated.
3. List the one carbon containing compounds. Explain its
sources , carriers and utilization.
4. Explain the reactions forming glycine, its metabolic
functions, disorders associated.
5. Explain the steps involved in metabolic pathway of
tyrosine.
 6. Explain nitric oxide under the following headings-
synthesis, functions, clinical significance.
7. Explain the steps involved in metabolism of tryptophan.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Explain amino acid pool & its purpose
2. Define transamination with reaction examples. Explain its
biological & clinical significance.
3. Explain transdeamination with example
4. Define deamination- oxidative & non oxidative ,examples
& its significance
5. Define transmethylation with reaction examples. Explain
its significance
6. Summarise interconvesion of 1 carbon groups
7. Explain the steps involved in formation of creatinine & its
clinical significance
8. Explain the important functions of serine
9. Explain the steps involved in formation of cysteine & its
functions
10. Explain the importance of vitamin B12 in methionine
metabolism
11. Explain the disorders associated with sulphur
metabolism
12. List the functions of glutamate & glutamine,
13. List the functions of aspartate & asparagine
14. List the functions of arginine
15. List the functions of lysine
 16. Define biogenic amines with examples
17. Define polyamines with examples & its importance
18. Maple syrup urine disease- defect, clinical findings,
lab findings & treatment
19. Explain the steps involved in synthesis of
catecholamines
20. PKU- defect, clinical findings, lab findings &
treatment
21. Explain the biochemical basis of Alkaptonuria, clinical
features & diagnosis
22. Hypertyrosinemia
23. Explain the steps involved in serotonin & melatonin
synthesis with its significance
24. List the functions of histidine & histamine
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Write normal- blood urea &ammonia level
2. Glycine cleavage system & its clinical significance
3. Homocystinuria
4. List the important products formed from tyrosine
5. Albinism
6. Hartnup’s disease
7. Carcinoid syndrome
8. Pheochromocytoma
9. Mention the techniques to separate & identify amino acids

PLASMA PROTEINS
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Describe the functions of plasma proteins – albumin and
globulins.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Clinical significance of acute phase proteins.
2. Multiple myeloma.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Mention the normal serum ranges of the following
a. Total protein
b. Albumin
c. Total globulin
d. CRP
METABOLISM AND HOMEOSTASIS
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain the metabolic processes taking place in specific
organs during fed, starvation & exercise states
2. Explain Diabetes mellitus under following headings-
definition, types, metabolic changes, complications

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Explain the hormones secreted from adipose tissue, their
functions
 2. Explain the guidelines involved in diagnosing diabetes
mellitus
3. Define atherosclerosis. Explain the role of LDL, oxidised
LDL, Lipoprotein A , Small dense LDL, HDL in atherogenesis
4. List artificial sweeteners, its uses, metabolic effects
5. Explain the concerns associated with usage of artificial
sweeteners in Diabetes Mellitus
6. Discuss the investigations involved in assessment of lipid
profile
7. Discuss the lab tests involved in Myocardial Infarction

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Advanced glycation end products
2. Dyslipidemia

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Discuss in detail ETC- organisation, components of each
complex and flow of electrons. recombinant DNA
technology and its application
2. Explain inhibitors of ETC & oxidative phosphorylation and
uncouplers with its significance

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

 1. Define & classify high energy compounds with its
biological significance
2. Explain the transporters involved in across mitochondria
3. Describe the enzymes involved in ETC
4. Explain oxidative phosphorylation under chemiosmotic
theory
5. Explain binding change mechanism of ATP synthesis
6. Explain Brown adipose tissue metabolism

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Explain redox pair & redox potential with examples
2. Define low energy compounds with examples
3. Mitochondrial myopathies

HEME METABOLISM
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain the steps involved in heme synthesis and its
regulation.
2. Define porphyrias. Classify and explain the following
porphyrias – acute intermittent porphyria, congenital
erythropoietic porphyria, cutanea tarda porphyria with the
management.
3. Thalassemia – definition, types, clinical features,
management.
 4. Sickle cell anemia – definition, types, clinical features,
management.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Explain ferroprotoporphyrin structure in detail.
2. Explain steps involved in bilirubin synthesis, transport,
conjugation, excretion, its fate with clinical significance
involved.
3. Define jaundice. Classify, explain the causes for each and
lab diagnosis.
4. Explain the effects of pH, pCO2, temperature, 2,3-BPG on
Hb transport with oxygen dissociation curve.
5. Carboxyhemoglobin – causes, clinical features,
management.
6. Methhemoglobin – causes, clinical features, management.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. List the heme containing compounds.
2. Write normal serum range for hemoglobin, total bilirubin,
direct and indirect bilirubin.
3. Functions of hemoglobin.
4. Heme-heme interaction and co-operativity.
5. Bohr’s effect.
6. Chloride shift.
7. Normal variants of hemoglobin with its composition.
 EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Explain the composition & functions of Extracellular Matrix
2. Describe collagen under following headings- structure,
synthesis, functions and disorders associated.
3. Explain the composition & functions of elastin
4. Explain the composition & functions of fibrillin, fibronectin,
laminin
5. Disorders associated with ECM

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Osteogenesis imperfecta
2. Ehler Danlos syndrome
3. List the markers for bone formation & resorption.
4. Explain concept of bone turnover & the factors affecting it.

Vitamins
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain vitamin A under the following headings – sources,
RDA, serum levels, different forms, biochemical functions,
deficiency manifestations.
2. Enumerate the sources, RDA, serum level, provitamins of
vitamin D. Explain the stepwise formation of calcitriol.
3. Vitamin E – sources, RDA, normal serum level, chemistry,
metabolism, functions, defeciency manifestations.
4. Vitamin K – sources, RDA, normal serum level, chemistry,
metabolism, functions, deficiency manifestations.
5. Vitamin B1 – sources. RDA, normal serum level, chemistry,
metabolism, functions, deficiency manifestations.
6. A 40 year chronic alcoholic presented to OPD with
complaints of repeated fissure at corners of mouth,
purplish tongue.
a. Which vitamin deficiency leads to this condition?
b. Explain the chemistry, co-enzymes.
c. List the reactions catalyzed by this vitamin co-
enzymes.
d. Name the sources and RDA of this vitamin.
7. Explain vitamin C under the following headings
a. Chemistry
b. Sources
c. RDA
d. Functions
e. Deficiency manifestations
8. Explain biotin under the following headings
a. Structure
b. Co-enzymes
c. Sources
d. RDA
 e. Reactions catalyzed
f. Deficiency manifestations
9. Explain folic acid under the following headings
a. Structure
b. Co-enzymes and its functions
c. Sources
d. RDA
10. Explain vitamin B12 under the following headings
a. Structure and different forms
b. Sources
c. RDA
d. Absorption, transport and storage
e. Functions
f. Deficiency manifestations
11. Explain pyridoxin under the following headings
a. Derivatives
b. Sources
c. RDA
d. Functions
e. Deficiency manifestations

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Define and differentiate between fat soluble and water
soluble vitamins.
2. Explain absorption, transport and uptake of vitamin A.
 3. Wald’s visual cycle.
4. Mention the causes for vitamin A deficiency and the tests
done to assess it.
5. Explain the biochemical role of vitamin D in calcium and
phosphorus metabolism.
6. Vitamin D deficiency – causes, clinical manifestations.
7. Explain the causes of folate deficiency with its clinical
manifestations and management.
8. Explain the causes of B12 deficiency with its clinical
manifestations and management.
9. Explain pantothenic acid under the following headings
a. Structure
b. Co-enzymes
c. Sources
d. RDA
e. Functions
f. Defeciency mainfestations
10. List the NAD+ dependent enzymes and its relations.
11. List the NADPH generating enzymes.
12. List the NADPH utilizing enzymes.
13. Choline – structure, source, functions.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Hypervitaminosis A.
2. Hypervitaminosis D.
 3. Hypervitaminosis E.
4. Hypervitaminosis K.
5. Name the thiamine antagonists.
6. Vitamin C toxicity.
7. List the carboxylation reactions independent of biotin.
8. List the biotin antagonists.
9. List 1 carbon containing compounds.
10. Explain folate trap.
11. FIGLU excretion test.
12. Folate antagonists.
13. Folate toxicity.
14. Write the co-enzyme forms of niacin, sources, RDA,
uses.
15. Pellagra – causes, clinical manifestations.
16. Inositol – structure, functions.

MINERALS
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain calcium under the following headings
a. Sources
b. RDA
c. Absorption, factors affecting it
d. Factors regulating plasma level
 e. Clinical manifestations
2. Explain phosphorus under the following headings
a. Sources
b. RDA
c. Factors affecting its absorption
d. Normal serum levels
e. Functions
f. Causes for decreased and increased levels of
phosphate
3. Explain the metabolism of iron under the following
headings
a. RDA
b. Sources
c. Absorption, factors affecting it
d. Transport, storage
4. Explain magnesium mineral under the following headings
a. Sources
b. RDA
c. Absorption
d. Functions
e. Clinical manifestations associated
5. Explain iodine mineral under the following headings
a. Sources
b. RDA
c. Absorption, storage, excretion
 d. Functions
6. Explain sources, RDA, functions of copper and the
disorders associated.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. A 60 year old female presented with tingling and
numbness in fingers and muscle cramps in hands. On
examination, Chovostek’s and Trausseau’s sign were
discovered. Following results were obtained on
testing Serum calcium – 5 mg/dL Serum
phosphate – 7 mg/dL
a. What is your probable diagnosis?
b. What is the biochemical basis for symptoms and
lab findings?
c. Name the other mineral deficiency which has
similar manifestations as above.
2. Explain regulation of iron homeostasis in the body
with other regulation mechanisms involved.
3. Iron deficiency anemia – causes, clinical
manifestations and management.
4. Explain the clinical conditions associated with iodine
metabolism.
5. Enumerate zinc and selenium under
 a. Source
b. Enzymes requiring
c. Functions
d. Deficiency manifestations
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Iron is one way substance. Justify your statement.
2. Hemosiderosis.
3. Hemochromatosis.
4. List copper containing enzymes and non-enzymatic
proteins.
5. Write normal serum levels of the following
a. Cooper
b. Iodine
c. Magnesium
6. List molybdenum containing enzymes.
7. Explain the functions of manganese, fluorine,
chromium.
8. Flurosis.
9. Explain the importance of nickel as mineral.
10. Explain the significance of lithium.
11. Give normal serum levels of the following
a. Zinc
b. Iodine
c. Chromium
 d. Manganese
e. Lithium (therapeutic concentration)
f. Nickel

CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEOTIDES
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain the structure of B-DNA in detail.
2. Explain the structural organization of DNA to form
chromatin in detail (primary and secondary)
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. List the function of biologically important
nucleotides.
2. Synthetic nucleotide analogues and their
applications.
3. Explain the types of RNA with structure and
functions.
SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)
1. Explain the source of purine and pyrimidine
structure.
2. Name three naturally occurring pharmacologically
active nitrogenous bases.
 3. List the applications of micro RNA and small
interfering RNA.

NUCLEOTIDE METABOLISM
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Explain the source of purine and pyrimidine ring.
2. Explain the salvage pathway of purines and pyrimidine.
3. Explain the steps involved in catabolism of purines and
importance of uric acid.
4. Explain gout under the following headings – etiology,
biochemical basis of clinical manifestations and
management.
5. Explain Lesch Nyhan syndrome under the following
headings – etiology, biochemical basis of clinical
manifestations and management.
6. Explain the salvage pathway of pyrimidines.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. SCID
2. Oroticaciduria
3. Explain the diagnostic importance of Adenosine
deaminase.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Describe the requirements, steps& inhibitors involved in
DNA replication with diagram
2. Define transcription. Enumerate the steps involved in
transcription with post transcriptional modifications &
inhibitors.
3. Define translation. Describe the steps of translation,
modifications and its inhibitors
4. Explain the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes
with illustration of Lac-operon
5. Explain the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Differentiate between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
replication
2. Explain Telomere, telomerase & its importance
3. Describe the types of DNA damage and its repair
mechanisms.
4. What is mutation and mutagens? Describe the causes &
types of mutations with its consequences and examples
for each
 5. Enumerate the differences between prokaryotic &
eukaryotic transcription
6. Define genetic code. Explain its salient features
7. Role of chaperones & heat shock proteins in protein
folding
8. Explain protein targeting & sorting with associated
disorders

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Explain cell cycle

2. Xeroderma pigmentosa
3. Genomics, proteomics & metabolomics
4. Alzheimers disease & Prion diseases
5. Define –introns, exons, cistrons
6. Epigenetics
7. Explain chromatin remodeling in regulation
8. Explain the protein motifs in DNA regulatory proteins

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TECHNIQUES AND GENE

THERAPY
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
 1. Define Recombinant DNA technology. Explain the steps
involved and its application
2. Explain the process of DNA cloning & its application
3. Explain the steps involved in PCR & its application.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Explain different blotting techniques & its applications
2. Explain RFLP with its applications
3. What is gene therapy? Name the vectors used, types of
gene therapy & its applications
4. Overview of human genome project

SHORT ANSWERS 3 marks)

1. DNA probes
2. DNA microarrays
3. Explain DNA polymorphism & types
4. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
5. Explain Variable Number Tandem Repeat(VNTR)
6. DNA library

BIOCHEMISTRY OF CANCER
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
3. Explain biochemical basis of cancer therapy for each of it-
alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase
 inhibitors, antibiotics, hormones, receptor blockers,
radiotherapy

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Define mutagens with examples. Explain each carcinogen
action in carcinogenesis.
2. Describe proto-oncogenes & their activation
3. Describe oncogenes with examples & its role in developing
cancer
4. Explain the regulation of cell cycle
5. Oncogenic viruses & its mechanism causing cancer with
examples
6. Define growth factors with examples & its receptors.
Explain each of its function
7. Define & classify tumor markers. Explain its applications

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Apoptosis
2. Define oncogenes with examples
3. Describe cell signaling & types with examples
4. Describe cell surface receptors
5. G protein couple signaling
6. Catalytic receptor signaling
7. Steroid receptor signaling
 8. Clinical importance of estrogen & progesterone receptors
in breast cancer.
9. Define tumor supressor genes with examples

IMMUNOLOGY
LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Describe the cellular and humoral components of immune
system.
2. Describe the structure of immunoglobulins. Explain
different classes with its functions.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Innate and acquired immune response.
2. Vaccine – types, mechanism of action, basis of
development.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Ig class switching.
2. Role of T helper cells in immune response.
3. Antigens.

NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
 1. Define glycemic index with example. Explain the equation
involved in calculating glycemic index & its importance.
2. Prescribe a diet for the following conditions – Childhood,
Healthy Adults, Diabetes, Coronary artery disease,
Pregnancy.
3. Calculate calorie requirement in healthy adult with
sedentary lifestyle.
4. Nutritional indices.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

5. Define BMR. Explain the factors affecting it & its biomedical
importance with normal values.
6. Define SDA. Explain its significance in balanced diet with
values.
7. BMI
8. Define balanced diet & explain its composition.
9. Define dietary fibres with examples. Explain its importance.
10. Define nitrogen balance. Explain positive & negative
nitrogen balance.
11. Explain the energy content of principal food items &
nutritional importance of each of components of diet w.r.t
commonly used food items.
12. Define protein energy malnutrition. Explain types,
causes & effects of PEM.
 13. Define obesity. Explain the types, causes, associated
risks.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Explain the role of GI peptides & adipokines in obesity.
2. Mutual supplementation.

ORGAN FUNCTION TESTS

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define hormone. Classify hormones. Explain the
mechanism of action of group 1 & group 2 with respect to
cAMP, PIP2, Tyrosine kinase.

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Enumerate the functions of following organs- Liver, kidney,
thyroid and adrenals
2. Explain the tests involved in assessing the synthetic
function and excretory function of liver
3. Discuss the enzymes involved in assessing the liver function
tests ant the conditions where levels are altered.
4. Explain the tests involved in assessing the glomerular
functions of kidney
5. Explain the tests involved in assessing the tubular functions
of kidney
6. Thyroid function tests
 7. Enumerate on the adrenal function tests

ACID BASE BALANCE

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define buffer. Explain the regulation of pH of blood by
buffers, respiratory & renal mechanisms

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)

1. Explain Henderson Hesselbach equation and its applicaton
2. Define anion gap. Write the normal value and the disorders
associated with high & low values. Explain its significance.
3. Define metabolic acidosis. Explain the causes,
compensatory mechanism and lab findings.
4. Define metabolic alkalosis. Explain the causes,
compensatory mechanism and lab findings.
5. Define respiratory acidosis. Explain the causes,
compensatory mechanism and lab findings.
6. Define respiratory alkalosis. Explain the causes,
compensatory mechanism and lab findings.

WATER AND ELECTEOLYTE BALANCE

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Explain the distribution of water in normal adult and
electrolytes in ICF & ECF compartments.
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Define osmolality. Explain the equation involved in
calculating with its normal range
2. Explain each of the factor regulating water & electrolyte
balance

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Normal serum range- sodium, potassium, chloride
2. Hyperkalemia- Definition, causes & clinical features
3. Hypokalemia- Definition, causes & clinical features
4. Hypernatremia- Definition, causes & clinical features
5. Hyponatremia - Definition, causes & clinical features
6. Dehydration - Definition, causes & clinical features

FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS

SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Define free radical. List them and explain the sources of it
in the body.
2. What are the damaging effects of ROS on the body?
3. Lipid peroxidation.
4. Define anti-oxidants. Explain the types and its uses.
5. Explain the role of oxidative stress in following conditions-
Atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, cancer

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

 1. Reactive oxygen species.
2. Reactive nitrogen species.
3. Fenton & Haber Weiss reactions

XENOBIOTICS AND DETOXIFICATION

LONG ESSAYS (10 marks)
1. Define detoxification. Explain the types of detoxification in
detail with examples for each reaction.

SHORT ANSWERS (3 marks)

1. Xenobiotics with example
2. Biotransformation with example

CLINICAL CHEMISTRY
SHORT ESSAYS (5 marks)
1. Explain the basic concepts of clinical chemistry laboratory
2. Define automation in laboratory & explain its advantages.
3. Explain the following terms- internal quality control,
external quality control, precision, accuracy.
4. Explain the different types of specimen collected in clinical
biochemistry and the vaccutainers(mention if preservatives
used) used for each sample.
5. Pre analytical errors
6. Define reference interval. List out the commonly used
analytes reference interval
7. Critical alerts
8. Ethics in laboratory medicine