RESPIRATION

 It is the process of breathing in

oxygen and breathing out carbon
dioxide.
 Formally, it refers to the chemical
process organisms use to release
the energy from food, which
typically involves the consumption of
oxygen and release of carbon
dioxide.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 It is a series of chemical reactions
that break down glucose to produce Words to remember…
ATP, which may be used as energy • NAD+H  Nicotinamide adenine
to power many reactions throughout dinucleotide + hydrogen
the body. -plays a role in generating energy
 Three main steps includes; • Acetyl CoA- is a molecule that
 glycolysis participates in many biochemical
 Kreb’s cycle or Citric acid cycle reaction in protein,
 Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC) carbohydrates, and lipid
metabolism.
 main function is to deliver the
acetyl group to the kreb’s cycle to be
oxidized for energy production.
(C2H3O1)

ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
• ATP production without oxygen. lactic acid from pyruvate oxidizes
• Glucose is not completely broken, so NADH, regenerating NAD+ so that
much less energy is released than glycolysis can continue to make
during aerobic respiration. more ATP rapidly.
• Fermentation occurs in the cytosol • Your body carries out this type of
(cytoplasm) fermentation when you work your
muscles hard and fast.
* lactic acid fermentation
• The capacity of your body to take in
* ethanol fermentation (alcohol)
oxygen is limited, your body resorts
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION to lactic acid fermentation to
• Is an anaerobic type of cellular produce more oxygen.
respiration, produces a limited • Increased levels of lactic acid
amount of ATP in the absence of production make the muscle cells
oxygen. acidic and disrupt other metabolites,
• Used by animals, some plants, fungi, resulting in a burning sensation in
and bacteria your body’s active muscles.
• In this process, it makes ATP in the
absence of oxygen by converting
glucose to lactic acid (through a
pyruvate intermediate). Making
 which are used to make bread, wine,
and biofuels
• The pyruvate from glycolysis loses 1
carbon in the form of carbon dioxide
to produce acetaldehyde.
• NADH is oxidized into NAD+ and
reduces the acetaldehyde to ethyl
alcohol.

• This effect is considered as a natural

defense mechanism for the body to
prevent any permanent damage
during extreme activities.
• When the body clears the lactic acid
during the recovery period, oxygen
becomes available again to resume
aerobic metabolism for your body.
YEAST
Anaerobic respiration in muscle • Are unicellular organisms that
cells belong to the Fungi kingdom.
• Glucose in human muscle cells is • Particularly efficient at converting
converted to lactic acid during sugars into alcohol and carbon
anaerobic respiration: dioxide through fermentation.
• The lactic acid is a waste product. • Yeast works best in a warm, moist
• Anaerobic respiration happens in environment.
muscles during hard exercise: • Keeps digestive system healthy
Glucose → lactic acid and in balance. It helps absorb
vitamins and minerals from your
C 6H 12O 6 → 2C 3H 6O 3
food, and even fight disease.
WHAT ARE LACTIC ACID BACTERIA?
• These are group of “friendly” Anaerobic respiration in Yeast
bacteria that are good at consuming
• Yeast is used to make alcoholic
the sugar in milk (lactose) and
drinks. When yeast cells are
converting it into lactic acid and
reproducing rapidly during beer or
other components.
wine production, the oxygen is used
• Used also in making of yogurt and up. The yeast has to switch to using
for food preservation purposes. It anaerobic respiration to ensure it
also improves the texture and taste can survive. Ethanol and carbon
of food. dioxide are produced.
• Lactobacillus, Streptococcus Glucose → ethanol + carbon
thermophilus, Enterococci faecalis dioxide (+ ATP made)
• This reaction is also
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION called fermentation.
• In this process, pyruvate changes to
ethanol (a type of alcohol) and
Difference
release carbon dioxide.
• This type of fermentation is present
in yeasts and some bacteria, most of
 AEROBIC CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
 It is the process wherein cells break molecules. Phosphorylation is the
down the nutrients in food and turn process of adding a phosphate group
them into ATP. to a molecule.
 This process uses molecular oxygen 2. After the phosphorylation of glucose,
(O2), the most common oxidizing it is converted into two 3-carbon
agent, in a series of catabolic molecule called PGAL
reactions that break down large (phosphoglyceraldehyde) as an
molecules to release energy. intermediate compound.
 Exothermic redox reaction B. ENERGY PAY-OFF
CELLULAR RESPIRATION 3. A phosphate group is added to each
PGAL molecule and hydrogen atoms
 It is a series of chemical reactions
are transferred to NAD+
that break down glucose to produce
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
ATP, which may be used as energy to
forming two molecules of NADH.
power many reactions throughout the
4. The phosphate bonds of PGAL are
body.
broken forming two molecules of ATP
PHASES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION from each molecule of PGAL and
 Glycolysis converting them to two molecules of
 Citric acid cycle ( Kreb’s cycle ) pyruvic acid.
 Oxidative phosphorylation Glycolysis products
- ETC • 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 Pyruvic acid
- chemiosmosis • Pyruvic acid is converted to an
a. GLYCOLYSIS intermediate molecule called acetyl-
Coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and will now
 Glycolysis- is series of catabolic enter the Kreb’s cycle.
reactions that convert glucose into
pyruvate through 10 enzymatic b. KREB’S CYCLE
steps. • Is a series of chemical reactions that
 This process takes place in the take place in the presence of oxygen
cytosol of the cell. It proceeds even inside the matrix of the
in the absence of O2 mitochondrion.
 The product of glycolysis are: • This process was discovered by Hans
2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvic acid Adolf Krebs (1900-1981), a German-
Bristish biochemist.
Glycolysis process • Kreb’s cycle is also called the Citric
A. ENERGY INVESTMENT acid cycle due to its first intermediate
1. Glucose is product, Citric acid.
Words to remember…
• Acetyl CoA- is a molecule that
participates in many biochemical
reaction in protein, carbohydrates,
and lipid metabolism.
• NAD+H  Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide + hydrogen
• FAD+H  Flavin adenine
dinucleotide + hydrogen
• NAD+ and FAD  important
electron carriers (coenzymes) in
cellular respiration
-acts as electron shuttles. They
phosphorylated using two ATP pick up electrons from one molecule
and drop them off with another.
 b. chemiosmosis

KREB’S CYCLE PROCESS

1. The 2-carbon
acetyl group
of acetyl CoA
combines with a. ETC- Electron transport chain
a 4-carbon  Electron transport begins in the inner
oxaloacetic membrane of the mitochondria.
acid, releasing  It is a series of carriers that transport
CoA and or carry electrons from one protein
forming a 6- complex to another.
carbon  The high-energy electrons that go to
molecule called Citric acid. the ETC are carried by NADH and
2. The Citric acid molecule is broken FADH2.
down to a 5-carbon compound  When NADH loses its electrons, it
ketoglutaric acid. NADH is formed. becomes oxidized to NAD+.
3. The 5-carbon compound (ketoglutaric  When FADH2 also gives up its
acid) is broken down by an enzyme electron, it becomes oxidized to FAD
producing a 4-carbon compound  These electrons are passed down
called succinic acid forming NADH and from one acceptor to another down an
ATP. The waste product of this step is energy gradient until they reach
carbon dioxide. oxygen, which is the final electron
4. The 4-carbon molecule is rearranged acceptor
forming Malic acid and high-energy  As soon as the oxygen receives the
electrons are formed including the electrons, it combines with hydrogen
electron carriers NADH and FADH2 ions, and water is produced.
5. The removal of H ion from malic acid
causes the regeneration of Oxygen as final electron acceptor
oxaloacetic acid, and the cycle is • Oxygen has a high electronegativity;
completed. thus, oxygen’s high affinity for
KREB’S CYCLE PRODUCT electrons makes it an ideal acceptor
• Since there are two molecules of for low energy electrons.
pyruvic acid that will enter the Kreb’s • With these electrons, hydrogen is
cycle, the cycle is expected to turn added to oxygen forming water as the
“twice”, thus, for the two molecules a final product.
total of 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 Role of Oxygen in cells
ATP’s are formed. • Oxygen’s primary function is to
• The process results in the release of 4 provide our body with energy
molecules of CO2 as by- products. • In mitochondria, oxygen transforms
• The electron carriers NADH and nutriments from the digestive process
FADH2 are used to generate ATP into energy that can be used directly
molecules in the process of ETC. by the cell (ATP).
c. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION b. Chemiosmoses
• Is a process that produces ATP  Chemiosmosis- describes the
through the oxidation of electron movement of electrons down their
carriers in the presence of oxygen. electrochemical gradient.
• Comprises two parts:  Hydrogen ions are pumped back into
a. ETC the matrix through a membrane
 protein called the ATP synthase, As it 3. Reduce pollutants in your home.
happens, ADP is converted into ATP. 4. Keep your home smoke-free.
 ATP molecules then move out of the 5. Avoid outdoor activities in the
mitochondrion to be used for cellular afternoons on warm days, when
activities that needs energy. risk of air pollution is highest.

Oxygen is vital to organisms that have SUMMARY PRODUCT OF CELLULAR

aerobic respiration. How can you ensure RESPIRATION
that you are breathing clean air with • Pyruvate
oxygen? • Carbon dioxide
1. Keep rooms well ventilated. • Water from ETC
2. Use allergy friendly or chemical • 36 ATP molecules
free products.
 GENETICS
 a scientific study of genes and how organisms that have been genetically
they affect heredity. engineered by
 It is our genes that controls our RECOMBINANT DNA- DNA created
heredity from multiple organisms, genes from
Unlocking terms: a desirable traits are moved from
Heredity - it is the natural process one organism to another
by which physical and mental BIOTECHNOLOGY- The
qualities are passed on from parent manipulation through genetic
to a child. engineering of living organisms or
Genes - are the units of heredity their components to produce useful
composed of DNA molecules that are usually commercial products
transferred from the parents to the Eukaryotic cell- A kind of cell that is
offspring. manipulated and is used in genetic
- it also determines a certain modification.
traits Plasmid- A circular DNA used in
Traits - is the inherited genetic engineering
characteristic feature of an
individual. Gregor Mendel
- is how your heredity is being The basic laws of
expressed heredity were first
Alleles- is a specific form of a gene formed during the mid
- it is responsible for the 1800’s by an Austrian
variation in which a given trait can botanist monk named
be expressed. Gregor Mendel.
Because his work laid
- it can be dominant or
the foundation to the
recessive
study of heredity,
- it can be homozygous or Mendel is referred to as “The Father
heterozygous of Genetics.”
Genotype- genetic make up
Phenotype- physical make up
(traits)

GENETIC ENGINEERING- It is the

laboratory manipulation of genetic
material.
GENETICALLY-MODIFIED
ORGANISM / GMO- It is an
 BtCorn
- The first
biotech crop

Flavr-Savr tomato (‘flavor

commercialized in the Philippines Savor”)
- the first GMO that was licensed
What is Bt? for human consumption
• Bt stands for Bacillus
thuringiensis
• Bt is a soil-dwelling
microorganism which contains
the Bt toxin
• Bt corn is genetically engineered
to produce a certain type of
protein which in turn becomes • Modified trait is its ripening
the Bt toxin
process using a gene from E.coli
How does Bt work?
• An enzyme
• Bt toxin is Bt-endotoxin from polygalacturonase-
Bacillus thuringiensis
causes the degradation of pectin
• Non-toxic to humans, mammals,
in the cell walls normally softens the
fish and birds.
fruit as it ripens
• Creating Bt corn is through
• In Flavr-savr tomato, an
inserting a gene from Bt
inhibitor antisense RNA
• When ingested by an insect, its
disrupts the expression of these
own digestive enzyme will
gene and delaying the softening of
activate the toxic form of the
the fruit and extending the time it
crystal protein
may be kept in storage and
• The digestive system of the transported to markets.
insect crystallizes and it starves
GM Rice
to death.
 Pigs with less fat- leaner meat

Strawberry with antifreeze

CLONING
• is the process of producing
genetically identical individuals of
an organism either naturally or
artificially.
• In nature, many organisms
produce clones through asexual
reproduction.
• Cloning in biotechnology refers to
the process of creating clones of
organisms or copies of cells or
DNA fragments.
Dolly the Sheep ADVANTAGES
The first cloned animal • GM crops are more productive
and have a larger yield.
• Offer more nutritional value and
better flavor.
• In built resistance to pest, weeds
and diseases.
• More capable of thriving in
regions with poor soil or adverse
climate.
• More environment friendly as • Pharmaceuticals
they require less herbicides and DISADVANTAGES
pesticides.
• GMO foods don’t taste as natural
• Foods are resistant and stay ripe as no GMO foods.
for longer period so they can be
• Insects/ pest evolution
shipped long distance.
• Human health risk due to
• As more GM crops can be grown
unfamiliar foreign proteins- new
on relatively small parcel of land,
allergic reaction could develop
GM crops are an answer to
feeding growing world • Possible health complications
populations. could arise due to unknown long
term effect of GMO foods
• Enhanced desired traits
• Genes resistant to antibiotics will
• Medical advantage as in
become dangerous diseases
production of vaccines (Insulin,
transmittable to humans
Hepa-B and many others)
• Environmental hazards and
• Less malnutrition
economic concerns.
• Endless possibilities and anything
alive can be modified
BIOETHICS
 The amount of knowledge on the
science of genetics is rapidly
increasing. The application of this
knowledge has raised ethical
questions which we have to face
and answer.
 Only by understanding and
evaluating accurate information
can we then make informed
decisions concerning its uses.
TOOLS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic Engineering
a. Restriction enzyme
- also called Genetic modification
- DNA cutting enzymes
- is a process that uses laboratory-
based technologies to alter the - is a protein isolated from bacteria
DNA makeup of an organism. that cleaves DNA sequences at
- to alter is to change or cause to sequence- specific sites, producing
change in character or DNA fragments with a known
composition, typically in a sequence at
comparatively small but each end.
significant way.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
 RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY

b. DNA Ligase
- DNA-joining enzyme.
- enzymes which acts like a glue
sticking foreign DNA to DNA of the
cloning vector.
- will only work if DNA from the two
DNA sources has been cut with the
same restriction enzyme (i.e., sticky
ends of cut DNA will be
complimentary to each other.
 STEPS OF RECOMBINANT DNA
Technology

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN
GENETIC ENGINEERING
• identify section of DNA that
contains required gene from
source chromosome,
• extract required gene,
• insert required gene into
VECTOR- is a DNA molecule vector/bacterial plasmid,
(plasmid or virus) that is used as a • insert plasmid into host cell,
vehicle to carry a particular DNA • grow transformed cells to produce
segment into a host cell as part of a a GM organism.
recombinant DNA technique
APPLICATIONS OF
RECOMBINANT DNA

HISTORY OF LIFE ON
EARTH
 The history of life on Earth is including the origin and eventual
filled with many fascinating destruction or extinction of different
events. These events present groups of organisms.
important pieces of information BIOGEOGRAPHY- is the branch of
that will help us understand how biology that deals with the study of
life on earth came to be. Learning how species spread across the
the history of life deepens our planet.
understanding and appreciation GEOLOGY- is the branch of science
for all living things, including our that deals with the study of the earth
fellow humans. and its geologic processes.
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY is the
• The Earth is 4.6 billion years
branch of biology that deals with the
old.
study of how life started on earth and
how it gave rise to the many species • Life on Earth arose around 3.5
that now exist. billion years ago.
EVOLUTION- is a gradual process of • Over Earth’s vast history, both
change over a period of time. gradual and catastrophic
processes have produced
PALEONTOLOGY- is the scientific
enormous changes both on
study of the existence of life,
 Earth itself and the organisms environment they lived in.
that lives on it. Humans, too, have adaptations
• Early life-forms found ways to to thrive in ever-changing
evolve and adapt to the harsh environments
TIMELINE OF EVENTS
• Is a visual representation of a
chronological sequence of events
along a drawn line that helps a
viewer understand time
relationships.
• GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE-
presents the sequence of events
that happened in the Earth’s
history in various divisions of
known relative age.
• GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE-
presents the sequence of events
that happened in the Earth’s
history in various divisions of
known relative age.
• Our Geologic timescale is an
important tool that visually shows
Earth’s history. With the help of
this timescale, we can look at the
past and identify the organisms
that have existed a long time
ago.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

EON- largest division of the geologic • Paleozoic- began about 540
time scale; spans hundreds to million years ago and lasted for
thousands of millions of years ago about 300 million years.
(mya). Subdivided into: • Mesozoic- began about 200
• Hadean eon-(4.6 to 3.9 billion million years ago and lasted for
years old) dust and gases about 180 million years. This era
• Archaeozoic eon- (3.9 to 2.5 is also called the “age of
billion years ago) dinosaurs”, and sometimes, the
“age of reptiles”.
• Proterozoic eon- (2.5 billion
years old to 540 million years old • Cenozoic- is considered to be
the latest era in the geologic
• Phanerozoic eon- which began
timeline, which began from 65
more than 500 million years ago
million years ago up to the
ERAS- division in an Era that span present. During this era,
time periods of tens to hundreds of mammals evolved and adapted
millions of years. Subdivided into: to live in various environments,
including land, water and air.
 Sometimes called the “age of b. Extinction- the disappearance of
mammals”. species for failing to adapt to
PERIOD- a division of geologic changes in the environment.
history that spans no more than one • Mass Extinction- these are
hundred million years sudden and cause dramatic loss
• Quarternary, Tertiary in biodiversity
• Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic
“Age of reptiles”
• Permian, Pennsylvanian,
Mississippian
“Age of amphibians”
• Devonian, Silurian- “Age of
fishes”
• Ordovician, Cambrian- “Age of
invertebrates”
• Vendian-”Soft-bodied faunas”
EPOCH- the smallest division of the OVERVIEW OF THE FIVE MASS
geologic time scale characterized by EXTINCTION EVENTS IN EARTH’S
distinctive organisms. HISTORY
• Holocene 1. Trilobite
• Pleistocene Suspected cause:
• Pliocene  Dramatic
fluctuations in
• Miocene sea level
• Oligocene
• Eocene 2. Placoderm
• Palaeocene Suspected cause:
Learning how life originated on Earth  Global cooling
can help you understand how loss of oxygen in
complex life-forms have become. oceans
The efforts of different scientists
have enabled us to learn the history
of life on earth. 3. Rugose coral
Suspected cause:
Word to remember!  Dramatic
fluctuations in
• BIODIVERSITY- refers to the
climate or sea
number and kinds of organisms in
level
a particular habitat or ecosystem.
 asteroid or
Change in biodiversity is influenced comet impacts
by two fundamental evolutionary  severe volcanic activity
processes:
4. Phytosaur teeth
a. Speciation- is the emergence of
Suspected cause:
new species as a result of divergence
between groups that comprised pre-  Severe
existing populations. volcanism
 global warming
 5. Mosasaur
Suspected cause:
• Impact severe
volcanism
• most famous
and well-
understood
extinction event

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
Earth is over 4.6 billion years
old. Its history shows us how life
evolved from the simplest to the
most complex. Its present-day
ecosystems have become habitable
to many forms of life. Thus, you
have to take care of these
ecosystems by practicing the 3Rs
(reuse, reduce, and recycle). By
doing so, you help conserve and
protect Earth’s natural resources for
future generations.
 Development of Evolutionary
Thoughts
JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797)
Early Concepts of Evolution
 He believed Earth’s landscape
 First evolutionary concepts like mountains and oceans
appeared in early Greek formed over long period of
writings which states that time through gradual
animals transformed from one processes.
kind to another and speculated  When the environment
that they could be made up of changes over time, those
individuals best adapted to the
various combinations of pre-
new environment will survive,
existing parts.
while those poorly adapted will
 It was in the 18th century that perish.
many naturalists began to  It was through James Hutton
state the idea that life might that Charles Darwin was able
not have been fixed since to adapt the principles of
creation. gradual change to his model of
how species evolved.
 Scientists searched for  He developed the concept of
evidence that will give them a uniformitariasnism.
picture of the past.
Review: Evidence of Evolution THOMAS MALTHUS (1766- 1834)
 A British economist best known
1. Biogeography
for his theory that the growth
2. Fossils of the human population will
3. DNA sequencing exceed the space and food
4. Homologous structures of supply that sustain it, resulting
different animals in famines and other disasters.
5. The patterns of early  He concluded that as more
embryological development. offspring are born, a more
competitive nature would arise.
TRIVIA:  This would mean that Natural
selection would be “the
 The fact is earliest concepts of survival of the fittest” because
evolution did not start only there were not enough
with Charles Darwin. resources for every organism
 Long before Charles Darwin to survive.
talks and studied about  1798 published Essay on the
Evolution, there are a few
Principle of Population.
Naturalists who had been
making studies about the
theory of evolution…
JOHN BAPTISTE LAMARCK (1744-
1829)
 Darwinian thinking contradicts
 He proposed that organisms
the notion of Christianity and
change during life in order to
adapt to its environment, and many other faiths, that man had
those changes are passed on to a special, God-given place in
its offspring. natural order.
 Organisms altered their
behavior in response to
environmental change. Their
changed behavior, in turn,
modified their organs, and their
offspring inherited those
“improved” structures.
 Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired Characteristics
 Theory of Use and Disuse

CHARLES LYELL (1797- 1875)  On the Origin of Species may

never have been written, let
 He considered the shaping of
alone published, when one
Earth’s surface as a result of
scientist proposed a strikingly
gradual long-term natural
similar theory in 1858. His
changes.
announcement prompted
 Supports the Principle of Darwin to publicly reveal that
UNIFORMITARIANISM. his own research had led him to
the same conclusion decades
 He presented the idea that the earlier. In 1859, Darwin’s book
Earth was shaped by the same was published and immediately
natural processes still in became a bestseller and quickly
operation today, operating at set off a firestorm of
similar intensities. controversy.
 AUTHOR OF PRINCIPLES OF ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE (1823-
GEOLOGY 1913)
CHARLES DARWIN (1809- 1882)  Although he made an
 He came up with the idea that independent study on the origin
the best-adapted organisms are of organisms, Wallace arrived at
those that can survive to breed the same conclusion as Darwin’s
and pass on their traits to their that organisms with favorable
offspring. traits are those that carry on to
the next generation. Thus,
 His work is considered to be the Wallace had contributed to
foundation of Evolutionary some of the postulates of
Biology published on 24 Darwin’s theory of evolution.
November 1859.
THOUGHTS TO PONDER!!
 What happened if these “Origin of Evolutionary thought
scientists did not pursue their timeline.”
work and share their
contributions to the world, do
you think people would still
arrive at the idea on the Theory
of evolution as it was today?
 What are the advantages of
sharing knowledge and working
together?
 What is the impact of population
to food supply is?
 The more people there are,
especially in poor countries with
limited amounts of land and
water, the fewer resources
there are to meet basic
needs. If basic needs cannot be
met, development stalls and
economies begin to unravel.
Evidence of Evolution 1. Biogeography
 It is the study of the distribution
Father of Evolution
of plants and animals on Earth.
 The beaks were modified so
they can get food easily. From
one species of finch, several
others have evolved over time.
Depending on the on the
environment they inhabit, they
have evolved adaptations that
make them better suited for
their niche.

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• This comprises concepts
confirming the origin of all living
things on Earth from a common
ancestor.
2.Fossil records
• They are extremely important • A fossil contains preserved
for understanding the remains or evidence of ancient
evolutionary history of life on organisms.
Earth and detailed information they reveal how life on Earth
on the ancestry of organisms. changed from one period of
• Biogeography time to the next because they
appear in a particular order.
• Fossil records Fossils of ancient organisms
• DNA/protein sequences appear on older rocks.

• Homology
• Embryology
3. DNA/Protein sequences
• It is the most advanced tool or
evidence for evolution.
Similarities in DNA sequences
among organisms indicate their
close relation with one another.
• By comparing DNA sequences,
scientist can determine how
closely related one species is
with another. Studying DNA and 4. Homology
other molecular pieces of
• Another evidence of evolution
evidence makes it easier to
can be found by studying and
trace the evolutionary history of
comparing certain body parts of
organisms.
different animals.
• These are called homologous
structures. Such structures may
have different mature forms,
but they all came from the same
set of embryonic tissues. Some
of the limbs shown in the
picture are arms, leg, wings,
and even flippers. Even though
they may have different
functions among these animals,
they are all constructed from
the same basic features.
• Some of the limbs shown in the
picture are arms, leg, wings,
and even flippers. Even though
they may have different
functions among these animals,
they are all constructed from
the same basic features.
5. Embryology
• Another piece of evidence
involves the similarities in ELABORATE:
the early development of Paleontologists found out that almost
various organisms. 99% of all species that have lived
Different organisms have before became extinct.
similar structures during
their early embryological Today, 93 endemic species (36%) are
development. threatened with extinction in the
Philippine archipelago (BirdLife
International, 2021)
A species is classified as endangered
when its population has declined at
least 70% and the cause of the
decline is not known.
Source:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org
LET’S CONNECT:
The RA 9147 also known as The
Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Comparative Embryology Protection Act is only one among the
many efforts of our government to
protect many organisms in our
country.
 It shall be the policy of the State to the evolutionary histories of the
conserve the country’s wildlife disease-causing genes.
resources and their habitats for
• Studying evolution at the
sustainability.
molecular level helps scientist
SOURCE: Philippine House of to improve cancer research and
Representatives, republic Act No. to create medicines that can kill
9147. 30 July 2001. antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
http://www.gov.ph/2001/07/30/republi
c-act-no-9147/

TECHNOLOGY CONNECT!
• Learning evidence of evolution
can be done with the help of
technology such as DNA
manipulation or Genetic
engineering.
• Technology plays an important
role in the field of science, and
we should be aware of its fast-
paced advancement.
HEALTH CONNECT!
• Knowing the evolutionary
relationships among species
allows scientists to choose
appropriate organisms for the
study of diseases, such as HIV.
• To control hereditary diseases in
people, researchers study
 • It is a theory that is well-
supported, testable explanation
of a natural phenomenon on
how organisms have grown and
developed from past organisms.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
• The scientific explanation of the
diversity of life.

Mechanism of Evolution
FATHER OF EVOLUTION
How do species change over
Geologic time?
• A species may be a population
of plants or animals which will
breed to supply offspring which
will then produce offspring
themselves.
• The cause that species to arise,
adapt to the environment, and
become extinct is due to the
process of evolution that
CHARLES DARWIN
involves a series of natural
change. He was an English naturalist,
geologist, and biologist, best known
EVOLUTION
for his contributions to evolutionary
• It is the gradual development of biology. His proposition that all
something, from a simple to a species of life have descended from
more complex form and how common ancestors is now widely
present–day organisms have accepted and considered a
descended from ancient ones. fundamental concept in science.
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
1. Artificial selection
2. Natural selection
3. Genetic drift
4. Mutation
5. Recombination

Over hundreds of years farmers

1. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
have been breeding one plant-
In this mechanism, humans choose called Brassica oleracia – into
individuals organisms with certain dozens of different varieties. These
phenotypic trait values for six vegetables you can find in the
breeding. This can be done through grocery store are actually all the
a technique called Selective same plant.
breeding.

SELECTIVE BREEDING
In this process, individuals with
desirable traits or characteristics
are bred to increase the chances of
having offspring with the same
desirable traits.
With the help of artificial selection,
breeders are able to produce a
wide range of plants and animals
that look very different from their
ancestors.

• The meats sold today originally

are the result of the selective
breeding of chickens, cattle,
sheep, and pigs. Many fruits and
 vegetables have been improved 2. NATURAL SELECTION
or even created through
Theory of Natural Selection- Charles
artificial selection.
Darwin
“The preservation of favored races in
the struggle for life.”
• Natural Selection is the process
by which organisms with traits
suited to an environment, or
favorable traits, have a better
chance of surviving and
HISTORY CONNECT! reproducing than those that are
not suited.
• One example is the
development of corn that we SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST,
know today. Ten thousand years ELIMINATION OF THE UNFIT
ago, there was no corn.
• Ancient farmers from Mexico
were believed to first
domesticate a weedy grass
teosinte and chose plants that
have more and better-tasting
kernels like the corn we have
today.

PRINCIPLES OF ARTICIAL
SELECTION

PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL
SELECTION
Allele - is one of two or more versions
of a gene.
Allele frequency - is the number of
individuals in a population that have a
specific allele type.
EXAMPLES OF RANDOM GENETIC
DRIFT
3. GENETIC DRIFT FOUNDER EFFECT- happens when
It is caused by unpredictable changes there is a loss of genetic variation
in allele frequencies due to small because of the migration of a small
population sizes. Thus, a certain allele subgroup in a population.
can be passed on to numerous If the species that migrated carries a
offspring by chance. Over a period of specific genetic disease, then that
time, many individuals with that disease can be passed on from one
certain allele can become common in generation to another.
the given population.

POPULATION BOTTLENECK- occurs

when a sudden sharp decline in the
population (usually from natural
disasters such as volcanic activities
and strong weather disturbances)
results in a drastic reduction of the
original population.
 environment is already affected. This
is why mutations are the ultimate
source of genetic variations.
EXAMPLE OF MUTATION

4. MUTATION
Is the change in the structure of a
gene caused by alterations in the DNA
sequence of an organism.
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
A change in the DNA that can be Accident, Ukraine (April 26, 1986)
passed on to the next generation.
5. RECOMBINATION
This is simply a rearrangement of
genes. This process naturally occurs
during the crossing over stage in
meiosis, where there is an exchange
of DNA between homologous
chromosomes.
Recombination itself is not the major
cause of evolution, but it can be a
contributing factor in transferring
Types of Mutation: favourable genes from one generation
Duplication to another.

Insertion
Deletion
Mutations may occur because of;
a. mistakes in the replication of
genetic materials
b. as a result of exposure to
INBREEDING - when individuals are
radiation
more likely to mate with their close
c. as a result of exposure to relatives than with distant relatives. In
chemicals in the environment. this manner, individuals choose their
mates based on their genetic history.
Many mutations produce changes in
the phenotype (physical appearance) One example was practiced by royal
of an organism. Thus, their ability to families, when they preferred
survive and reproduce in the marrying only other royal members to
keep their bloodlines “pure”.
(Habsburg dynasty, 1700)
HABSBURG JAW

• It took Charles Darwin, an

English naturalist, 20 years to
write and publish his original
book On the Origin of
Species that explained the
process of evolution.
• If animals and plants did not
compete to survive, the earth
would be covered by the
offspring of a single pair.
• Evolutionary changes happen
over thousands of years. So, it’s
hard to see evolution happening
with our own eyes.