Blood Plasma

• Blood transports everything that must be carried • 90 percent water

from one place to another through blood vessels, • Straw-colored fluid
such as: • Includes many dissolved substances
– Nutrients – Nutrients
– Wastes – Salts (electrolytes)
– Hormones – Respiratory gases
– Body heat – Hormones
– Plasma proteins

Components of Blood – Waste products

• Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of connective

Plasma Proteins
tissue, in the human body
• Components of blood – Most abundant solutes in plasma
– Formed elements (living cells) – Most are made by the liver
– Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix) – Include:
▪ Albumin—an important blood buffer and
• When blood is separated: contributes to osmotic pressure
– Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood) ▪ Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a
– Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, sink to the blood vessel is injured
bottom (45 percent of blood, a percentage known as ▪ Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
the hematocrit)
– Buffy coat contains leukocytes, or white blood • Blood composition varies as cells exchange
cells, and platelets (less than 1 percent of blood) substances with the blood
▪ Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the – Liver makes more proteins when levels drop
erythrocytes and plasma – Respiratory and urinary systems restore blood pH
to normal when blood becomes too acidic (acidosis)
Physical Characteristics and Volume or alkaline (alkalosis)

• Blood characteristics • Plasma helps distribute body heat

– Sticky, opaque fluid

Formed Elements
– Heavier and thicker than water
– Color range • Erythrocytes
▪ Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red – Red blood cells (RBCs)
▪ Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or purple • Leukocytes
– Metallic, salty taste – White blood cells (WBCs)
– Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between 7.35 and 7.45 • Platelets
– Blood temperature is slightly higher than body – Cell fragments
temperature, at 38C or 100.4F

Erythrocytes
• Blood volume
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)
– About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of blood are – Main function is to carry oxygen
found in a healthy adult – RBCs differ from other blood cells
– Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight ▪ Anucleate (no nucleus)
▪ Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria
▪ Make ATP by anaerobic means
▪ Essentially “bags” of hemoglobin (Hb)
▪ Shaped like biconcave discs
– Normal count is 5 million RBCs per mm3 of blood
• Erythrocytes – Respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
– Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein (known as positive chemotaxis)
▪ Binds oxygen – Move by amoeboid motion by forming cytoplasmic
▪ Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen extensions to help them move
molecules – 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per of blood
▪ Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin
molecules • Homeostatic imbalance of WBCs
▪ Normal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin – Leukocytosis
per 100 milliliters (ml) of blood ▪ Normal response to an infection but excessive
production of abnormal WBCs during infectious
Concept Link 1 mononucleosis or leukemia is pathological
Recall that hemoglobin is an example of a globular – Leukopenia
protein (look back at Figure 2.19b, p. 71). Globular, or ▪ Abnormally low WBC count
functional, proteins have at least tertiary ▪ Commonly caused by certain drugs, such as
structure, meaning that they are folded into a very corticosteroids and anticancer agents
specific shape. In this case, the folded structure – Leukemia
of hemoglobin, which has quaternary structure, ▪ Bone marrow becomes cancerous
allows it to perform the specific function of binding ▪ Numerous immature WBC are produced
and carrying oxygen. The structure of globular
proteins is also very vulnerable to pH changes and
can be denatured (unfolded) by a pH that is too high • Types of leukocytes
(basic) or low (acidic); denatured hemoglobin is
– Granulocytes
unable to bind oxygen.
▪ Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
▪ Possess lobed nuclei
• Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
▪ Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
– Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
– Agranulocytes
ability of the blood due to:
▪ Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
▪ Lower-than-normal number of RBCs
▪ Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
▪ Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin content in
▪ Include lymphocytes and monocytes
the RBCs
– Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally
• List of the WBCs, from most to least abundant
shaped hemoglobin
– Neutrophils
– Lymphocytes
• Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
– Monocytes
– Polycythemia
– Eosinophils
▪ Disorder resulting from excessive or
– Basophils
abnormal increase of RBCs due to:
– Bone marrow cancer (polycythemia vera)
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
– Life at higher altitudes (secondary polycythemia)
▪ Increase in RBCs slows blood flow and
increases blood viscosity Granulocytes

– Neutrophils
Leukocytes ▪ Most numerous WBC
• Leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs) ▪ Multilobed nucleus
– Crucial in body’s defense against disease ▪ Cytoplasm stains pink and contains fine
– Complete cells, with nucleus and organelles granules
– Able to move into and out of blood vessels ▪ Function as phagocytes at active sites of
(diapedesis) infection
 ▪ Numbers increase during infection Agranulocytes
▪ 3,000–7,000 neutrophils per of blood (40–70
– Lymphocytes
percent of WBCs)
▪ Large, dark purple nucleus

– Eosinophils ▪ Slightly larger than RBCs

▪ Reside in lymphatic tissues
▪ Nucleus stains blue-red
▪ Play a role in immune response
▪ Brick-red cytoplasmic granules
▪ 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes per of blood (20–45
▪ Function is to kill parasitic worms; play a role
percent WBCs)
in allergy attacks
▪ 100–400 eosinophils per of blood (1–4 percent
– Monocytes
of WBCs)
▪ Largest of the white blood cells

– Basophils ▪ Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped dark purple

nucleus
▪ Rarest of the WBCs
▪ Function as macrophages when they migrate
▪ Large histamine-containing granules that
into tissues
stain dark blue to purple
▪ Important in fighting chronic infection
▪ Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
▪ 100–700 monocytes per of blood (4–8 percent
▪ 20–50 basophils per of blood (0–1 percent of
of WBCs)
WBCs)

• Platelets

– Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate

cells)
– Needed for the clotting process
– Normal platelet count is 300,000 platelets per of
blood

Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation) • When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes
• Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell in the spleen or liver
formation • Lost cells are replaced by division of
• Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
• All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell • Reticulocytes are young RBCs which enter the
(hemocytoblast) blood to become oxygen-transporting erythrocytes
• Hemocytoblasts form two types of descendants
– Lymphoid stem cell, which produces
lymphocytes • Rate of RBC production is controlled by a hormone
– Myeloid stem cell, which can produce all other called erythropoietin
formed • Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
elements response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback

Formation of Red Blood Cells from blood oxygen levels

• Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to

Concept Link 2
divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
Recall the concept of negative feedback control
• RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days
(see Chapter 1, p. 41). In this case, erythropoietin is
released in response to a low blood oxygen level, – Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to
which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more thrombin (an enzyme)
red blood cells. With their numbers increased, the
red cells carry more oxygen, increasing the blood Hemostasis
oxygen level and reducing the initial stimulus. (5 of 6)
• Step 3: coagulation
Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets – Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hairlike
• WBC and platelet production is controlled by molecules of insoluble fibrin
hormones – Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)
– Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and – Within the hour, serum is squeezed from the clot
interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate as it retracts to pull edges of the blood vessel
leukocytes together
– Thrombopoietin stimulates production of ▪ Serum is plasma minus clotting proteins
platelets from megakaryocytes
Hemostasis
Hemostasis (6 of 6)
(1 of 6) • Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
• Hemostasis is the process of stopping the bleeding • The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
that results from a break in a blood vessel • The clot is broken down after tissue
• Hemostasis involves three phases repairCopyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All
1. Vascular spasms Rights Reserved.
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting) Disorders of Hemostasis (1 of 3)
Hemostasis • Undesirable clotting
(2 of 6) – Thrombus
• Step 1: Vascular spasms ▪ A clot that develops and persists in an
– Immediate response to blood vessel injury unbroken blood vessel
– Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm ▪ Can be deadly in areas such as the lungs
– Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood – Embolus
loss ▪ A thrombus that breaks away and floats
freely in the bloodstream
Hemostasis ▪ Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as
(3 of 6) the brain
• Step 2: Platelet plug formation
– Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood Disorders of Hemostasis (2 of 3)
vessel • Bleeding disorders
– Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers – Thrombocytopenia
– Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract ▪ Insufficient number of circulating platelets
more platelets ▪ Arises from any condition that suppresses the
– Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug bone marrow
▪ Even normal movements can cause bleeding
Hemostasis from small blood vessels that require platelets for
(4 of 6) clotting
• Step 3: Coagulation ▪ Evidenced by petechiae (small purplish
– Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF) blotches on the skin)
– PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood
protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to Disorders of Hemostasis (3 of 3)
trigger a clotting • Bleeding disorders
cascade – Hemophilia
 ▪ Hereditary bleeding disorder – Presence of antigen A is called type A
▪ Normal clotting factors are missing – Presence of antigen B is called type B
▪ Minor tissue damage can cause – Lack of both antigens A and B is called type O
life-threatening prolonged bleeding
Human Blood Groups (5 of 8)
Blood Groups and Transfusions • ABO blood group
• Large losses of blood have serious consequences – Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
– Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes pallor and ▪ Type AB is the “universal recipient”
weakness – Type B can receive B and O blood
– Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can – Type A can receive A and O blood
be fatal – Type O can receive O blood
• Blood transfusions are given for substantial blood ▪ Type O is the “universal donor”
loss, to treat severe anemia, or for
thrombocytopenia Human Blood Groups
(6 of 8)
Human Blood Groups (1 of 8) • Rh blood group
• Blood contains genetically determined proteins – Named for one of the eight Rh antigens
known as antigens (agglutinogen D) identified in Rhesus monkeys
• Antigens are substances that the body recognizes – Most Americans are (Rh-positive), meaning they
as foreign and that the immune system may attack carry the Rh antigen
– Most antigens are foreign proteins – Anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically formed
– We tolerate our own “self” antigens in the blood of Rh-negative individuals (unlike the
• Antibodies are the “recognizers” that bind foreign antibodies of the ABO system)
antigens
• Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause Human Blood Groups (7 of 8)
blood with certain proteins to clump (agglutination) • If an Rh- (Rh Negative) person receives Rh+ blood:
and lyse – The immune system becomes sensitized and
begins producing antibodies; hemolysis does not
Human Blood Groups (2 of 8) occur, because as it takes time to produce
• Transfusion reactions antibodies
– Lysed red blood cells release hemoglobin into the – Second, and subsequent, transfusions
blood stream involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+ RBCs, and
– Freed hemoglobin may block kidney tubules, hemolysis occurs (rupture of RBCs)
causing kidney failure and death • Rh-related problem during pregnancy
– Fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting can also result – Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh-, the
• There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor
• The most vigorous transfusion reactions are – RhoGAM® shot can prevent buildup anto-Rh+ of
caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens antibodies in mother’s blood

Human Blood Groups (3 of 8) Human Blood Groups (8 of 8)

• ABO blood group • The mismatch of an Rh- mother carrying an Rh+
– Blood types are based on the presence or absence baby can cause problems for the unborn child
of two antigens – The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
1. Type A problems; the immune system is sensitized after the
2. Type B first pregnancy
– In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
Human Blood Groups (4 of 8) system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood
• ABO blood group (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
– Presence of both antigens A and B is called type AB
Blood Typing
• Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B
serum
• Agglutination or the lack of agglutination leads to
identification of blood type
• Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same
manner
• Cross matching—testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of Blood (1 of 3)

• Sites of blood cell formation
– The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood
cell formation
– Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the
seventh month

Developmental Aspects of Blood (2 of 3)

• Congenital blood defects include various types of
hemolytic anemias and hemophilia
• Incompatibility between maternal and fetal blood
can result in fetal cyanosis, resulting from
destruction of fetal blood cells
• Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin
produced after birth
• Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants when the
liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown
products fast enough

Developmental Aspects of Blood (3 of 3)

• Leukemias are most common in the very young and
very old
– Older adults are also at risk for anemia and
clotting disorders