APR Answers

1. Discuss the merits and demerits of hydrocracking over catalytic cracking of hydrocarbon
feed.
Hydrocracking and catalytic cracking are two key processes in refining that are used to break
down heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products. Here's an in-depth
comparison:
• Merits of Hydrocracking:
o Higher Product Yield and Flexibility: Hydrocracking converts heavier, less valuable
feedstocks into higher-value products such as diesel, jet fuel, and gasoline. It
provides greater flexibility, as it can handle a wide range of feedstocks, from vacuum
gas oil to residue.
o Cleaner Products: Hydrocracking produces low-sulphur fuels, which are essential for
meeting modern environmental regulations. The process removes sulphur and
nitrogen from the feed, making the output more environmentally friendly.
o Greater Selectivity: Hydrocracking is highly selective towards the production of
middle distillates like diesel and jet fuel, which are often in higher demand than
gasoline.
• Demerits of Hydrocracking:
o Higher Operating Costs: Hydrocracking operates at high pressure and requires large
amounts of hydrogen, making it more expensive to operate than catalytic cracking.
Hydrogen production itself is costly, adding to the overall operational expenses.
o Catalyst Sensitivity: Hydrocracking catalysts are sensitive to contaminants like
sulphur, nitrogen, and metals. Even trace amounts of these contaminants can lead to
catalyst poisoning, necessitating frequent regenerations or replacements.
o Energy Intensive: The process requires high temperatures (around 400°C) and
pressures (up to 200 bar), necessitating robust equipment and significant energy
inputs.
Catalytic cracking (FCC), in contrast, is less selective but operates at lower pressures, making
it more economically feasible in certain scenarios. However, it produces more olefins and
sulphur-containing products, which require further treatment.

2. What are the limitations of feed type of hydrocracking?

The feed type in hydrocracking plays a critical role in the efficiency and success of the
process. The primary limitations associated with feed types are related to contamination
levels, molecular structure, and the nature of hydrocarbons.
• Sulphur and Nitrogen Content: Hydrocracking is highly sensitive to sulphur and nitrogen
compounds in the feedstock. These compounds poison the catalysts, reducing their
effectiveness and necessitating frequent regeneration or replacement. As a result, the
feedstock needs to undergo pre-treatment processes like hydrodesulfurization or
hydrodenitrogenation to reduce impurity levels.
• Aromatic Content: Feedstocks with high aromatic content are more resistant to
hydrocracking. Aromatic compounds are difficult to hydrogenate, which reduces the overall
conversion efficiency. Hydrocracking works best with paraffinic and naphthenic
hydrocarbons.
• Heavy Residual Feeds: While hydrocracking can handle heavier feedstocks, excessively heavy
or highly viscous feeds (e.g., vacuum residues) may require additional pre-processing (e.g.,
 visbreaking or solvent deasphalting) to improve their flow characteristics and make them
more suitable for the hydrocracking reactor.
• Metal Contamination: Heavy metals like vanadium and nickel, often found in residual oils,
can deposit on the catalyst surface, deactivating the catalyst and leading to higher
operational costs.
In summary, hydrocracking requires careful selection and pre-treatment of feedstock to
avoid issues with catalyst life and process efficiency.

3. Explain in detail the heat removal system used in hydrocracking process.

Hydrocracking is a highly exothermic process, which means that it releases a significant
amount of heat during the reaction. Proper heat management is crucial for maintaining
reactor stability, preventing catalyst deactivation, and optimizing the process.
• Exothermic Nature of Reactions: In hydrocracking, hydrogenation of aromatics and olefins,
as well as the cracking of large hydrocarbons, releases heat. Without proper heat removal,
reactor temperatures can exceed optimal levels, leading to catalyst sintering and loss of
activity.
• Inter-stage Cooling: In multi-bed reactors, inter-stage cooling is commonly used to control
reactor temperatures. After each reaction stage, the effluent is passed through a heat
exchanger to remove the excess heat. The cooled effluent is then reintroduced to the next
reactor bed.
• Quench Gas Injection: Another method of heat removal is the injection of quench gas
(usually hydrogen) between reactor stages. The quench gas absorbs the heat generated and
reduces the temperature of the reactor effluent before it enters the next stage.
• Recirculating Coolant Systems: In some configurations, coolant is circulated through jackets
around the reactor or through internal coils to absorb heat directly from the reaction zone.
This approach is especially useful in fixed-bed reactors.
Heat removal systems are integral to maintaining a stable and efficient hydrocracking
process, ensuring high product yields and catalyst longevity.

4. Explain in detail the sulfuric acid treatment for the improvement in the quality of lube.
Sulfuric acid treatment is a critical refining step used to improve the quality of lubricating oils
by removing impurities such as unsaturated hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds, and
oxygenated molecules.
• Process Overview: In this process, the lubricating oil is mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid,
which reacts with the impurities to form acid sludge. The sludge is then separated from the
oil, leaving behind a cleaner, more stable product.
• Removal of Unsaturates: Unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as olefins, are prone to oxidation,
which can reduce the stability and performance of lubricants. Sulfuric acid reacts with these
compounds to form sulfonates, which are removed in the sludge.
• Reduction of Sulphur Compounds: Sulphur-containing impurities are harmful because they
cause corrosion and increase the acidity of the lubricant. Sulfuric acid treatment significantly
reduces sulphur content, improving the lubricant's performance in engines and machinery.
• Improved Colour and Stability: The sulfuric acid treatment also removes colour bodies and
other oxygenated impurities that cause discoloration and oxidation, leading to improved
colour and oxidation stability of the lubricating oil.
The process significantly enhances the viscosity index, oxidation stability, and corrosion
resistance of the final product, making it more suitable for high-performance applications.
5. Explain in detail the dewaxing and sweeting treatment with important properties.
Dewaxing and sweetening are two important refinery processes designed to improve the
low-temperature performance and odor of petroleum products.
• Dewaxing:
o Objective: Dewaxing removes paraffinic waxes from lubricating oils and other
petroleum products to improve their low-temperature flow properties, particularly
the pour point (the lowest temperature at which the oil remains fluid).
o Process: The most common method of dewaxing is solvent dewaxing, where
solvents such as methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) or toluene are used to dissolve the oil.
The solution is then chilled, causing the waxes to precipitate out. The precipitated
wax is removed via filtration or centrifugation.
o Importance: Dewaxing ensures that lubricating oils do not thicken or solidify at low
temperatures, which is critical for applications in colder climates.
• Sweetening:
o Objective: Sweetening processes aim to remove mercaptans (sulphur compounds)
from gasoline and other fuels. Mercaptans are responsible for the unpleasant odor
and can contribute to corrosion.
o Process: One common sweetening method is the copper chloride process, where
the mercaptans are converted into disulfides, which are less odorous and corrosive.
Other sweetening processes include caustic washing and amine treatment.
o Importance: Sweetening enhances the fuel's odor and reduces its corrosive
properties, making it safer and more pleasant to handle.
Both processes are essential for producing high-quality, marketable petroleum products that
meet industry standards for performance and safety.

6. Give in detail the main reactions that take place in hydrocracking process.
Hydrocracking is a complex process where both hydrogenation and cracking reactions occur
simultaneously in the presence of a bifunctional catalyst. The primary reactions include:
• Hydrogenation Reactions:
o Saturation of Olefins: Olefins (alkenes) present in the feed are hydrogenated to form
paraffins. For example, ethylene (C₂H₄) is hydrogenated to ethane (C₂H₆). This
reaction adds hydrogen to double bonds, making the hydrocarbons more stable and
reducing their reactivity.
o Aromatic Hydrogenation: Aromatic compounds are hydrogenated to form
naphthenes. For example, benzene (C₆H₆) is hydrogenated to form cyclohexane
(C₆H₁₂). This reaction is highly exothermic and requires significant hydrogen
consumption.
• Cracking Reactions:
o Carbon-Carbon Bond Cleavage: Large hydrocarbon molecules, typically from the
vacuum gas oil or heavier fractions, undergo cracking to form smaller, more valuable
products such as naphtha, kerosene, and diesel. This is the primary hydrocarbon
breakdown reaction in hydrocracking.
o Hydrocracking of Naphthenes: Naphthenes (cycloalkanes) are cracked into paraffins
and light hydrocarbons. For example, cyclohexane can be cracked into lighter alkanes
like propane and butane.
• Desulfurization and Denitrogenation:
 o Hydrodesulfurization (HDS): In this reaction, sulphur compounds (e.g., thiophenes)
react with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), which is removed from the
product stream.
o Hydrodenitrogenation (HDN): Nitrogen compounds, such as pyridines and
quinolines, are converted into ammonia (NH₃) through hydrogenation, allowing for
their removal.
These reactions produce high-quality fuels with low sulphur content, making hydrocracking
an essential process in modern refineries to meet environmental standards.

7. Explain amine treatment for LPG.

Amine treatment is a critical process used to remove acidic gases such as hydrogen sulphide
(H₂S) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This is essential for
ensuring the purity of the final product and preventing corrosion during storage and
transportation.
• Process Overview:
o LPG is passed through a tower where it is contacted with an aqueous solution of an
amine, typically monoethanolamine (MEA) or diethanolamine (DEA). These amines
chemically react with the acidic gases to form stable compounds.
o The amine solution selectively absorbs H₂S and CO₂ while leaving the hydrocarbons
in the LPG unreacted.
• Chemical Reactions:
o H₂S Removal: H2S+R−NH2→R−NH3HS (amine reacts with hydrogen sulphide to form a
non-volatile compound).
o CO₂ Removal: CO2+R−NH2→R−NH3CO2.
• Regeneration: After the amine solution becomes saturated with H₂S and CO₂, it is
regenerated by heating, which releases the acidic gases and restores the amine for reuse.
• Importance: The amine treatment ensures that the final LPG product is free from corrosive
and harmful acidic gases, making it suitable for industrial and domestic applications.

8. Give the details of modern catalytic naphtha reforming process with reference to feedstock,
effect of hydrocarbon composition, effect of BR of feed, process variables and heat effect.
Catalytic reforming is an essential process in refineries to enhance the octane rating of
naphtha by converting low-octane paraffins into high-octane aromatics and isoparaffins. The
process involves several key reactions and considerations:
• Feedstock:
o The primary feedstock is straight-run naphtha, which contains C5 to C12
hydrocarbons. The naphtha is usually low in sulphur to prevent catalyst poisoning.
• Reactions:
o Dehydrogenation of Naphthenes to Aromatics: Cyclohexane is dehydrogenated to
benzene, which increases the octane number of the product.
o Isomerization of Paraffins: Straight-chain paraffins are converted to branched
paraffins (e.g., n-butane to isobutane), improving the octane rating.
o Hydrocracking of Heavier Paraffins: Large paraffins are cracked into lighter
components like propane and butane, reducing the boiling range of the product.
• Process Variables:
o Temperature: Typically operated at 500–550°C. Higher temperatures favour
dehydrogenation reactions but can also lead to increased coking.
 o Pressure: Reforming operates at low pressures (around 5-20 bar) to favour aromatic
formation.
o Hydrogen-to-Hydrocarbon Ratio: A high hydrogen partial pressure helps suppress
coke formation and maintains catalyst activity.
• Heat Management: The dehydrogenation reactions are highly endothermic and require
external heating. Reformer furnaces are used to maintain the necessary reaction
temperature.
• Catalyst: Platinum-alumina catalysts are most commonly used due to their dual functionality
in both hydrogenation and dehydrogenation.
This process is essential for producing high-octane gasoline and aromatic chemicals like
benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX), which are important petrochemical feedstocks.

9. Explain lead doctorate treatment for gasoline.

The Lead Doctorate treatment involves the addition of lead compounds to gasoline to
increase its octane rating. Historically, tetraethyl lead (TEL) was added to gasoline as an anti-
knock agent to improve engine performance.
• Process Overview:
o Tetraethyl lead (Pb(C₂H₅) ₄) was blended with gasoline in small amounts. The lead
acts as a buffer against pre-ignition (knocking) by slowing down the combustion
process, allowing smoother burning in the engine.
o Ethylene dibromide or ethylene dichloride was also added as scavengers to prevent
lead deposits in the engine by converting lead oxides into volatile lead halides, which
are expelled in the exhaust.
• Environmental Impact: The use of leaded gasoline has been largely phased out worldwide
due to the toxic environmental and health effects of lead emissions, which cause air
pollution and have long-term adverse health impacts, particularly in children.
• Alternatives: Modern gasoline formulations use oxygenates such as ethanol or MTBE
(methyl tertiary butyl ether) to boost octane without the harmful effects of lead.

10. Explain MEK dewaxing treatment for wax.

MEK (Methyl Ethyl Ketone) dewaxing is a widely used process to remove wax from
lubricating oils, improving their cold-flow properties. This process is essential for producing
lubricants that remain fluid at low temperatures.
• Process Description:
o The lubricating oil feedstock is mixed with MEK and another solvent like toluene or
methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK). The mixture is then chilled, causing the wax to
precipitate out as solid crystals.
o The wax crystals are separated from the oil through filtration or centrifugation. The
MEK solvent helps to dissolve the oil while the wax remains undissolved.
• Importance of Dewaxing:
o Dewaxing lowers the pour point of the oil, which is the lowest temperature at which
the oil can flow. This property is critical for oils used in cold climates or in high-speed
engines.
o It also improves the oil’s viscosity at low temperatures, ensuring smoother engine
operation during cold starts.
• Product Quality: Dewaxed oil has improved low-temperature properties, making it suitable
for use in high-performance engines and industrial machinery.
11. State and explain the various chemical reactions occurring in catalytic reforming with special
reference to heat effect and their relative rates.
The overall performance of the reforming process is influenced by the balance of these
reactions, and understanding the nature of the reactions is essential for optimizing the
process. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the reactions involved:
• Reversible Reactions:
o Isomerization Reactions: These reactions allow for the conversion of straight-chain
hydrocarbons into their branched isomers.
▪ For example:
n-Pentane⇌Isopentane
Isomerization is generally favoured by moderate temperatures and sufficient catalyst acidity.
• Aromatization:
o Formation of Aromatics from Naphthenes: This reaction is essential for converting
cycloalkanes (naphthenes) into aromatics, enhancing the octane rating. The process
can be represented as: Cyclohexane→Benzene+3H2
o The dehydrogenation of naphthenes is a key step that requires high temperatures
(500-550°C) and the presence of hydrogen.
• Coking Reactions:
o During the reforming process, especially at higher temperatures, coke formation can
occur, which leads to catalyst deactivation. Coking reactions can be represented as:
CnHm→Coke+Light Hydrocarbons
o To minimize coke formation, careful control of process conditions (such as
temperature, pressure, and hydrogen partial pressure) is essential.
• Overall Reaction Efficiency:
o The efficiency of catalytic reforming is influenced by the specific design of the
reactor, the choice of catalyst, and the operating conditions. Catalysts must be
periodically regenerated to remove coke deposits and restore catalytic activity.
o Reaction kinetics and thermodynamics play a vital role in determining the optimal
operating parameters, such as the temperature profile along the reactor and the
hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon ratio.
In summary, catalytic reforming employs a series of complex reactions involving
dehydrogenation, isomerization, and aromatization, all of which are facilitated by dual-
function catalysts. Understanding these reactions is crucial for optimizing the production of
high-octane gasoline and valuable petrochemical feedstocks.

12. What are dual function catalysts? With reference to platinum alumina catalyst used in
reforming to improve octane number of feed, explain the role of two components.
Dual-function catalysts are pivotal in many refinery processes, particularly in catalytic
reforming. These catalysts possess both metallic and acidic properties, which allow them to
facilitate a range of reactions simultaneously.
• Components:
o Metallic Component (e.g., Platinum): The metallic part of the catalyst, typically
platinum, is responsible for facilitating hydrogenation and dehydrogenation
reactions. It catalyses the conversion of naphthenes to aromatics by facilitating the
removal of hydrogen atoms. This is crucial for enhancing the octane rating of fuels.
o Acidic Component (e.g., Alumina): The acidic portion, often alumina, provides the
necessary acidity to promote isomerization and cracking reactions. The acidity of the
 catalyst allows for the transformation of straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched
isomers, which have higher octane ratings.
• Mechanism of Action:
o The dual function allows for simultaneous reactions: while the metal component is
engaged in dehydrogenation, the acidic sites are facilitating the rearrangement and
cracking of hydrocarbons. This interplay increases the overall efficiency of the
reforming process.
o The effectiveness of these catalysts is also influenced by the presence of hydrogen,
which helps to maintain the activity of the metallic sites by preventing the formation
of carbon deposits (coke) that can deactivate the catalyst.
• Importance in Refining:
o The use of dual-function catalysts significantly enhances the quality of gasoline
produced in the reforming process, making them essential for meeting modern fuel
specifications. The improvement in octane number leads to better engine
performance and reduced knocking.

13. Explain caustic and methanol (unisole) processes. (Treatment for gasoline)
The caustic treatment and methanol (Unisole) treatment processes are crucial in the
refining industry for removing impurities from gasoline to improve quality and performance.
• Caustic Treatment:
o Objective: This process primarily targets the removal of sulphur compounds,
particularly mercaptans, from gasoline. Mercaptans have a foul odor and can lead to
corrosion in pipelines and engines.
o Process Description:
▪ Gasoline is treated with a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The caustic
reacts with the mercaptans to form water-soluble sodium mercaptides. The
resulting reaction can be represented as follows: RSH+NaOH→R−SNa+H2O
where RSH is a mercaptan.
▪ The sodium mercaptides are removed from the gasoline, thus purifying the
product.
o Benefits: This treatment significantly reduces the sulphur content, improving the
odor and overall quality of gasoline, making it more acceptable for consumer use.
• Methanol (Unisole) Process:
o Objective: The Unisole process also focuses on mercaptan removal but employs
methanol instead of caustic. Methanol acts as a solvent and reactant to extract
sulphur compounds.
o Process Description:
▪ Gasoline is contacted with methanol, which dissolves mercaptans and allows
them to be removed from the fuel. The mercaptans react with methanol to
form methanol-soluble compounds, which are subsequently separated from
the gasoline.
▪ This method is particularly effective in reducing total sulphur content and
improving the overall quality of the gasoline.
o Benefits: The Unisole process can also enhance the gasoline’s performance
characteristics, as it results in a cleaner fuel with a reduced environmental impact.
Both treatment methods play a vital role in producing cleaner-burning fuels and adhering to
environmental regulations by minimizing sulphur emissions.
14. Discuss the important factors that dictate the design of reforming reactor and the role of
factors such as nature of feedstock, hydrogen-hydrogen bond ratio, level and nature of
impurities and their effect on catalyst for determining the operating condition of reactor.
The design of a reforming reactor is influenced by several critical factors, which collectively
affect the reactor's performance and efficiency. Key considerations include:
• Nature of Feedstock:
o The composition and characteristics of the feedstock (e.g., naphtha) greatly
influence the catalyst selection, operating conditions, and reactor design. For
instance, higher concentrations of aromatics may require different catalyst
properties to optimize yield.
• Hydrogen-Hydrogen Bond Ratio:
o The hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon ratio is crucial for maintaining catalyst activity and
preventing coking. Higher hydrogen ratios facilitate hydrogenation reactions, thus
improving product quality while minimizing catalyst deactivation.
• Level and Nature of Impurities:
o Impurities such as sulphur and nitrogen compounds in the feedstock can poison the
catalyst and degrade its performance. The reactor design must incorporate
appropriate pre-treatment steps (like hydrodesulfurization) to remove these
contaminants before the feed enters the reforming unit.
• Operating Conditions:
o The design must account for optimal temperature and pressure conditions, as
reforming reactions are sensitive to these variables. Typically, reforming operates at
temperatures of 500–550°C and pressures of 5–20 bar to favour aromatic
production.
• Heat Transfer Considerations:
o Because reforming reactions are endothermic, effective heat transfer is necessary to
maintain optimal reaction temperatures. The reactor design may include internal
heat exchangers or external furnaces to provide the necessary thermal energy.
• Catalyst Characteristics:
o The choice of catalyst (e.g., platinum on alumina) and its characteristics (such as
activity, selectivity, and resistance to poisoning) are essential in the reactor design.
The reactor must be optimized to provide sufficient contact time between the feed
and the catalyst.
In summary, the design of a reforming reactor is multifaceted, requiring a careful balance of
feedstock properties, operating conditions, catalyst behaviour, and thermal management to
achieve high efficiency and product quality.

15. Explain the sweeting by copper chloride processes or gasoline treatment.

Sweetening processes are crucial for removing undesirable sulphur compounds from
petroleum products, especially gasoline and kerosene. The copper chloride process is one
such method that effectively removes mercaptans and improves the odor and quality of
fuels.
• Process Overview:
o In the copper chloride sweetening process, gasoline is contacted with an aqueous
solution of copper (II) chloride (CuCl₂). The mercaptans present in the gasoline react
with copper chloride to form non-odorous disulfides and other compounds.
o The overall reaction can be represented as follows: RSH+CuCl2→R−S−S−R+Cu++HCl
where RSH represents the mercaptan.
• Reaction Mechanism:
o The reaction occurs in two steps: first, the mercaptan reacts with copper chloride,
and then the resulting copper thiolate is oxidized to a disulfide. This conversion helps
to eliminate the strong odors associated with mercaptans.
o The process can effectively reduce the total sulphur content in the fuel, enhancing its
quality.
• Importance:
o Sweetening by the copper chloride process improves the aesthetic and operational
properties of gasoline. It ensures compliance with regulatory standards regarding
sulphur emissions.
o The process is favoured because it is efficient, relatively inexpensive, and does not
require extensive modifications to existing refinery infrastructure.
Overall, the copper chloride sweetening process is an effective method for enhancing the
quality of fuels, making it an important step in modern refining operations.

16. Explain liquid SO2 extraction of aromatics for kerosene treatment.

Liquid sulphur dioxide (SO₂) extraction is a specialized process used to isolate aromatic
hydrocarbons from kerosene and other hydrocarbon mixtures. This process is particularly
valuable in refining and petrochemical industries for producing high-purity aromatics.
• Process Overview:
o The liquid SO₂ acts as a solvent, selectively dissolving aromatic compounds while
leaving behind non-aromatic hydrocarbons. This selectivity is due to the polar nature
of aromatic compounds, which interact favourably with SO₂.
o The process begins by contacting the hydrocarbon feed with liquid SO₂ under
controlled conditions. As a result, the aromatic compounds partition into the liquid
SO₂ phase.
• Chemical Principles:
o Aromatics (like benzene, toluene, and xylene) are more soluble in SO₂ due to their
polar character. The extraction can be represented as: Aromatic (C6H6)
+SO2→Aromatic-SO2
o Non-aromatic hydrocarbons (like alkanes) have lower solubility in SO₂ and remain in
the original hydrocarbon phase.
• Separation and Recovery:
o After extraction, the aromatic-rich SO₂ phase is separated from the non-aromatic
phase. The aromatics can be recovered by stripping the SO₂ from the aromatic
compounds, usually by heating or using a vacuum.
o The recovery of SO₂ is critical as it can be recycled in the process, making it
economically viable and environmentally friendly.
• Benefits:
o The liquid SO₂ extraction process yields high-purity aromatics, which are essential
feedstocks for various chemical processes, including the production of plastics,
resins, and synthetic fibres.
o This process is less energy-intensive compared to traditional distillation methods,
offering cost savings and efficiency.
In conclusion, liquid SO₂ extraction is an effective method for isolating valuable aromatic
compounds from hydrocarbon mixtures, contributing to the efficiency and sustainability of
refining operations.
17. Explain how crude quality affects topology of refinery configuration.
The quality of crude oil significantly impacts the configuration and operation of a refinery.
Different crude types contain varying compositions, sulphur levels, and densities, which
dictate the refining process.
• Sulphur Content:
o High-sulphur crude oils require additional processing steps, such as
hydrodesulfurization (HDS), to remove sulphur compounds and meet product
specifications. Refineries processing high-sulphur crude often include more extensive
HDS units, increasing capital and operational costs.
• Density and API Gravity:
o Crude oil density is measured in degrees API (American Petroleum Institute). Low API
gravity (heavy crude) typically requires more complex refining processes like thermal
cracking or hydrocracking to convert heavy fractions into lighter, more valuable
products. Conversely, high API gravity crude oils are generally easier to refine and
yield higher volumes of light products.
• Composition:
o The composition of crude oil affects the yield and quality of products. For example,
crude oil rich in aromatics may produce more benzene, toluene, and xylene during
catalytic reforming, while paraffinic crudes are more suitable for producing diesel
and kerosene.
o Refineries may be designed with specific processing units (like FCC, hydrocrackers, or
reformers) to optimize the yield of desired products based on the crude
composition.
• Processing Complexity:
o Heavy and high-sulphur crudes may require more sophisticated refinery
configurations with advanced technologies to handle the challenges associated with
processing. This can lead to the installation of additional units like coking and
visbreaking to convert residues into valuable lighter products.
In summary, the quality of crude oil plays a crucial role in determining refinery design,
influencing decisions related to technology, processing units, and operational strategies to
maximize efficiency and product yield.

18. What is the crude composition of Indian crude?

Indian crude oils are characterized by their specific chemical composition and properties,
which reflect the geological formations and extraction methods used.
• Characteristics:
o Indian crudes are generally classified as heavy and medium crudes, with API gravity
ranging from approximately 20 to 30 degrees. This indicates that they are denser and
more viscous compared to light crudes.
• Sulphur Content:
o Indian crude oils typically have moderate to high sulphur content, often ranging from
0.5% to 2.5%. This sulphur content presents challenges for refining, requiring
additional desulfurization processes to produce low-sulphur fuels that comply with
environmental regulations.
• Hydrocarbon Composition:
o The hydrocarbon content of Indian crude can include a mix of:
▪ Paraffins: Straight and branched alkanes that contribute to the fuel's energy
content.
 ▪ Naphthenes: Cycloalkanes that can be converted into high-octane fuels
during refining.
▪ Aromatics: Compounds that are valuable as petrochemical feedstocks,
although their presence must be managed to meet environmental
standards.
• Geological Variations:
o Different oil fields across India yield crudes with varying compositions. For instance,
crudes from the Mumbai High field are known for being relatively light, while those
from the Gujarat and Assam regions tend to be heavier and more sulphurous.
In summary, the composition of Indian crude oils significantly influences refining operations,
necessitating tailored processes to maximize yield and meet regulatory standards.

19. What are the types of hydrocarbons found in crude oil? Write their structural formula.
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, which can be categorized into several types
based on their structure:
• Paraffins (Alkanes):
o General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
o Example: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), and Octane (C₈H₁₈).
o Structure: Paraffins are saturated hydrocarbons with single C-C bonds.
• Naphthenes (Cycloalkanes):
o General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ
o Example: Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂) and Methylcyclohexane (C₇H₁₄).
o Structure: Naphthenes have one or more rings of carbon atoms, which makes them
saturated.
• Aromatics:
o General Formula: C₆H₆R (where R is a hydrocarbon substituent)
o Example: Benzene (C₆H₆), Toluene (C₇H₈), and Xylene (C₈H₁₀).
o Structure: Aromatics contain one or more benzene rings, characterized by
alternating double bonds.
• Olefins (Alkenes):
o General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ
o Example: Ethylene (C₂H₄) and Propylene (C₃H₆).
o Structure: Olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one C=C
double bond.
The diversity in hydrocarbon types contributes to the complexity of crude oil refining, as
each type requires different processing techniques to yield desirable products.

20. What are the different methods of evaluation of petroleum? Explain in detail UOP
characterisation factor method.
The evaluation of petroleum involves determining its properties to assess its behaviour
during refining processes. One common method used is the UOP Characterization Factor.
• Definition:
o The UOP Characterization Factor (K) is a numerical value that provides insight into
the molecular structure and composition of a petroleum fraction. It is calculated
based on the specific gravity (SG) and average boiling point (ABP) of the fraction.
• Formula:
o The characterization factor is defined as:
K= [(ABP in °F) −460]/SG
 This factor helps categorize the hydrocarbon types present in the fraction.
• Interpretation:
o A higher K value indicates a higher proportion of aromatic and cyclic compounds,
while a lower K value suggests more paraffins.
o For example, a K value less than 10 generally indicates a paraffinic nature, while
values between 10 and 12 suggest naphthenic and aromatic characteristics.
• Applications:
o The UOP Characterization Factor is used to predict the yield of various products
during refining and to optimize process conditions based on the characteristics of the
feedstock.
o It also aids in the design and selection of processing equipment, as different
hydrocarbons require tailored treatment.
This method is widely used in the oil industry to evaluate crude oil and its fractions, enabling
refiners to make informed decisions about processing and product development.

21. Define the following: TBP Distillation, ASTM Distillation, ASTM gap and TBP overlap.
Understanding distillation methods is crucial for evaluating petroleum fractions and their
characteristics. Here are the definitions and significance of each:
• TBP Distillation (True Boiling Point):
o TBP distillation provides a comprehensive boiling point distribution of crude oil and
its fractions. It measures the boiling point at which each component vaporizes,
providing a detailed profile of the hydrocarbon mixture.
o This method is essential for understanding the separation characteristics of different
fractions and for designing distillation units in refineries. (Diagram on page no.58)
(BKB Rao)
• ASTM Distillation:
o ASTM distillation refers to the method defined by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) D86 and D1160 standards, which outline procedures for
determining the boiling range of petroleum products.
o It provides information about the distillation behaviour of fuels, indicating
parameters such as the initial boiling point (IBP), final boiling point (FBP), and the
temperature at which specific volumes of the product distill.
• ASTM Gap:
o The ASTM gap refers to the difference between the boiling point temperatures
measured by ASTM methods and those measured by TBP methods. This gap can
indicate discrepancies in the characteristics of the fractions and may suggest the
presence of unusual components in the crude.
• TBP Overlap:
o TBP overlap refers to the intersection of boiling point ranges between different
fractions obtained from TBP distillation. Overlapping boiling ranges can suggest
similar component profiles between different fractions, which is useful for assessing
potential product quality.
These methods provide vital information for refinery operations, helping engineers to
optimize the separation of crude oil into its valuable components.
(Graphs page no. 201) (BKB Rao)

22. Write the importance of carbon residue in petroleum fraction. Explain Conradson method for
its determination.
 Carbon residue is an essential property of petroleum fractions that indicates the tendency of
the fraction to form carbon deposits (coke) during processing, particularly in thermal
processes.
• Significance:
o High carbon residue content can lead to operational issues, including catalyst
poisoning, fouling of heat exchangers, and reduced efficiency of cracking and
reforming processes. This makes the determination of carbon residue a critical
aspect of petroleum evaluation.
• Conradson Method:
o The Conradson carbon residue test (ASTM D189) measures the carbon residue
content of petroleum products by heating a sample in a controlled environment until
all volatile components have evaporated.
o Process Overview:
1. A known quantity of the sample is placed in a specialized crucible.
2. The sample is heated to a temperature of approximately 550°C in a nitrogen
atmosphere to prevent combustion.
3. After the heating period, the remaining residue is weighed and expressed as
a percentage of the original sample.
o The residue left in the crucible represents the carbon content that has not been
vaporized.
• Interpretation:
o The carbon residue value provides insight into the stability of the petroleum product
during processing and its potential for coking. Products with higher residue values
may require additional processing steps or different handling procedures to mitigate
operational challenges.
Understanding carbon residue is vital for refinery operations, particularly in processes like
coking and thermal cracking, where the formation of coke can impact performance.

23. How are petroleum gases classified? Explain Natural gas, Associated gas, Dissolved gas,
Casing head gas, Refinery off gas, LPG with respect to their constituents and applications.
Petroleum gases, often referred to as natural gas, encompass a variety of hydrocarbon gases
that can be classified based on their sources and composition. Here are the primary
classifications:
• Natural Gas:
o Primarily composed of methane (CH₄), natural gas is a fossil fuel used for heating,
electricity generation, and as an industrial feedstock.
o It is generally considered the cleanest fossil fuel due to its lower carbon emissions
compared to coal and oil.
• Associated Gas:
o This gas is found in conjunction with crude oil in underground reservoirs. As the
crude oil is extracted, the associated gas is released.
o It contains hydrocarbons like methane, ethane, propane, and butane and is often
flared or reinjected for pressure maintenance in the reservoir.
• Dissolved Gas:
o Dissolved gas is present in crude oil under high pressure and is released during the
oil extraction process. This gas primarily consists of lighter hydrocarbons.
o The release of dissolved gas contributes to the production of gas that can be
captured and processed.
• Casing Head Gas:
o Casing head gas refers to the gas produced from oil wells that is collected during oil
extraction.
o It contains various hydrocarbons and can be used as fuel or processed into LPG.
• Refinery Off-Gas:
o This type of gas is generated as a byproduct of refining processes. It contains light
hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, and propane.
o Off-gas is often reused in the refinery for fuel or processed to recover valuable
hydrocarbons.
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):
o LPG primarily comprises propane (C₃H₈) and butane (C₄H₁₀), and is used for heating,
cooking, and as fuel for vehicles.
o It is produced from natural gas processing and petroleum refining.
These classifications of petroleum gases are essential for understanding their applications,
handling, and environmental implications in the energy sector.

24. Explain design aspects of tube still heater with particular attention on ∆P drop, tube spacing,
tube layout, flue gas circulation, distribution of radiant rate, heat transfer factor which
governs the heater properties.
The design of a tube still heater is crucial in refining operations, as it is responsible for
heating the feedstock before distillation. Several design aspects must be carefully considered
to ensure optimal performance:
• ΔP Drop (Pressure Drop):
o The pressure drop across the heater must be minimized to ensure efficient fluid flow
and to maintain the necessary pressure for effective distillation. This is achieved by
optimizing the design of the heating elements and using appropriate materials.
• Tube Spacing:
o Adequate spacing between tubes is vital for ensuring uniform heat distribution and
preventing hot spots that can lead to overheating and fouling. Proper spacing also
allows for ease of maintenance and cleaning.
• Tube Layout:
o The layout of the tubes (e.g., vertical vs. horizontal) affects the flow dynamics and
heat transfer efficiency. A well-designed layout ensures that the heating surface is
adequately utilized and that the heat transfer rates are maximized.
• Flue Gas Circulation:
o Efficient circulation of flue gas is essential for optimal heat transfer. The design
should ensure that flue gases are evenly distributed across the heating tubes to
prevent uneven heating and improve overall efficiency.
• Distribution of Radiant Rate:
o The distribution of radiant heat must be uniform across the heater's surface to
ensure consistent heating of the feedstock. This is achieved through careful design of
the burner and the arrangement of heating surfaces.
• Heat Transfer Factor:
o The heat transfer factor governs the efficiency of the heater. Factors such as surface
area, temperature difference, and fluid properties must be optimized to maximize
heat transfer and minimize energy losses.
 In summary, the design of a tube still heater involves a complex interplay of factors aimed at
maximizing efficiency, ensuring safety, and optimizing the heating of feedstock for effective
distillation in refining operations.

25. With reference to topping tower explain with neat diagram: Pump around reflux, Pump back
reflux.
In the context of a topping tower, reflux systems play a crucial role in enhancing the
separation efficiency of different components based on boiling points.
• Pump Around Reflux:
o Definition: Pump around reflux involves circulating a portion of the liquid from a
lower section of the column back to a higher point in the column.
o Process Overview:
▪ The liquid is taken from the bottom of the distillation column, cooled, and
then pumped back to a tray higher up in the column. This process increases
the liquid hold-up and contact time between the rising vapor and
descending liquid, improving mass transfer and separation efficiency.
o Benefits:
▪ The pump-around reflux allows for better control of column temperatures
and improves the overall product quality by enhancing the stripping of
lighter components from heavier fractions. It aids in the optimization of the
distillation process by increasing the number of effective trays.
• Pump Back Reflux:
o Definition: Pump back reflux refers to the process where liquid from the bottom of
the tower is recirculated back to the top of the column, similar to pump around but
with specific objectives.
o Process Overview:
▪ The liquid from the bottom is directly pumped to the top of the column,
facilitating better mixing and enhancing the reflux ratio. This allows for more
efficient fractionation of the distillate.
o Benefits:
▪ Pump back reflux helps maintain the desired column operating conditions
and ensures that the lighter fractions are efficiently separated from the
heavier ones. It also helps in maintaining the liquid levels within the tower,
which is essential for stable operation.
Both pump around and pump back reflux systems are integral to the design of topping
towers, optimizing the separation of crude oil into various fractions based on their boiling
points and improving overall refinery efficiency.
(Diagram Page No.199) (BKB Rao)

26. Explain the various undesirable traces or impurities which are commonly related with crude
and its products.
Crude oil and its derived products often contain undesirable impurities that can impact the
refining process and product quality. These impurities need to be identified and managed
effectively:
• Sulphur Compounds:
o Crude oil typically contains sulphur in various forms, including hydrogen sulphide
(H₂S), thiophenes, and mercaptans. These compounds can lead to the formation of
sulphur oxides during combustion, contributing to air pollution and acid rain. They
 also necessitate additional desulfurization processes during refining to produce low-
sulphur fuels.
• Nitrogen Compounds:
o Nitrogen compounds (e.g., pyridines and quinolines) are often present in crude oil.
They can poison catalysts during refining processes, leading to reduced efficiency
and higher operational costs. Nitrogen compounds can also produce nitrogen oxides
during combustion, which are harmful pollutants.
• Metals:
o Crude oil may contain trace metals such as vanadium, nickel, and iron. These metals
can accumulate on catalyst surfaces, leading to deactivation and reduced
effectiveness in catalytic processes. Metals can also cause corrosion in refining
equipment, leading to costly repairs and downtime.
• Oxygen Compounds:
o Oxygenated compounds (e.g., phenols and carboxylic acids) can affect the stability
and performance of refined products. They can also lead to oxidation and
degradation of fuels, reducing their shelf life and performance.
• Water and Salts:
o Water and salts can be present as impurities in crude oil, leading to emulsion
formation and corrosion issues in refining equipment. Effective separation
techniques, such as dehydration and desalting, are crucial for removing these
contaminants before processing.
Addressing these impurities is critical for ensuring smooth refining operations and producing
high-quality products that meet environmental regulations.

27. What are the fractions or products of crude oil. Write their constituents, BR and applications.
Crude oil is separated into various fractions during the refining process, each with distinct
properties and applications. Here’s an overview of the main fractions:
• Naphtha:
o Boiling Range: 30–200°C
o Constituents: Primarily contains C5–C10 hydrocarbons, including pentane, hexane,
heptane, and various aromatic compounds.
o Applications: Used as a feedstock for gasoline production, petrochemicals, and as a
solvent.
• Kerosene:
o Boiling Range: 150–300°C
o Constituents: Contains C10–C14 hydrocarbons, including straight-chain alkanes,
naphthenes, and aromatic compounds.
o Applications: Used as jet fuel (Jet A, Jet A-1), heating fuel, and as a solvent.
• Diesel:
o Boiling Range: 200–350°C
o Constituents: Composed mainly of C12–C20 hydrocarbons, including alkanes and
cycloalkanes.
o Applications: Used as fuel for diesel engines, generators, and industrial applications.
• Gas Oil:
o Boiling Range: 350–500°C
o Constituents: Contains heavier hydrocarbons, primarily C20–C30, including long-
chain alkanes and naphthenes.
 o Applications: Used as a feedstock for further processing in hydrocracking or as fuel
oil.
• Residuum:
o Boiling Range: Above 500°C
o Constituents: Comprises the heaviest components, including asphaltic materials and
long-chain hydrocarbons.
o Applications: Used for asphalt production, heavy fuel oils, and as a feedstock for
coking processes.
Each fraction is characterized by its boiling range and composition, which determine its
specific applications in the energy and petrochemical industries.

28. Give the performance requirement with relevant specification and explain in detail
important test described for the following petroleum products: gasoline, kerosene, lube oil.
Ensuring the quality and performance of petroleum products is essential for meeting
industry standards and consumer expectations. Each product has specific performance
requirements and testing protocols:
• Gasoline:
o Key Properties:
▪ Octane Number: Measures the fuel's resistance to knocking. Higher octane
numbers indicate better performance in high-compression engines.
▪ Vapor Pressure: Must be within a specific range to ensure proper engine
operation under varying temperatures.
o Important Tests:
▪ ASTM D2699 (RON) and ASTM D2700 (MON): Used to determine the
Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number (MON),
respectively.
▪ ASTM D5188: Measures the vapor pressure of gasoline, which is crucial for
controlling evaporation and emissions.
• Kerosene:
o Key Properties:
▪ Flash Point: Indicates the flammability and safety of the product.
▪ Smoke Point: Measures the burning characteristics and cleanliness of
combustion.
o Important Tests:
▪ ASTM D56: Used to determine the flash point, ensuring safety during
handling and storage.
▪ ASTM D1322: Measures the smoke point, indicating the quality of kerosene
as a fuel for combustion.
• Lube Oil:
o Key Properties:
▪ Viscosity: Indicates the oil's flow characteristics and ability to lubricate
machinery.
▪ Oxidation Stability: Determines the oil's resistance to degradation during
operation.
o Important Tests:
▪ ASTM D445: Measures kinematic viscosity at specific temperatures, essential
for ensuring proper lubrication.
 ▪ ASTM D943: Evaluates oxidation stability, indicating how well the oil can
resist breakdown under high-temperature conditions.
Each of these petroleum products must undergo rigorous testing to ensure they meet
performance specifications and safety standards, allowing for reliable and efficient use in
their respective applications.

29. Describe the following parameters with their physical significance and estimate in the design
of pipe still heater: Bridge wall, economic top temp., furnace efficiency, rate of heat
absorption, effective cool surface.
The design of a pipe still heater involves several key parameters that impact its performance
and efficiency:
• Bridge Wall:
o The bridge wall is the structural component that separates heating zones in the
heater. Its design must allow for effective heat transfer while providing mechanical
strength to withstand operational pressures.
• Economic Top Temperature:
o This parameter refers to the optimal temperature for heating the feedstock to
maximize product yield and quality while minimizing energy costs. It should balance
efficiency with the potential for thermal degradation of the hydrocarbons.
• Furnace Efficiency:
o Furnace efficiency measures how effectively the heater converts fuel energy into
useful heat for the feedstock. High efficiency reduces operating costs and minimizes
environmental impact by lowering fuel consumption.
• Rate of Heat Absorption:
o This rate indicates how much heat the feedstock absorbs as it passes through the
heater. A higher rate ensures that the feed reaches the desired temperature for
effective distillation.
• Effective Cool Surface:
o The effective cool surface refers to the areas of the heater where heat is removed
from the system (e.g., through cooling water or air). Proper design ensures that
these areas are optimized to maintain the desired temperature profiles and prevent
overheating.
In summary, careful consideration of these parameters during the design of a pipe still heater
is critical to ensuring efficient and reliable operation in the refining process.

30. Explain in detail the dehydration and desaltation processes with reference to: chemical
treatment, electric desalter.
Dehydration and desalting are critical steps in preparing crude oil for refining, ensuring that
water and salts are removed to prevent operational issues and corrosion.
• Chemical Treatment:
o In this method, chemicals such as demulsifiers are added to the crude oil to break
the emulsion between water and oil. This helps separate water droplets, which can
then be removed.
o Common demulsifiers include non-ionic surfactants that promote the coalescence of
water droplets, facilitating their removal from the crude oil.
• Electric Desalter:
 o An electric desalter utilizes electrical fields to separate water from crude oil. The
process involves passing the crude oil through a series of electrodes that create an
electric field.
o Process Overview:
1. Crude oil is mixed with water and passed through an electric field.
2. The electric field induces polarization, causing water droplets to coalesce
and form larger droplets.
3. The larger water droplets settle to the bottom, allowing for their removal.
o This method is effective in removing both water and dissolved salts, particularly
sodium chloride (NaCl), which can cause corrosion during refining.
• Importance:
o Effective dehydration and desalting are essential for preventing fouling, corrosion,
and catalyst poisoning in downstream processes. Removing water and salts ensures
that the crude oil can be processed efficiently and safely.
These processes are crucial in maintaining refinery equipment and ensuring high-quality
product output.

31. Explain with neat diagram fluid bed (FCC) catalytic cracking process with emphasis on: feed
condition, process variables, role of catalyst.
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is a widely used process in refineries to convert heavy
feedstocks into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline and diesel through the use of a
catalyst.
• Feed Condition:
o The feed to the FCC unit typically consists of heavy gas oils or vacuum distillates. The
feed is preheated before entering the reactor to facilitate the cracking process.
• Process Overview:
o The FCC process operates in a fluidized bed reactor, where solid catalyst particles are
suspended in a stream of upward-flowing gases. This creates a fluid-like state that
allows for efficient contact between the catalyst and the feedstock.
o The key reactions occurring in the FCC unit include:
▪ Cracking of Heavy Hydrocarbons: Large hydrocarbon molecules are broken
down into smaller, lighter molecules (e.g., naphtha and propane).
▪ Coking Reactions: Some carbon deposits (coke) may form on the catalyst
during the process, necessitating regular regeneration.
• Role of Catalyst:
o The catalyst used in FCC is typically a zeolite-based material that enhances the
cracking reaction. It provides the necessary active sites for the reactions to occur
while promoting high selectivity towards desired products.
o After a certain period of operation, the catalyst becomes deactivated due to coke
formation. The spent catalyst is sent to a regenerator, where it is combusted to
remove the coke and restore its activity.
• Process Variables:
o Temperature: Typically operated at temperatures of 500–550°C to favour cracking
reactions.
o Pressure: FCC operates at relatively low pressures (around 1-2 atm) to minimize gas
compression costs.
o Catalyst-to-Oil Ratio: The amount of catalyst relative to the feedstock influences the
conversion efficiency and product yield.
 In summary, the FCC process is an essential refining operation that efficiently converts heavy
feedstocks into valuable lighter products while utilizing a specialized catalyst to enhance
reaction rates and selectivity.

32. What is petroleum/ crude oil?

Petroleum, commonly referred to as crude oil, is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath
the Earth's surface. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds.
• Composition:
o Crude oil consists primarily of hydrocarbons (molecules containing hydrogen and
carbon) but also contains varying amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace
metals. The composition varies significantly depending on its geographic source and
geological history.
o Hydrocarbons in crude oil can be classified into:
▪ Paraffins (Alkanes): Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds.
▪ Naphthenes (Cycloalkanes): Saturated hydrocarbons with one or more rings.
▪ Aromatics: Compounds containing one or more benzene rings.
• Formation:
o Petroleum forms from the remains of ancient marine organisms (zooplankton and
phytoplankton) that were buried under layers of sediment. Over millions of years,
heat and pressure transformed these organic materials into hydrocarbons through a
process known as kerogen formation and subsequent maturation.
• Extraction:
o Crude oil is extracted from reservoirs through drilling. Once brought to the surface, it
is transported to refineries for processing into various petroleum products, such as
gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and lubricating oils.
• Significance:
o Crude oil is a vital energy resource and serves as a feedstock for countless
petrochemical products. Its versatility and energy density make it a crucial
component of the global economy and a primary source of energy for
transportation, heating, and electricity generation.
In summary, petroleum or crude oil is a complex, naturally occurring liquid formed from
organic materials, crucial for energy production and the manufacture of a wide range of
products.

33. What is fraction or cut in petroleum refinery?

In the context of petroleum refining, a fraction or cut refers to a specific portion of
hydrocarbons that are separated during the distillation process based on their boiling points.
• Distillation Process:
o During the refining process, crude oil is heated in a distillation column. As the
temperature increases, different hydrocarbons vaporize at their respective boiling
points. The vapours are collected and cooled to condense back into liquid form.
o This process creates distinct fractions that can be further processed or blended to
produce finished products.
• Common Cuts:
o Light Ends: This cut includes very light hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, and
propane. These gases are often separated during the initial stages of distillation.
o Naphtha: A critical cut for gasoline production, typically boiling in the range of 30–
200°C.
 o Kerosene: A cut used primarily for aviation fuel and heating, boiling between 150–
300°C.
o Diesel: Composed of heavier hydrocarbons, with a boiling range of 200–350°C.
o Gas Oil: Heavier fractions boiling from about 350°C to 500°C.
o Residuum: The heaviest fraction that remains after distillation, boiling above 500°C,
often used for heavy fuels and asphalt production.
• Importance of Cuts:
o Understanding the cuts is essential for optimizing refinery processes and ensuring
the production of high-quality fuels. Each fraction has specific applications, and
proper separation allows refineries to meet market demands for different petroleum
products.
In conclusion, fractions or cuts represent distinct portions of hydrocarbons separated during
the refining process, each with unique properties and applications.

34. How many types of sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds are normally present? Write
their structure.
Crude oil contains a variety of sulphur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds, which can impact
refining processes and product quality. Here's an overview of the common types:
• Sulphur Compounds:
o Types:
▪ Thiols (Mercaptans): Organic compounds with the general formula R-SH,
characterized by their strong odors and corrosive properties.
▪ Thioethers: Compounds where sulphur is bonded to two carbon atoms (e.g.,
dimethyl sulphide).
▪ Thiazoles and Thiophenes: Heterocyclic compounds containing sulphur,
which can be more complex and often require specialized processing for
removal.
o Impact: Sulphur compounds are problematic in refining due to their potential to
poison catalysts and their contribution to air pollution when fuels are combusted.
Desulfurization processes are essential to meet regulatory standards.
• Nitrogen Compounds:
o Types:
▪ Pyridines: Aromatic heterocycles with a nitrogen atom in the ring structure,
which can be toxic and corrosive.
▪ Quinolines and Isoquinolines: More complex nitrogen compounds that can
lead to catalyst poisoning.
▪ Amides and Amines: Present in lower concentrations, they can also interfere
with refining processes.
o Impact: Nitrogen compounds can deactivate catalysts in refining processes and lead
to increased operational costs.
• Oxygen Compounds:
o Types:
▪ Phenols: Compounds with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an aromatic
ring, known for their corrosive nature.
▪ Carboxylic Acids: Organic acids containing a carboxyl group (-COOH), which
can lead to corrosion issues.
▪ Ketones and Aldehydes: Compounds with carbonyl groups that can affect
fuel stability.
 o Impact: Oxygen compounds can lead to oxidation during refining and storage,
affecting product quality and stability.
Overall, managing these compounds is crucial in refining to maintain catalyst activity, prevent
corrosion, and produce high-quality fuels that comply with environmental regulations.
(Structures on page no.28-30)(BKB Rao)

35. Explain the following with neat diagram: ASTM D86 distillation of diesel or gasoline,
softening point of bitumen.
ASTM D86 is a standard test method for determining the boiling range of petroleum
products such as diesel and gasoline. It provides valuable information about the distillation
characteristics of fuels.
• ASTM D86 Distillation:
o Process Overview:
▪ A sample of the fuel is placed in a distillation apparatus, where it is gradually
heated. The temperature at which different volumes of the liquid are
distilled is measured.
▪ The results are plotted on a distillation curve that displays the cumulative
volume of distillate versus temperature.
o Key Parameters:
▪ Initial Boiling Point (IBP): The temperature at which the first drop of liquid
distills.
▪ Final Boiling Point (FBP): The temperature at which the last drop of liquid
distills.
▪ Distillation Points: Specific temperature points (e.g., 10%, 50%, 90%)
indicate the boiling range at which a certain percentage of the sample has
vaporized.
o Importance: The data obtained from ASTM D86 provides insights into the fuel's
volatility, performance characteristics, and suitability for various applications. Fuels
with appropriate boiling ranges are essential for ensuring efficient engine operation.
(Diagram on pageno.101) (Graph on page no.104) (BKB Rao)
• Softening Point of Bitumen:
o The softening point is the temperature at which bitumen transitions from a solid to a
viscous liquid, indicating its temperature susceptibility and performance in paving
applications.
o Test Method (ASTM D36):
▪ A sample of bitumen is placed in a ring and heated at a controlled rate. Steel
balls are placed on top of the sample, and the temperature is gradually
increased.
▪ The softening point is determined by the temperature at which the sample
softens enough to allow the steel balls to fall a specified distance.
o Importance: The softening point is critical for assessing the performance of bitumen
in varying climatic conditions. A higher softening point indicates better performance
in high-temperature conditions, whereas a lower softening point is favourable for
cold-weather applications.
In summary, ASTM D86 distillation provides essential data about the boiling characteristics of
petroleum products, while the softening point of bitumen indicates its performance and
suitability for specific applications.
36. Write in detail the points to be considered for the design of radiant section of pipe still
heater.
The design of the radiant section of a pipe still heater is crucial for ensuring efficient heat
transfer and optimal performance. Here are the key considerations:
• Heat Transfer Efficiency:
o The radiant section must be designed to maximize heat transfer from the
combustion gases to the process fluid. Factors influencing this include the surface
area of heating elements, the temperature difference between the flue gas and the
process fluid, and the flow rates of both.
• Temperature Control:
o Maintaining the desired temperature profile throughout the heater is critical. The
design should allow for uniform heating to prevent overheating of the fluid, which
can lead to degradation or thermal cracking.
• Material Selection:
o Materials used for construction must withstand high temperatures and corrosive
environments. Common materials include carbon steel and alloys that can handle
the thermal and chemical stresses involved.
• Pressure Drop Management:
o Minimizing pressure drops across the heater is essential for maintaining flow rates
and preventing backpressure issues in the distillation process. Careful design of flow
paths and component sizes can help achieve this.
• Safety and Maintenance Access:
o The design should incorporate safety features, such as pressure relief valves and
emergency shut-off systems, to prevent accidents during operation. Additionally,
access points for maintenance and inspection must be included to facilitate routine
checks.
• Flue Gas Management:
o Proper design for the circulation of flue gas is necessary to ensure efficient heat
exchange. The layout should prevent the formation of hot spots, which can lead to
fouling and reduced efficiency.
In summary, the design of the radiant section of a pipe still heater involves a careful balance
of heat transfer efficiency, material selection, safety considerations, and maintenance access
to ensure reliable operation in refining processes.

37. Explain the different types of heaters and write their salient features.
In petroleum refining, several types of heaters are used to heat fluids prior to processing.
Here are some of the most common types along with their key features:
• Furnace Heaters:
o Description: Typically used for heating larger volumes of fluid at high temperatures.
o Salient Features:
▪ Efficient heat transfer through radiation and convection.
▪ High capacity for processing, suitable for large-scale operations.
▪ Design includes multiple burners for even heat distribution.
• Tube Still Heaters:
o Description: Used specifically in distillation processes to heat the feed before
entering the distillation column.
o Salient Features:
▪ Compact design with multiple heating tubes.
 ▪ Allows for high heat transfer efficiency due to the large surface area.
▪ Facilitates temperature control to prevent overheating of the feedstock.
• Electrical Heaters:
o Description: Use electric heating elements to directly heat the fluid.
o Salient Features:
▪ Provide precise temperature control, making them suitable for sensitive
applications.
▪ Compact and easy to install, with low maintenance requirements.
▪ Used in situations where gas or fuel supply is not available.
• Induction Heaters:
o Description: Utilize electromagnetic induction to heat conductive materials directly.
o Salient Features:
▪ Rapid heating and precise temperature control.
▪ Efficient energy use as heat is generated within the material.
▪ Typically used for heating smaller batches or specific applications.
• Heat Exchangers:
o Description: Not heaters in the traditional sense, but they play a crucial role in
heating by transferring heat from one fluid to another.
o Salient Features:
▪ Highly efficient heat transfer, often used to preheat feedstocks.
▪ Can be designed for both liquid-liquid and gas-liquid heat transfer.
▪ Compact design suitable for various refinery configurations.
In summary, the choice of heater depends on the specific requirements of the refining
process, including capacity, efficiency, and temperature control.

38. Explain the theory and basic principle of cracking.

Cracking is a vital process in petroleum refining, aimed at breaking down larger hydrocarbon
molecules into smaller, more valuable products.
• Basic Principles of Cracking:
o Types of Cracking:
▪ Thermal Cracking: Involves breaking down hydrocarbons using high
temperatures and pressures without the use of catalysts. It relies on heat to
break the carbon-carbon bonds in heavy hydrocarbons.
▪ Catalytic Cracking (FCC): Uses a catalyst to lower the energy requirements
for breaking chemical bonds. The catalyst provides an alternative reaction
pathway that allows for lower operating temperatures and pressures.
o Mechanism:
▪ The process begins with the initiation step, where heat or a catalyst
generates free radicals or carbocations from the hydrocarbon molecules.
This step is crucial as it determines the efficiency of the cracking process.
▪ Propagation: The generated radicals undergo further reactions, including
fragmentation and recombination, leading to the formation of smaller
hydrocarbons and light olefins.
▪ Termination: The process concludes when two radicals combine to form
stable molecules or when a radical reacts with an inert species. This step is
essential for controlling the selectivity of products.
• Factors Influencing Cracking:
 o Temperature and Pressure: Higher temperatures favour cracking reactions, but
excessively high temperatures can lead to unwanted coking and reduced catalyst life.
Optimal pressures help maintain the desired product yield.
o Catalyst Selection: The choice of catalyst is crucial in catalytic cracking, as it
influences the reaction pathways and product distribution. Different catalysts can
promote the formation of specific products based on their acidity and pore
structure.
In summary, cracking is a fundamental process in refining that utilizes thermal or catalytic
methods to convert heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products. The efficiency
and selectivity of the process depend on various factors, including temperature, pressure,
and catalyst choice.

39. Write the reaction to show initiation, propagation and termination of carbonium ion.
Carbonium ions (or carbocations) play a crucial role in the cracking process, particularly in
catalytic reactions. Their formation and behaviour can be described in three stages:
initiation, propagation, and termination.
• Initiation:
o The formation of a carbonium ion typically begins with the protonation of a
hydrocarbon molecule or the removal of a leaving group. For example:
CnH2n+2+H+→CnH2n+3+
o This reaction shows how a neutral alkane (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂) gains a proton (H⁺) to form a
carbonium ion (CₙH₂ₙ₊₃⁺).
• Propagation:
o The carbonium ion can then react with another hydrocarbon, leading to the
formation of new products. For example: CnH2n+3++CmH2m+2→Cn+mH2(n+m) +1+H+
o In this step, the carbonium ion reacts with another alkane, leading to a larger alkane
and regenerating a proton.
• Termination:
o The process terminates when two carbonium ions combine to form a stable product:
CnH2n+3++CmH2m+3+→Cn+mH2(n+m) +2
o Here, two carbonium ions react to form a stable hydrocarbon, effectively terminating
the chain reaction.
In summary, carbonium ions are crucial intermediates in cracking reactions, and their
behaviour through initiation, propagation, and termination governs the overall reaction
pathway and product distribution.

40. Write about reforming, isomerisation, alkylation and polymerization.

These four processes are key to enhancing the quality of petroleum products, particularly in
increasing octane ratings and producing valuable chemicals.
• Reforming:
o Reforming involves converting naphthenes and low-octane paraffins into high-octane
aromatics using heat and a catalyst (e.g., platinum-alumina).
o Key reactions include dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics, isomerization of
straight-chain paraffins to branched isomers, and hydrocracking of larger
hydrocarbons.
o The primary objective is to increase the octane rating of gasoline, making it more
suitable for modern engines.
• Isomerization:
 o Isomerization converts straight-chain hydrocarbons into their branched isomers,
which have higher octane ratings.
o The process typically uses an acidic catalyst (e.g., zeolites) and operates at moderate
temperatures.
o This process helps in improving the quality of gasoline without significantly altering
the overall volume.
• Alkylation:
o Alkylation is the process of combining smaller hydrocarbons (typically isobutane and
olefins) to produce high-octane gasoline components (alkylate).
o It uses a strong acid catalyst (e.g., sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid) to facilitate the
reaction at low temperatures.
o The resulting alkylate is a valuable gasoline blending component with excellent anti-
knock properties.
• Polymerization:
o Polymerization involves the conversion of low-molecular-weight olefins into larger
molecules, effectively increasing the yield of valuable products.
o This process is particularly important for producing high-octane gasoline from lighter
feedstocks.
o Polymerization reactions are typically conducted in the presence of a catalyst to
enhance efficiency and selectivity.
In summary, reforming, isomerization, alkylation, and polymerization are essential processes
in petroleum refining that enhance product quality and yield through various catalytic
reactions.

41. Explain Reid vapour pressure.

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) is a critical measurement used to assess the volatility of liquid
hydrocarbons, particularly gasoline and other petroleum products.
• Definition:
o RVP is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapor above a liquid at a specified
temperature (usually 100°F or 37.8°C) in a closed system. It is expressed in pounds
per square inch (psi) or kilopascals (kPa).
• Importance:
o RVP is a key indicator of a fuel's tendency to evaporate and form vapor at ambient
temperatures. High RVP values indicate higher volatility, which can lead to improved
engine starting and acceleration but may also result in increased evaporative
emissions.
o The measurement is crucial for regulatory compliance, as fuels must meet specific
volatility standards to minimize air pollution.
• Measurement Method:
o The RVP is typically determined using the ASTM D323 method, which involves
placing a sample of the liquid in a closed container and measuring the vapor
pressure at the specified temperature.
o The test involves filling a sample chamber, heating it, and then allowing it to
equilibrate before measuring the pressure exerted by the vapor.
• Applications:
o RVP is used to formulate gasoline blends that meet seasonal volatility requirements.
For example, summer gasoline typically has lower RVP to reduce evaporative
 emissions in warm weather, while winter gasoline may have higher RVP to ensure
proper engine performance at lower temperatures.
In summary, Reid Vapor Pressure is an essential parameter in evaluating the volatility of
petroleum products, influencing formulation and regulatory compliance in the fuel industry.

42. Write down the properties of cracked material that changes during thermal cracking
operation. Describe in brief the cracking condition and effect of pressure on cracking.
During thermal cracking operations, the properties of the material undergo significant
changes, impacting the yield and quality of the products.
• Viscosity:
o The viscosity of the cracked material typically decreases due to the breakdown of
larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller fragments. As the molecular weight
decreases, the fluid becomes less viscous, improving its flow characteristics.
• Composition:
o The composition of the cracked product shifts from heavier hydrocarbons to lighter
fractions. For example, heavy feedstocks can be converted into lighter alkanes and
olefins, enhancing the yield of valuable products like gasoline and diesel.
• Molecular Weight:
o There is a marked decrease in the average molecular weight of the product due to
the cleavage of carbon-carbon bonds during the cracking process. This reduction in
molecular weight is essential for producing lighter, more useful fuels.
• Density:
o The density of the cracked material generally decreases as the heavier components
are transformed into lighter hydrocarbons. Lower density fuels are often more
desirable for combustion efficiency.
• Saturation:
o The saturation of the product can change, as thermal cracking may produce both
saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (olefins) hydrocarbons. The balance between
these products can influence the reactivity and performance of the fuel.
• Chemical Stability:
o The stability of the cracked product can vary. Unsaturated hydrocarbons produced
during cracking are more prone to polymerization and oxidation, which can lead to
deposit formation and reduced fuel stability over time.
In summary, thermal cracking significantly alters the properties of the material, resulting in a
transformation of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products with varying
characteristics and performance attributes.

43. Explain the origin, occurrence and formation of petroleum in detail.

The origin, occurrence, and formation of petroleum are rooted in geological processes that
span millions of years.
• Origin:
o Petroleum originates from the remains of ancient marine organisms, including
phytoplankton and zooplankton, that lived in oceans and seas. Upon death, these
organisms sank to the ocean floor, where they were buried under layers of sediment.
o Over time, the accumulation of sediment created pressure and heat, initiating the
transformation of organic matter into hydrocarbons.
• Formation Process:
o The formation of petroleum occurs in several stages:
 1. Kerogen Formation: The initial accumulation of organic matter undergoes
microbial degradation and compaction, leading to the formation of kerogen,
a solid organic material.
2. Maturation: With increasing pressure and temperature, kerogen undergoes
thermal cracking and catagenesis, breaking down into liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons. This stage is critical, as it dictates the type of petroleum
formed—light, medium, or heavy.
3. Migration: The formed hydrocarbons migrate through porous rock
formations due to buoyancy, seeking less dense areas. This migration can
occur over long geological distances.
• Occurrence:
o Petroleum is typically found in reservoir rocks, which are porous and permeable
rocks (like sandstone or limestone) that can store hydrocarbons. These reservoirs are
often capped by impermeable rocks (seal rocks) that trap the hydrocarbons,
preventing their escape.
o Major oil fields are often located in geological formations such as anticlines, faults,
or salt domes where the conditions are favourable for trapping hydrocarbons.
• Geological Timeframe:
o The formation of petroleum requires significant geological time, often taking millions
of years to develop. The conditions of pressure, temperature, and time are crucial in
determining the quality and type of petroleum produced.
In conclusion, petroleum formation is a complex geological process involving the
transformation of organic matter into hydrocarbons, influenced by environmental conditions
and geological structures.

44. What are different additives, their function and composition used in petroleum industry?
Additives are essential in the petroleum industry, enhancing the performance, stability, and
safety of fuels and lubricants. Here are some key categories of additives, their functions, and
typical compositions:
• Detergents:
o Function: Help keep engine parts clean by preventing the formation of deposits and
sludge. They maintain optimal engine performance and efficiency.
o Composition: Often include calcium or magnesium soaps derived from fatty acids,
along with polyisobutylene and other organic compounds.
• Antioxidants:
o Function: Prevent the oxidation of fuels and lubricants, which can lead to the
formation of acids, varnishes, and sludge. This extends the shelf life and stability of
products.
o Composition: Common antioxidants include hindered phenols and amine
derivatives, which inhibit the oxidative degradation of hydrocarbons.
• Corrosion Inhibitors:
o Function: Protect metal surfaces from corrosion caused by moisture and acidic
compounds in fuels and lubricants.
o Composition: These additives typically contain organic compounds like fatty amines
or thiadiazoles, which form protective films on metal surfaces.
• Cetane Improvers:
o Function: Enhance the cetane number of diesel fuels, promoting better ignition
quality and combustion efficiency.
 o Composition: Common cetane improvers include alkyl nitrates (like 2-ethylhexyl
nitrate) and certain oxygenates that promote faster ignition.
• Pour Point Depressants:
o Function: Lower the pour point of lubricants and fuels, improving flow
characteristics at low temperatures.
o Composition: These additives often consist of polymers that interfere with the
crystallization of paraffin waxes in oils.
• Foam Inhibitors:
o Function: Reduce foaming in lubricants and fuels during storage and operation,
which can interfere with pumping and delivery.
o Composition: Foam inhibitors can be silicone-based or organic compounds that
effectively break foam bubbles.
• Anti-knock Agents:
o Function: Increase the octane rating of gasoline, preventing engine knocking during
combustion.
o Composition: Historically included compounds like tetraethyl lead (now largely
phased out) and modern alternatives like ethanol and MTBE (methyl tert-butyl
ether).
These additives play vital roles in improving the performance and longevity of petroleum
products, ensuring they meet industry standards and consumer expectations.

45. What is the significance of i) pour point and ii) flash and fire point?
The pour point and flash point/ fire point are critical properties of petroleum products that
influence their performance and safety.
• Pour Point:
o Definition: The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel remains
fluid and can flow. It indicates the fuel's ability to be pumped and used at low
temperatures.
o Significance:
▪ Fuels with low pour points are essential for cold-weather operations,
ensuring that they can be used in engines and machinery without solidifying.
▪ A high pour point can lead to operational issues, such as fuel thickening or
gelling in cold conditions, which can cause fuel delivery problems and engine
malfunctions.
o Testing Method: The pour point is typically measured using ASTM D97, where a
sample is cooled in a test jar until it solidifies, with the temperature recorded at
which it can no longer flow.
• Flash Point:
o Definition: The flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapours of a
combustible liquid can ignite when exposed to an open flame or spark.
o Significance:
▪ The flash point is a critical safety parameter, determining the flammability of
a fuel. Fuels with low flash points are considered more hazardous and
require special handling and storage precautions.
▪ Regulatory agencies often set minimum flash point standards to ensure the
safety of fuels in transportation and storage.
• Fire Point:
 o Definition: The fire point is the temperature at which a liquid produces enough
vapours to sustain combustion after ignition.
o Significance:
▪ The fire point indicates the temperature at which a fuel can continue to burn
once ignited, providing insight into the overall safety and handling
characteristics of the product.
o Testing Method: The fire point is measured using ASTM D92, where the sample is
heated, and the temperature at which it can sustain a flame is recorded.
In summary, the pour point, flash point, and fire point are essential physical properties that
influence the usability, safety, and handling of petroleum products, guiding refiners in
formulating products that meet specific operational requirements.

46. Explain the following terms: i) octane number, ii) cetane number, iii) diesel index.
These terms are critical for assessing the performance characteristics of fuels in internal
combustion engines.
• Octane Number:
o Definition: The octane number is a measure of a fuel's resistance to knocking or pre-
ignition in gasoline engines. Higher octane numbers indicate better performance and
combustion efficiency.
o Measurement Methods:
▪ Research Octane Number (RON): Determined under controlled conditions
with a specific test engine, usually at lower engine speeds and conditions
that favour knocking.
▪ Motor Octane Number (MON): Measured under more severe conditions,
simulating higher speeds and loads, providing a more accurate reflection of
performance in real-world driving conditions.
o Importance: Fuels with higher octane ratings allow for higher compression ratios in
engines, improving efficiency and power output while reducing harmful emissions.
• Cetane Number:
o Definition: The cetane number is a measure of a diesel fuel's ignition quality,
specifically its ability to ignite quickly when injected into the combustion chamber.
Higher cetane numbers indicate better ignition performance.
o Measurement Methods:
▪ The cetane number is typically determined using a standard test engine,
where the fuel's ignition delay is compared to that of standard reference
fuels (n-hexadecane for 100 cetane number and 1-methylnaphthalene for 0
cetane number).
o Importance: Diesel fuels with higher cetane numbers provide smoother engine
operation, better cold-start performance, and reduced emissions of unburned
hydrocarbons and particulates.
• Diesel Index:
o Definition: The diesel index is an empirical measure that provides an estimate of a
diesel fuel's combustion characteristics based on its density and distillation range. It
is calculated using the formula: Diesel Index=[(Cst)+(C50/100)]/100 where Cst is the
specific gravity of the fuel, and C50 is the distillation temperature at which 50% of the
fuel has evaporated.
 o Importance: The diesel index serves as a useful indicator of fuel quality, providing
insights into the ignition properties and performance of the fuel without the need
for more complex testing methods.
In conclusion, the octane number, cetane number, and diesel index are essential metrics for
evaluating fuel performance in gasoline and diesel engines, guiding refiners in producing
high-quality fuels that meet engine requirements.

47. Write the specification of high-speed diesel oil. Explain the test recommended for diesel fuel.
High-speed diesel oil (HSDO) is a fuel used primarily in diesel engines, characterized by
specific properties that ensure optimal performance. Here are the key specifications and
recommended tests:
• Key Specifications:
o Cetane Number: Minimum of 53, ensuring quick ignition and smooth combustion.
o Density: Typically, between 0.81 and 0.86 g/cm³, affecting fuel efficiency and energy
content.
o Viscosity: Should fall within the range of 2.0 to 4.5 cSt at 40°C, ensuring proper flow
and atomization in fuel injection systems.
o Flash Point: Minimum of 55°C to ensure safe handling and storage.
o Sulphur Content: Typically, less than 0.05% (500 ppm) to comply with environmental
regulations and reduce emissions.
o Water Content: Should be less than 0.05% to prevent corrosion and operational
issues in engines.
o Sediment: Should be less than 0.01% to ensure cleanliness and prevent injector
fouling.
• Recommended Tests:
o ASTM D613: Determines the cetane number of diesel fuel, which is critical for
evaluating ignition quality.
o ASTM D1298: Measures the density of diesel fuel to assess energy content and flow
characteristics.
o ASTM D445: Evaluates the kinematic viscosity of the fuel at 40°C, ensuring proper
atomization and combustion efficiency.
o ASTM D93: Measures the flash point of the fuel, ensuring safety during storage and
handling.
o ASTM D5453: Determines sulphur content, ensuring compliance with environmental
standards.
In summary, the specifications for high-speed diesel oil focus on combustion efficiency,
safety, and environmental compliance, while the recommended tests ensure that the fuel
meets industry standards for performance and reliability.

48. What is the primary aim of coking? Comment on the product quality with reasoning.
The coking process is a thermal conversion process used to convert heavy hydrocarbon
feedstocks into lighter products and petroleum coke, which has various applications.
• Primary Aim of Coking:
o The primary aim of coking is to maximize the yield of lighter, more valuable
hydrocarbons from heavy residues and to convert these residues into solid carbon
(coke).
 o Coking helps to reduce the volume of heavy feedstocks that cannot be processed in
conventional refining units and provides a way to utilize low-value materials
effectively.
• Types of Coking:
o Delayed Coking: Involves heating heavy feedstocks in a furnace, followed by holding
the material in a coking drum, allowing the lighter products to vaporize and be
collected. The solid coke is left behind in the drum.
o Fluid Coking: Uses a fluidized bed of catalyst to promote cracking reactions, yielding
lighter products while producing a continuous stream of coke.
• Product Quality:
o The quality of products derived from coking varies based on the feedstock and
operating conditions. Delayed coking typically produces lighter fractions like
naphtha, kerosene, and diesel, which can be further refined into high-quality fuels.
o The quality of petroleum coke produced can vary as well, with applications ranging
from electrodes in aluminium production to fuel in power generation. Higher-quality
coke, with lower ash and sulphur content, is preferred for industrial applications.
In conclusion, the coking process effectively converts heavy feedstocks into valuable
products and solid carbon, contributing to the overall efficiency of refinery operations.

49. Distinguish between fluid coking and delayed coking with respect to coke quality and process
conditions.
Fluid coking and delayed coking are two different processes for converting heavy
hydrocarbons into lighter products and petroleum coke, each with distinct characteristics.
• Fluid Coking:
o Process Overview:
▪ In fluid coking, heavy feedstocks are introduced into a fluidized bed reactor
where they are rapidly heated and cracked in the presence of a catalyst. The
process operates continuously, with feed and product streams moving in and
out of the reactor.
o Coke Formation:
▪ The resulting petroleum coke is continuously removed from the reactor,
maintaining a steady state. The coking and cracking reactions occur
simultaneously, allowing for better control of the product yield.
o Product Yield:
▪ Fluid coking tends to produce lighter products like naphtha and diesel while
generating lower quantities of coke compared to delayed coking.
o Efficiency:
▪ Fluid coking typically has a higher thermal efficiency and better catalyst
utilization, making it suitable for processing a wide range of feedstocks.
• Delayed Coking:
o Process Overview:
▪ Delayed coking involves heating heavy feedstocks in a furnace before
transferring them to large coking drums for a defined period. The light
products are vaporized and collected during this holding time.
o Coke Formation:
▪ The solid coke accumulates in the drums and must be periodically removed,
leading to batch processing rather than continuous operation.
o Product Yield:
 ▪ Delayed coking generally produces higher quantities of solid petroleum coke
and lighter fractions such as naphtha and kerosene.
o Operational Considerations:
▪ Delayed coking is often preferred for processing heavier crudes and residues
due to its ability to handle high viscosity feeds and maximize coke yield.
In summary, fluid coking offers continuous operation with efficient product yield, while
delayed coking provides high yields of solid coke and lighter products, each suited for specific
applications in the petroleum industry.