RDL2 REVIEWER Education

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Quantitative Research 1. can be used in measuring the level of
performance of students and teachers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE 2. to assess the effectiveness of methods
RESEARCH used in school, programs conducted, and
1. RELIABLE and OBJECTIVE satisfaction in among stakeholders.
2. Uses STATISTICS to generalize findings Business
3. REDUCES and RESTRUCTURES a
complex problem to a limited number of 1. can be used to improve marketing
variables strategies.
4. Looks at the CONNECTIONS between 2. to make informed decisions on how to
variables and establishes relationship in move forward with a particular product or
HIGHLY CONTROLLED service.
CIRCUMSTANCES 3. utilized in product development and
5. TESTS theories or hypothesis marketing campaigns.
6. Assumes that the SAMPLE is the
REPRESENTATION of the POPULATION Medical and Allied Health Services
7. SUBJECTIVITY of its methodology is a 1. Healthcare procedures, routines, and other
SECONDARY CONCERN systems should be based on the result of
8. Deals with the DETAILS of the SUBJECT scientific investigation.
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 2. basis of good medical treatment and
intervention: rate of recovery, number of
1. Allows the researcher to measure and patients, efficacy of drugs, medicines, and
ANALYZE the data to arrive at an vaccines
OBJECTIVE ANSWER
2. RESULTS = generally RELIABLE since Science & Technology
the study uses a BIG SAMPLE 1. During experiments on new devices,
3. STANDARDS ARE USED in choosing the interventions, discoveries, and
instruments, sampling procedures, innovations,
statistical treatment, thus making it
REPLICABLE VARIABLE
4. Personal BIAS can be REMOVED since
personal interaction is not part of the ❖ any factor or property a researcher
research process measures, controls, and/or manipulates.
5. PROCESSES are SIMPLIFIED; steps are ❖ changing quantity or measure of any
easy and systematic factor, trait, or condition that can exist in
6. RESULTS can be REDUCED through differing amounts or types.
STATISTICAL TREATMENTS and can be ❖ logical set of attributes, characteristics,
interpreted in a few statements numbers, or quantities that can be
measured or counted
DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE ❖ “data item”
RESEARCH
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLES
1. CONTEXT of the study is IGNORED; not
consider the natural setting where study is A. Numerical Value – values that describe a
conducted measurable numerical quantity and
2. LARGE sample requires more answers the question “how many” or “how
RESOURCES much.”
3. RESULTS are LIMITED since they are ➢ Continuous Variable – can assume any
based on the analysis of numbers (not value between a certain set of real
from narratives) summers.
4. LESS elaborate ACCOUNTS of human ○ also known as “interval variables”
PERSPECTIVES ○ depend on the scale used
5. Experimental research: LEVEL of ○ examples: time, age, temperature,
CONTROL might not be APPLICABLE in height, and weight.
the real world (laboratory) ➢ Discrete Variables – can only assume
6. FIXED ANSWERS DO NOT REFLECT the any whole value within the limits of the
true answers of the participants given variables.
7. FINDINGS can be INFLUENCED by the ○ number of registered cars, number
RESEARCHER’S PERSPECTIVE since of business locations, number of
participants are unknown children in the family, population of
students, and total number of faculty
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH members
 B. Categorical Variables – variable with ➔ Availability of subjects – study
values that can describe a quality or participants who are within your reach
characteristics of a data unit like “what (i.e., your classmates, teachers, neighbors).
type” or “which category.” could easily be approached, cooperation
➢ Ordinal variables – logically ordered or could easily be gained.
ranked. ➔ Administrative support – aid or
○ Academic grades like A, B, C, assistance from the school or extended
Clothing sizes such as XS, S, M, L, by the community.
XL, Attitudes like strongly agree, ➔ Availability and adequacy of facilities
disagree, or strongly disagree and equipment – Devices such as
➢ Nominal variables – cannot be organized computers, telephones, and WiFi, that are
in a logical sequence. used in undertaking the research must
○ business types, eye colors, kinds of be considered.
religion ➔ Legal and Ethical Considerations – all
➢ Dichotomous variables – these represent activities to be undertaken are acceptable
only two categories. and are done in accordance with what is
○ biological gender or sex (male and legal and morally right.
female), answers (yes or no)
➢ Polychotomous variables – have many (B) Internal Criteria – personal characteristics,
categories. capabilities, and qualities of the researcher that
○ educational attainment (elementary, affect the study.
high school, college, postgraduate), ➔ Experience, training, and professional
level of performance (excellent, very qualifications – researcher’s knowledge,
good, good, satisfactory, or poor) expertise, and experience for him or her to
C. Experimental Variables – variables that cope with the research demands.
researchers carefully control or ➔ Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity,
manipulate. and perceptiveness of the researcher –
➢ Independent Variables – “the cause” essential attitudes that bring satisfaction
variable that manipulates. or enjoyment in the completion of
➢ Dependent Variables – “the variable that is research tasks.
being manipulated. “effect” ➔ Time management – studies must be
➢ Discrete Variables – “the mediator” pursued in a given time frame.
variable that intervenes. “covariate ➔ Personal costs and returns – amount of
variable” necessary funding depends on the size
of the sample, the place where the
D. Non-experimental Variable – variables that research is to be conducted, the
the researchers observe in their natural research design and the treatment of
state. data.
➢ Predictor Variable – change the other
variables in a non-experimental study. (like QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH TITLE
IV) THE RESEARCH TITLE SHOULD:
➢ Criterion Variable – usually influenced by
the predictor variables. (like DV) 1. summarize the main idea of the paper.
2. be a concise statement of the main topic.
E. Variables according to the number being 3. include the major variable/s.
studied. 4. show the relationship of the main
➢ Univariate Study – only one variable variables of the study.
being studied. 5. include the main task of the researcher
➢ Bivariate Study – two variables are being about the major variables under study.
studied. 6. mention the participants (in general
➢ Polyvariant Study – more than two manner) and setting.
variables are being studied. 7. have 10 to 15 words.
Chapter 2 - Designing a Quantitative Research OTHER THINGS TO CONSIDER IN
Considerations in Formulating Research FORMULATING A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Problems TITLE:

(A) External Criteria – factors or qualities that go 1. For Experimental Research: (1)
beyond the researcher’s personal qualities or independent variable; (2) dependent
attributes that affect the study. variable; and (3) Extraneous variables.
2. Non-experimental Research: (1)
➔ Novelty – topic must not have been used Predictor, and (2) Criterion variables
by many researchers; the newness of a 3. Choose novel and high-quality topics
topic and its variables
 4. Support your proposed study with theories goals, and specify the conditions under
and frameworks which these goals will be accomplished.
★ Based on the findings, what human relation
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM intervention program can be adopted to
❖ helps the researcher clarify various enhance or improve school effectiveness?
essential elements of research such as FORMULATION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
the major variables, the general and
specific objectives, and the appropriate ● (1) main or central question: overarching
methodology. query that must be solved in the entire
❖ opening paragraph of this part of the study.
research contains the general problem of ● (2) sub-questions: supporting questions
the study: participants, setting and for the central question.
period of study ● MUST NOT only elicit facts or be
answerable by a simple “yes” or “no,”
IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM Chapter 3 - The Background of the Study

1. Main tasks – satisfy the question, “what to BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

do?” with the major variables
2. Main or major variables ❖ introduce the research problem, clarify
3. Participants: subjects or respondents important variables, discuss its
4. The specific setting limitations and delimitations, and specify
5. Coverage date of the conduct of study its significance to the field of study
6. Developmental research: the intended ❖ must be short and concise.
outputs such as an intervention program ❖ composed of about three to five pages.

Types of Research Questions The following questions will aid the researcher in
formulating the introduction:
Factor-Isolating Questions. (“What is this?”)
1. What is the rationale of the research
★ factor-naming questions. problem?
★ isolate, categorize, describe, or name
factors and situations. ➔ narration of the researcher’s experience
★ 1. What is the profile of school that has driven them to conduct the study
★ managers in terms of: ➔ one’s personal experience, an article
★ 1.1 age; read, a scene witnessed, news heard,
★ 1.2 health conditions and a theory that needs to be clarified.
★ 1.3 educational attainment 2. What is the setting of the research problem?
Factor-Relating Questions, (“What is happening ➔ The setting forms part of the delimitation
here?”). of the problem, as it defines geographic
★ determine the relationship among factors boundaries of the study and implies
that have been identified. certain demographic characteristics.
★ questions for a non-experimental type of ➔ Focus on the peculiarity or uniqueness
research. of the setting to hook the reader’s interest.
★ How do study habits influence the 3. What is the basic literature foundation of the
achievement level of the Grade 11 students study?
in their major subjects?
➔ Clarifies the terms or variables used in
Situation-relating Questions (“What will happen the study.
if?”) ➔ The terms and variables must be clear to
★ yield hypothesis testing or experimental the researcher.
study designs ➔ Determines the boundaries of the study.
★ researcher manipulates the variables to 4. How serious is the chosen research
see what will happen. problem?
★ What are the effects of the traditional
methods of teaching on the level of ➔ Show the intensity and magnitude of the
performance of the ABM students? problem.
➔ Look for and mentions statistical or
Situation-producing questions (“How can I quantitative evidence to assess the weight
make it happen?”) of the problem.
★ establish explicit goals for actions, 5. What is the general objective of the research
develop plans or prescriptions to achieve problem?
 ➔ Highlight the MAIN TASK that the sub-variables is further explained by its
researcher must answer or attain. indicators
❖ APA (2001): critical evaluations of
6. What is the overall purpose of the research materials previously published
problem? ❖ sub-divided into foreign and local
Chapter 4 - Scope, Delimitation, and publications
Significance of the Study TIPS IN WRITING THE REVIEW OF RELATED
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY LITERATURE

❖ Scope: determined by the major variables 1. Open web sources are not usually
of the study considered reliable sources
❖ Delimitation: sub-variables and their 2. discussion should follow the arrangement of
characteristics, attributes, or indicators variables
❖ facts and theories 3. Describe the relationship of each work to
❖ Specifies the locale or setting the others under considerations.
4. new ways to interpret and shed light on any
VARIABLE – any factor that a researcher gaps
measures, controls and/or manipulates. 5. Resolve conflicts among previous studies
(Examples: age, civil status, degrees, weight, 6. Identify areas of prior scholarship
height) 7. Point the way forward for further research
8. Place one’s original work (in theses or
1. CONCEPT – collection of characteristics dissertations) in the context of existing
or features that can be defined through literature.
dictionary
2. CONSTRUCT – new characteristic that RELATED STUDIES
results from a conduct of research. (level of
performance, nature of environment, rate of ❖ even if the same variables have been used
recovery, educational attainment, previously, similar studies may vary in the
sociological factors) delimitation in the subvariables, focus, and
purpose.
DELIMITATION ❖ results of a study are verified by similar
findings or negated by different findings
● boundaries of the study with respect to of previous researchers.
the major variable/s and is further clarified ❖ Studies: thesis, dissertation, or journal
by the sub-variables. article, (research literature)
● describes the choices made by the
researchers that describe boundaries. CONTENT OF RELATED STUDIES
● SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH
LIMITATIONS 1. The name of the author, date, and setting of
○ Limitations: arise during the the study.
design and actual conduct of the 2. The title
study and is out of the researcher’s 3. The salient findings
control. APA REFERENCING GUIDE
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ❖ American Psychological Association or
❖ The beneficiaries and the benefits APA style - commonly used in the fields
❖ sequence of the beneficiaries of the of Social Sciences, Philosophy,
research starts from the most benefited to Education, and Economics
the least benefited. A researcher in APA style should contain the
Chapter 5 - The Review of Related Literature following four main sections:
and Studies 1. The title page – includes research title,
RELATED LITERATURE author’s name, author’s institutional
affiliation
❖ Also called as “Conceptual Literature” 2. The abstract – concise summary of the
❖ Removes vagueness surrounding research study in 150 to 250 words.
concepts central to the study. 3. The main body – contains the main text or
❖ research variables and delimitations of content of the paper
the study should be determined.
❖ indicators per variable are identified and Chapter 6 - Research Frameworks
objectively established. FRAMEWORK
❖ major variable is better understood by
identifying sub-variables and each
 ● basic structure or frame of reference ➢ when the SOP are all factor-isolating
designed to support or enclose questions
something
● Concepts & Theories - serve as building IV-DV model (independent variable-dependent
blocks variable model)

THEORY ➢ Used in experiment-based studies

➢ questions raised are higher order and
● Greek word, Theoria = “vision.” classified as situation-relating.
● conceptual convention to describe,
explain, predict, or understand a certain PC model (predictor-criterion model)
phenomenon. ➢ relating and assessing the influence
● determines cause-effect relationships. between two or more variables
● good theory expands vision and guides ➢ focus on relationships, associations,
thinking, professional practice, and differences and impacts
research.
P model
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
➢ proposing a program or intervention
❖ May be formulated from an existing theory measures.
or theories. ➢ situation-producing level of questioning
❖ original paradigm that is used by the cited
theorist can be fully adopted in the POM model (Proposed Original Model)
present study.
❖ can also be adapted and modified since ➢ researcher presents an original paradigm.
researcher can add or subtract variables ➢ it must be scientific.
from it, provided that the essence of the
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
theory is maintained.
❖ tentative prediction about the relationship
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
between two or more variables in a
❖ based on theories or parts of a theory population under study
combined with parts of another theory, ❖ translates a research question into a
or an intellectual synthesis prediction of expected outcomes
❖ concepts, assumptions, or expectations ❖ Commonly used in an
to link one idea with another EXPERIMENT-TYPE RESEARCH
❖ Provides clear directions. ❖ hypothesis aligns with the results of the
study, it is accepted; otherwise, it is
PARADIGM OF THE STUDY rejected.

❖ pattern, model, or set of forms which Kinds of Hypothesis

contains particular elements
❖ scientific imagination expressed SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS - formulated when
graphically predicting a relationship between an
❖ the heart of the research paper. independent variable and a dependent variable.

MEANINGS OF SHAPES AND SYMBOLS - The nature of teachers is related to the

(Velarde, 2017) nature of the students

1. Square or rectangle – stability and order. COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS - formulated when

2. Circle – completion, harmony, cycle. predicting the relationship of two or more
3. Triangle – direction and power independent variables or two or more dependent
4. Dot or point – beginning variables.
5. Line – boundary or division. connection
- There is no significant relationship between
or relationship.
the profile, classroom leadership, and
6. Spiral – anything that expands or
management skills and the school’s
contracts. Also indicate impact or
performance of Sunday school teachers.
output.
7. Arrow – direction, cause, effect DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - the existences
8. Broken arrow or line – any result or and the expected direction of the relationship
output. between the independent and dependent
variables.
COMMON PARADIGMS
- Lower levels of exercise are associated with
IPO Model (input-process-output)
greater weight retention than higher levels
➢ used when attempting to isolate factor or of exercise.
major variable that causes problem
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - does not assessed and the difference can be
stipulate the direction of the relationship determined
between the independent and dependent variables.
can also be regarded as simple hypotheses. TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGNS
- The number of hours spent in reviewing is
associated with the level of performance in TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
periodical exams. ● the researcher manipulates the
NULL HYPOTHESIS - for statistical analysis. experimental variables (IV);
always as a negative statement. the goal is ● one experimental group and one
always to reject or disprove the hypothesis. comparison or control group;
● subjects are randomly assigned either to
- There is no significant relationship between the comparison to experimental group.
the reasons for using alternative medicine
and the level of comfort of the patients. (A) Pretest-posttest controlled group design

ALTERNATIVE or RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS - ➔ Subjects are randomly assigned to

states the actual expected relationships groups
between variables. always expressed ➔ A pretest is given to both groups
affirmatively and can be classified as either ➔ The experimental group receives
substantive or scientific. treatment (while the control group
does not)
- The traits of the middle-level managers ➔ A posttest is given to both groups.
significantly affect the productivity of crews
in food chains. (B) Posttest-only controlled group design

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY ➔ a posttest is given to both groups.

❖ propositions taken to be true based upon (C) Solomon four-group design

the presupposition, without ➔ Subjects are randomly assigned to
considerations of the facts. FOUR groups
❖ propositions - different variables or ➔ 2 of the groups (experimental
sub-variables being studied group 1 & control group 1) are
❖ based on information about a certain pretested.
situation and the inferences or ➔ The other 2 groups (experimental
conclusions group 2 and control group 2) receive
Chapter 7 - The Quantitative Research the routines treatment or no
Methodology treatment.
➔ A posttest is given to all four
Essential Elements of The Research groups
Methodology
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Research Design – Describes research
mode (qualitative or quantitative) and ● there is no control group or the subjects
specific types. are not randomly assigned to groups.
2. Respondents of the study – Describes ○ Nonequivalent controlled group
target population Sample frame. design – similar to pretest-posttest
3. Instrument of the study – specific control group design EXCEPT there
research instrument (e.g. questionnaire, is NO RANDOM assignment of the
checklist, interview, tests etc) subjects
4. Establishing validity and reliability – the ○ Time-series group design – The
instrument must pass this test before it is researcher periodically observes
utilized. or measures the subjects.
5. Statistical treatment – subjecting the data PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
to statistical formulas and processes to
establish objectivity of findings. ● considered very weak because the
researcher has little control over the
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS research.
❖ MANIPULATION or CONTROL of the ○ One-shot case study – single
independent variables (cause) and group is exposed to an
MEASUREMENT of the dependent experimental treatment and
variables (effects) observed after the treatment.
❖ “method of difference” - effect of a single ○ One-group pretest-posttest study
variable applied to the situation can be – comparative description of a
 group of subjects before and after 3. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING -
experimental treatment. similar to simple, but divided into
sub-groups
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 4. CLUSTER SAMPLING - grouping of
❖ WILSON, 1990: survey studies aim at population into subgroups or clusters;
describing characteristics, opinions, heterogeneous
attitudes, and behaviors as they 5. MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING - draw a sample
currently exist in a population from a population using smaller and
❖ conducted through self-report smaller groups at each stage

SURVEYS can be categorized according to: NON–PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES

1. Who the data is collected from. A. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING - judgment

● Sample – a representative of the total when choosing members of the population
population. B. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING - easiest for
● Group – can be smaller than a mass. the researcher to access
● Mass – larger than a group. C. QUOTA SAMPLING - sample involving
individuals that represent the population.
2. Methods used to collect the data. D. SNOWBALL SAMPLING - new units are
● Telephone, Text messages, Snail mail, recruited by other units
Email or other social media modalities
● Face-to-face interaction INSTRUMENTS

3. Time orientation QUESTIONNAIRE

● Retrospective – the dependent variable is
● structured questionnaire - uses
identified in the present and an attempt is
closed-ended questions or indicators.
made to determine the independent
frequently used in quantitative studies
variable that occurred in the past.
because it is easier to standardize
● Cross-sectional – the data are collected
● unstructured questionnaire - participants
at a single point in time. requires subjects
to respond to open-ended questions.
who are at different points, phases, or
● semi-structured questionnaires -
stages of an experience.
composed of both closed and open-ended
4. Purpose or objectives questions.
● Descriptive – accurately portraying a
TESTS - research instruments for assessing
population that has been chosen because
skills and characteristics.
of some specific characteristics.
➔ Standardized tests - scored consistently
5. Comparative - compare and contrast
and used by official institutions for
representative samples from two or more
various groups.
groups of subjects in relation to certain
➔ Non-standardized tests - specific to
designated variables that occur in normal
certain groups and may not have uniform
conditions.
scoring.
6. Correlational – investigate the direction and ➔ Achievement tests - measure acquired
magnitude of relationships among variables knowledge over time (e.g., National
in a particular population. Achievement Test).
➢ Causation - one event is the result of the ➔ Aptitude tests - predict one's ability for
occurrence of the other event; i.e. there is specific work (e.g., school entrance
a causal relationship. exams).

SAMPLING - process or technique of choosing Quantitative interviews - collect numerical data

a sub- group from a population to participate in on behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and
a study. demographics through oral interactions.

A. Probability Sampling Procedure - ● Use rating scales or rubrics, emphasizing

everyone has an equal chance of being numerical responses.
selected ● aim to gather data from a large sample size;
B. Non-probability Sampling Procedure - structured interviews commonly used
population is well-defined
Observation - particularly for quantitative aspects
PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES like size, weight, and temperature. also used to
assess performance using rubrics or rating
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING - everyone scales.
has equal chance of being selected
2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING - selected from
a list based on their order in the population