6 The Muscular System

WHAT
Muscles are
responsible for body
movements, stabilizing joints, HOW
and generating heat. Muscles generate the
force required to cause
movement by contracting, a
process in which proteins inside
the muscle fibers overlap
more than when they
are at rest.

WHY
In addition to whole body
movements, muscles are needed to
move substances inside our bodies: for
example, air into and out of our lungs,
food through our digestive tracts, and Instructors may assign
blood through our heart and a related “Building
blood vessels. Vocabulary” activity
using Mastering A&P

B 6.1 Overview of Muscle

ecause contracting muscles look like mice
scurrying beneath the skin, a scientist long
ago dubbed them muscles, from the Latin Tissues
word mus, meaning “little mouse.” Indeed, the rip-
Learning Objectives
pling muscles of professional athletes often come to
mind when we hear the word muscle. But muscle is ✓✓ Describe similarities and differences in the structure
and function of the three types of muscle tissue,
also the dominant tissue in the heart and in the walls and indicate where they are found in the body.
of other hollow organs of the body such as the intes-
✓✓ Define muscular system.
tines and blood vessels, and it makes up nearly half
✓✓ Define and explain the role of the following:
the body’s mass. endomysium, perimysium, epimysium, tendon,
The essential function of muscle is to contract, or and aponeurosis.
shorten—a unique characteristic that sets it apart
from other body tissues. As a result of this ability, 6.1a Muscle Types
muscles are responsible for all body movements and There are three types of muscle tissue—skeletal,
can be viewed as the “machines” of the body. smooth, and cardiac (Table 6.1, p. 200). These differ
199

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 200 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles

Characteristic Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
Body location Attached to bones or, for some Walls of the heart Walls of hollow organs (other
facial muscles, to skin than the heart)

Cell shape and Single, very long, cylindrical, Branching chains of cells; Single, fusiform, uninucleate;
appearance multinucleate cells with very uninucleate, striations; no striations
obvious striations intercalated discs

Connective Epimysium, perimysium, and Endomysium attached to the Endomysium

tissue endomysium fibrous skeleton of the heart
components
Epimysium Perimysium

Endomysium

Endomysium
Endomysium

Cells

Regulation of Voluntary; via nervous system Involuntary; internal heart Involuntary; nervous
contraction controls pacemaker; nervous system system controls; hormones,
controls; hormones chemicals, stretch

Speed of Slow to fast Slow Very slow

contraction

Rhythmic No Yes Yes, in some

contraction

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 201

in their cell structure, body location, and how they

are stimulated to contract. But before we explore
their differences, let’s look at how they are similar.
Q  hat is the meaning of epi? Of mys? How do these word
W
roots relate to the role and position of the epimysium?

First, skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elon- Epimysium (wraps
gated. For this reason, these types of muscle cells Bone entire muscle)
(but not cardiac muscle cells) are called muscle
fibers. Second, the ability of muscle to shorten, or Blood vessel
contract, depends on two types of myofilaments, the
muscle cell equivalents of the microfilaments of the Tendon Perimysium
cytoskeleton (studied in Chapter 3). A third similar- 6
ity has to do with terminology. Whenever you see the
Muscle fiber
prefixes myo- or mys- (“muscle”) or sarco- (“flesh”), (wrapped in
you will know that muscle is being referred to. For endomysium)
example, in muscle cells, the cytoplasm is called sar-
coplasm (sar9ko-plaz0um).

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle fibers are packaged into organs
called skeletal muscles that attach to the skeleton. As
the skeletal muscles cover our bone and cartilage Fascicle (wrapped
framework, they help form the smooth contours of in perimysium)
the body. Skeletal muscle fibers are large, cigar- Figure 6.1 Connective tissue wrappings
shaped, multinucleate cells. They are the largest mus- of skeletal muscle.
cle fibers—some ranging up to 30 cm (nearly 1 foot)
in length. Indeed, the fibers of large, hardworking
muscles, such as the antigravity muscles of the hip, called perimysium to form a bundle of fibers called
are so big and coarse that they can be seen with the a fascicle (fas9ı̆-kul). Many fascicles are bound
naked eye. together by an even tougher “overcoat” of connective
Skeletal muscle is also known as striated tissue called an epimysium, which covers the entire
­muscle (because its fibers have obvious stripes) and muscle. The ends of the epimysium that extend
as voluntary muscle (because it is the only muscle beyond the muscle (like the wrapper on a piece of
type subject to conscious control). However, it is candy) blend either into a strong, cordlike tendon
important to recognize that skeletal muscles can be or a sheetlike aponeurosis (ap0o-nu-ro9sis), which
activated by reflexes (without our “willed com- indirectly attaches the muscle to bone, cartilage, or
mand”) as well. Skeletal muscle tissue can contract another connective tissue covering.
rapidly and with great force, but it tires easily and In addition to anchoring muscles, tendons per-
must rest after short periods of activity. When you form several other functions. The most important are
think of skeletal muscle tissue, the key words to providing durability and conserving space. Tendons
remember are skeletal, striated, and voluntary. are mostly tough collagen fibers, so they can cross
Skeletal muscle fibers are soft and surprisingly rough bony projections, which would tear the more
fragile. Yet skeletal muscles can exert tremendous delicate muscle tissues. Because of their relatively
power—indeed, the force they generate while lifting small size, more tendons than fleshy muscles can
a weight is often much greater than that required to pass over a joint.
lift the weight. The reason they are not ripped apart Many people think of muscles as always having
as they exert force is that connective tissue bundles an enlarged “belly” that tapers down to a tendon at
thousands of their fibers together, which strengthens each end. However, muscles vary considerably in the
and supports the muscle as a whole (Figure 6.1).
Each muscle fiber is enclosed in a delicate
connective tissue sheath called endomysium
­ a muscle.

A
epimysium is a connective tissue sheath upon or over
(en0do-mis9e-um). Several sheathed muscle fibers Epi = upon, over, above; and mys = muscle. The
are then wrapped by a coarser fibrous membrane

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 202 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

way their fibers are arranged. Many are spindle- Circular layer
shaped as just described, but in others, the fibers are of smooth muscle
arranged in a fan shape, a circle, or a featherlike (longitudinal view
Mucosa of cells)
pattern (as described on pp. 220–221).

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle has no striations and is involuntary,
which means that we cannot consciously control it.
Found mainly in the walls of hollow (tubelike)
organs such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and
respiratory passages, smooth muscle propels sub-
stances along a pathway. Think of smooth muscle as
visceral, nonstriated, and involuntary.
Smooth muscle fibers are spindle-shaped, uni-
nucleate, and surrounded by scant endomysium (see
Table 6.1). They are arranged in layers, and most
often there are two such layers, one running circu-
larly and the other longitudinally (Figure 6.2a). As Longitudinal layer
Submucosa
the two layers alternately contract and relax, they of smooth muscle
change the size and shape of the organ. Moving food (cross-sectional
through the digestive tract and emptying the bowels view of cells)
and bladder are examples of “housekeeping” activi- (a)
ties normally handled by smooth muscles. Smooth
muscle contraction is slow and sustained. To use a
running analogy, if skeletal muscle is like a sprinter,
who runs fast but tires quickly, then smooth muscle
is like a marathoner, who runs more slowly but
keeps up the pace for many miles.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found in only one place in the
body—the heart, where it forms the bulk of the heart Cardiac
muscle
walls. The heart serves as a pump, propelling blood bundles
through blood vessels to all body tissues. Like skele-
tal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, and like
smooth muscle, it is uninucleate and under involun-
tary control. Important key words for this muscle
type are cardiac, striated, and involuntary.
The cardiac cells are cushioned by small amounts
of endomysium and are arranged in spiral or figure
8–shaped bundles (Figure 6.2b). When the heart
contracts, its internal chambers become smaller, (b)
forcing blood on a one-way path through the cham- Figure 6.2 Arrangement of smooth and cardiac
bers and into the large arteries leaving the heart. muscle cells. (a) Diagrammatic view of a cross section
Cardiac muscle fibers are branching cells joined by of the intestine. (b) Longitudinal view of the heart
special gap junctions called intercalated discs (see showing the spiral arrangement of the cardiac muscle
Figure 3.20 on p. 119 and Chapter 3, p. 118). These cells in its walls.
two structural features and the spiral arrangement of
the muscle bundles in the heart allow heart activity
to be closely coordinated.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 203

Cardiac muscle usually contracts at a fairly joints. In fact, physical therapy for knee injuries
steady rate set by the heart’s “in-house” pacemaker. includes exercise to strengthen thigh muscles because
However, the nervous system can also stimulate the they support the knee.
heart to shift into “high gear” for short periods, as
when you run to catch a bus. Generate Heat
As you can see, each of the three muscle types Muscle activity generates body heat as a by-product
has a structure and function well suited for its job in of contraction. As ATP is used to power muscle con-
the body. But because the term muscular system traction, nearly three-quarters of its energy escapes as
applies specifically to skeletal muscle, we will con- heat. This heat is vital in maintaining normal body
centrate on this muscle type for the rest of this temperature. Skeletal muscle accounts for at least 40 6
chapter. percent of body mass, so it is the muscle type most
responsible for generating heat.
6.1b Muscle Functions
All muscle types produce movement, but skeletal Additional Functions
muscle plays three other important roles in the body Muscles perform other important functions as well.
as well: it maintains posture and body position, stabilizes Smooth muscles form valves that regulate the pas-
joints, and generates heat. Let’s take a look. sage of substances through internal body openings,
dilate and constrict the pupils of our eyes, and make
Produce Movement up the arrector pili muscles that cause our hairs to
Skeletal muscles are responsible for our body’s stand on end. Skeletal muscles form valves that are
mobility, including all locomotion (walking, swim- under voluntary control, and they enclose and pro-
ming, and cross-country skiing, for instance) and tect fragile internal organs.
manipulating things with your agile upper limbs.
They enable us to respond quickly to changes in the
external environment. For example, their speed and Did You Get It?
power enable us to jump out of the way of a runaway
1. How do cells of the three types of muscle tissues
car and then follow its flight with our eyes. They also differ from one another anatomically?
allow us to express our emotions with the silent lan- 2. Which muscle type has the most elaborate connec-
guage of facial expressions. tive tissue wrappings?
They are distinct from the smooth muscle of 3. What does striated mean relative to muscle cells?
blood vessel walls and cardiac muscle of the heart, 4. How do the movements promoted by skeletal
muscle differ from those promoted by smooth or
which work together to circulate blood and main-
cardiac muscle?
tain blood pressure, and the smooth muscle of other For answers, see Appendix A.
hollow organs, which forces fluids (urine, bile) and
other substances (food, a baby) through internal
body channels.
6.2 Microscopic Anatomy
Maintain Posture and Body Position of Skeletal Muscle
We are rarely aware of the workings of the skeletal
muscles that maintain body posture. Yet they func- Learning Objective
tion almost continuously, making one tiny adjust- ✓✓ Describe the microscopic structure of skeletal
ment after another so that we maintain an erect or muscle, and explain the role of actin- and myosin-
containing myofilaments.
seated posture, even when we slouch, despite the
never-ending downward pull of gravity. As mentioned previously, skeletal muscle fibers
(cells) are multinucleate (Figure 6.3a, p. 204). Many
Stabilize Joints
oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the plasma
As skeletal muscles pull on bones to cause move- membrane, which is called the sarcolemma
ments, they also stabilize the joints of the skeleton. (­sar0ko-lem9ah; “muscle husk”) in muscle fibers. The
Muscles and tendons are extremely important in nuclei are pushed aside by long ribbonlike organ-
reinforcing and stabilizing joints that have poorly elles, the myofibrils (mi0o-fi9brilz), which nearly fill
articulating surfaces, such as the shoulder and knee

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 204 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Endomysium

Sarcolemma

Myofibril

Dark Light Nucleus

(A) band (I) band
(a) Segment of a muscle fiber (cell)

Z disc H zone Z disc

Thin (actin)
myofilament
Thick (myosin)
myofilament

(b) Myofibril or fibril I band A band I band M line

(complex organelle
composed of bundles Sarcomere
of myofilaments)
M line
Z disc Z disc
Thin (actin)
myofilament

Thick (myosin)
myofilament

Elastic
filament (titin)

(c) Sarcomere (segment of a myofibril)

Figure 6.3 Anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber (cell). (a) A portion of a muscle
fiber. One myofibril has been extended. (b) Enlarged view of a section of a myofibril
showing its banding pattern. (c) Enlarged view of one sarcomere (contractile unit) of
a myofibril.

the cytoplasm. Alternating light (I) bands and dark dark A band has a lighter central area called the H
(A) bands along the length of the perfectly aligned zone (Figure 6.3b). The M line in the center of the H
myofibrils give the muscle fiber its striated (banded) zone contains tiny protein rods that hold adjacent
appearance. (Think of the second letter of light, I, thick filaments together.
and the second letter of dark, A, to help you remem- So why are we bothering with all these terms—
ber which band is which.) A closer look at the band- dark this and light that? Because the banding
ing pattern reveals that the light I band has a midline ­pattern reveals the working structure of the myofi-
interruption, a darker area called the Z disc, and the brils. First, we find that the myofibrils are actually

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 205

chains of tiny contractile units called sarcomeres

(sar9ko-mˉerz), which are the structural and func- Did You Get It?
tional units of skeletal muscle. The sarcomeres are 5. Specifically, what structure(s) is/are responsible for
the banding pattern in skeletal muscle cells?
aligned end to end like boxcars in a train along the
For the answer, see Appendix A.
length of the myofibrils. Second, it is the precise
arrangement of even smaller structures (myofila-
ments) within sarcomeres that produces the stria-
tions in skeletal muscle fibers. 6.3 Skeletal Muscle Activity
Let’s examine how the arrangement of the myo-
6.3a Stimulation and Contraction 6
filaments leads to the banding pattern. There are two
types of threadlike protein myofilaments within of Single Skeletal Muscle Fibers
each sarcomere (Figure 6.3c). The thick filaments Learning Objective
are made mostly of bundled molecules of the pro- ✓✓ Describe how an action potential is initiated in a
tein myosin. Notice that the thick filaments extend muscle cell.
the entire length of the dark A band. Also, notice that
the midparts of the thick filaments are smooth but Muscle fibers have several special functional prop-
that their ends are studded with small projections erties that enable them to perform their duties.
(Figure 6.3c). These projections, or myosin heads, The first of these is irritability, also called respon-
contain ATPase enzyme activity and split ATP to siveness, which is the ability to receive and respond
release the energy used for muscle contraction. The to a stimulus. The second, contractility, is the abil-
myosin heads also form cross bridges when they ity to forcibly shorten when adequately stimu-
bind to the thin myofilaments during contraction. lated. This property sets muscle apart from all
Myosin filaments are attached to the Z discs by titin, other tissue types. Extensibility is the ability of
elastic filaments that run through the core of the muscle fibers to stretch, whereas elasticity is their
thick filaments. ability to recoil and resume their resting length
The thin filaments are composed of the con- after being stretched.
tractile protein called actin, plus some regulatory The Nerve Stimulus and the Action Potential
proteins that play a role in allowing (or preventing)
binding of myosin heads to actin. The thin fila- To contract, skeletal muscle fibers must be stimu-
ments are anchored to the Z disc (a disclike mem- lated by nerve impulses. One motor neuron (nerve
brane). Notice that the light I band includes parts of cell) may stimulate a few muscle fibers or hun-
two adjacent sarcomeres and contains only the thin dreds of them, depending on the particular muscle
filaments. Although they overlap the ends of the and the work it does. A motor unit consists of one
thick filaments, the thin filaments do not extend neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it stimu-
into the middle of a relaxed sarcomere, and thus the lates (Figure 6.4, p. 206). When the long, thread-
central region (the H zone) looks a bit lighter. like extension of a neuron, called the axon, reaches
When the actin-containing thin filaments slide the muscle, it branches into a number of axon
toward each other during contraction, the H zones ­terminals, each of which forms junctions with the
disappear because the actin and myosin filaments sarcolemma of a different muscle fiber (Figure 6.5,
completely overlap. p. 207). These junctions, called ­neuromuscular
Another very important muscle fiber ­organelle— (literally, “nerve-muscle”) ­junctions, contain syn-
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)—is a specialized aptic vesicles filled with a chemical referred to as a
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (not shown in neurotransmitter. The specific neurotransmit-
Figure 6.3). The interconnecting tubules and sacs of ter that stimulates skeletal muscle fibers is
the SR surround every myofibril just as the sleeve of ­acetylcholine (as0e-til-ko9lˉen), or ACh. Although
a loosely crocheted sweater surrounds your arm. The the nerve endings and the muscle fiber membranes
major role of this elaborate system is to store cal- are very close, they never touch. The gap between
cium and to release it on demand when the muscle them, the synaptic cleft, is filled with interstitial
fiber is stimulated to contract. As you will see, cal- fluid.
cium provides the final “go” signal for contraction.

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 206 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Axon terminals at neuromuscular junctions Muscle fibers

Spinal cord

Motor Motor
unit 1 unit 2

Nerve

Axon of motor
Motor neuron neuron
cell bodies

Muscle

Muscle fibers Branching axon

to motor unit
(b)

(a)
Figure 6.4 Motor units. Each units are shown. The motor neurons number of axon terminals distributed
motor unit consists of a motor reside in the spinal cord, and their to muscle fibers scattered throughout
neuron and all the muscle fibers it axons extend to the muscle. Within the muscle. (b) Photo of a portion of
activates. (a) Portions of two motor the muscle, each axon divides into a a motor unit (11503).

cell membrane and release acetylcholine 3 , which

Homeostatic
Imbalance 6.1 then diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to
In some cases, a motor nerve impulse is unable to membrane receptors in highly folded regions of the
reach the muscle. In ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sarcolemma 4 . If enough acetylcholine is released,
sclerosis (also called Lou Gehrig’s disease), motor neu- the sarcolemma at that point becomes temporarily
rons degenerate over time, resulting in paralysis that even more permeable to sodium ions (Na1), which
gradually worsens. The cause of ALS is unknown, rush into the muscle fiber, and to potassium ions
though some cases are hereditary. Common character- (K1), which diffuse out of the muscle fiber. However,
istics include malfunctioning mitochondria, inflam- more Na1 enters than K1 leaves. This imbalance
mation, and the generation of free radicals that damage gives the cell interior an excess of positive ions,
DNA and tissue much like intense UV light. The prog- which reverses the resting electrical conditions of the
nosis for patients with ALS is generally death within sarcolemma. This event, called depolarization, opens
three to five years because the breathing muscles will more channels that only allow Na1 entry 5 . This
eventually be affected, resulting in suffocation. movement of ions generates an electrical current
called an action potential. Once begun, the action
potential is unstoppable; it travels over the entire sur-
Now that we have described the structure of the face of the sarcolemma, conducting the electrical
neuromuscular junction, refer to the numbered steps impulse from one end of the cell to the other. The
in Figure 6.5 as we examine what happens there. result is contraction of the muscle fiber.
When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminals 1 , Note that while the action potential is occurring,
calcium channels open, and calcium (Ca21) enters the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), present on
the terminal 2 . Calcium entry causes some of the the sarcolemma and in the synaptic cleft, breaks
synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal to fuse with the down acetylcholine to acetic acid and choline 6 to

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 207

Myelinated axon
Nerve of motor neuron
impulse
Axon terminal of
Nucleus neuromuscular
junction
Sarcolemma of
the muscle fiber
6

Synaptic vesicle containing ACh

1 Nerve impulse reaches axon
terminal of motor neuron. Axon terminal of motor neuron
Mitochondrion

2 In response to a nerve impulse, Ca2+ Ca2+

calcium (Ca2+) channels open, Synaptic
and Ca2+ enters the axon terminal. cleft Sarcolemma

Fusing synaptic
vesicle
Sarcoplasm
3 Ca2+ entry causes some ACh of muscle fiber
synaptic vesicles to release their Folds of
contents (the neurotransmitter ACh
receptor sarcolemma
acetylcholine) by exocytosis.

4 Acetylcholine diffuses across

the synaptic cleft and binds to
receptors in the sarcolemma.

Ion channel in
5 ACh binds and opens channels Na+ K+ sarcolemma opens;
that allow simultaneous passage ions pass.
of Na+ into the muscle fiber and
K+ out of the muscle fiber. More
Na+ ions enter than K+ ions leave,
producing a local change in the
electrical conditions of the
membrane (depolarization). This
eventually leads to an action
potential. ACh Degraded ACh
Ion channel closes;
Na+ ions cannot pass.
6 The enzyme acetylcholinesterase
breaks down ACh in the synaptic
cleft, ending the stimulation of the
muscle fiber. Acetylcholinesterase
K+

Figure 6.5 Events at the neuromuscular junction. eText

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 208 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Neuromuscular junction Muscle fiber

Nerve (cell)
Small twig Striations
fiber

Match
flame 1 Na+ diffuses
into the cell.
1 Flame ignites 2 Flame spreads 2 Action potential spreads
the twig. rapidly along the twig. rapidly along the sarcolemma.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.6 Comparing the action bursting into flame when it has been the permeability of the sarcolemma
potential to a flame consuming a heated enough and spreading of the changes. The second event is the
dry twig. (a) The first event in flame to burn the entire twig. spreading of the action potential
igniting a dry twig is holding the (b) The first event in exciting a along the sarcolemma when enough
match flame under one area of the muscle fiber is the rapid diffusion of sodium ions have entered to upset
twig. The second event is the twig’s sodium ions (Na1) into the cell when the electrical conditions in the cell.

prevent continued contraction of the muscle fiber in Mechanism of Muscle Contraction:

the absence of additional nerve impulses. The mus- The Sliding Filament Theory
cle fiber relaxes until stimulated by the next round of Learning Objective
acetylcholine release, so a single nerve impulse pro-
✓✓ Describe the events of muscle cell contraction.
duces only one contraction.
Let’s compare this series of events to lighting a We have just described the events at the neuromus-
match under a small dry twig (Figure 6.6). The char- cular junction that lead to an action potential. Now
ring of the twig by the flame can be compared to the we’ll describe excitation-contraction coupling (that
change in membrane permeability that allows is, combining what just happened with what’s about
sodium ions into the cell. When that part of the twig to happen), and the cross-bridge cycle, during which
becomes hot enough (when enough sodium ions myofilaments overlap to a greater degree and sarco-
have entered the cell), the twig will suddenly burst meres (and the whole muscle) shorten.
into flame, and the flame will move along the twig What causes the filaments to slide? This question
(the action potential will be conducted along the brings us back to the myosin heads that protrude all
entire length of the sarcolemma). We explain this around the ends of the thick filaments.
series of events more fully in the discussion of nerve The formation of cross bridges—when the myo-
physiology (Chapter 7, pp. 251–253). sin heads attach to actin—requires calcium ions
The events that return the cell to its resting state (Ca21) and ATP (to “energize” the myosin heads).
include (1) diffusion of potassium ions (K1) out of So where does the calcium come from? Action
the cell and (2) operation of the sodium-potassium potentials pass deep into the muscle fiber along
pump, the active transport mechanism that moves membranous tubules that fold inward from the
the sodium and potassium ions back to their initial sarcolemma. Inside the cell, in a process called
­
positions. excitation-­contraction coupling, the action potential
stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release cal-
cium ions into the cytoplasm. The calcium ions trig-
Did You Get It? ger the binding of myosin to actin, initiating filament
6. What two structures are closely associated at a sliding (Figure 6.7). When the action potential ends,
neuromuscular junction? calcium ions are immediately returned to the SR
7. Which ions enter the muscle cell during the storage areas, the regulatory proteins return to their
generation of an action potential? resting shape and block myosin-binding sites, and
8. What is the role of calcium ions in muscle the muscle fiber relaxes and settles back to its origi-
contraction?
For answers, see Appendix A.
nal length. This whole series of events takes a few
thousandths of a second.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 209

Regulatory proteins In a relaxed muscle fiber, the regulatory proteins

forming part of the actin myofilaments block and
prevent myosin binding (see a). When an action
potential (AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a
muscle fiber is excited, calcium ions (Ca2+) are
released from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of
the sarcoplasmic reticulum).
Myosin myofilament
Actin myofilament
6
(a)
The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for
contraction, because as calcium binds to the
Ca2+ regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, the proteins
undergo a change in both their shape and their
position on the thin filaments. This action exposes
Myosin-binding site myosin-binding sites on the actin, to which the myosin
heads can attach (see b), and the myosin heads
immediately begin seeking out binding sites. The
binding of myosin to actin constitutes cross bridge
Upper part of thick filament only formation.
(b)

Using energy from ATP, free myosin heads are

“cocked,” much like an oar ready to be pulled on for
rowing. Myosin attachment to actin causes the myosin
heads to snap (pivot) toward the center of the
sarcomere in a rowing motion. When this happens,
the thin filaments are pulled slightly toward the center
of the sarcomere (see c). ATP provides the energy
(c)
needed to release and recock each myosin head so
that it is ready to attach to a binding site farther along
the thin filament.
Figure 6.7 Schematic representation of contraction mechanism: the sliding eText
filament theory. Mastering A&P > Study Area >
Interactive Physiology (IP)
Video

When the nervous system activates muscle fibers shortens (Figure 6.8, p. 210). Notice that the myofil-
as just described, the myosin heads attach to binding aments themselves do not shorten during contrac-
sites on the thin filaments, and the sliding begins. tion; they simply slide past each other and overlap
Each cross bridge attaches and detaches several times more than in the relaxed state.
during a contraction, generating tension that helps
pull the thin (actin) filaments toward the center of
the sarcomere. This “walking” of the myosin heads Did You Get It?
along the thin filaments during muscle shortening is
9. Which chemical—ATP or Ca21—triggers sliding of
much like a centipede’s gait. Some myosin heads the muscle filaments?
(“legs”) are always in contact with actin (“the 10. Which is a cross-bridge attachment more similar
ground”), so that the thin filaments cannot slide to: a synchronized rowing team or a person pulling
backward, and this cycle repeats again and again a bucket on a rope out of a well?
during contraction. As this event occurs simultane- For answers, see Appendix A.
ously in sarcomeres throughout the muscle fiber, it

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 210 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Myosin Actin ways: (1) by changing the frequency of muscle stimu-

lation and (2) by changing the number of muscle
fibers being stimulated at one time. Next, let’s
describe a muscle’s response to each of these.

Muscle Response to Increasingly Rapid Stimulation

Although muscle twitches (single, brief, jerky con-
tractions) sometimes result from certain nervous sys-
Z Z tem problems, this is not the way our muscles
H
normally operate. In most types of muscle activity,
I A I nerve impulses are delivered to the muscle at a very
rapid rate—so rapid that the muscle does not get a
(a) Relaxed sarcomere
chance to relax completely between stimuli. As a
result, the effects of the successive contractions are
“summed” (added) together, and the contractions
of the muscle get stronger and smoother. The mus-
cle exhibits unfused tetanus (tet9ah-nus), or
­incomplete tetanus. When the muscle is stimulated
so rapidly that no evidence of relaxation is seen and
the contractions are completely smooth and sus-
tained, the muscle is in fused tetanus, or complete
Z Z ­tetanus, or in tetanic contraction* (Figure 6.9).
I A I
Muscle Response to Stronger Stimuli Tetanus pro-
(b) Fully contracted sarcomere duces stronger (more forceful) muscle contractions,
Figure 6.8 Diagrammatic views of a sarcomere. but its primary role is to produce smooth and pro-
Notice that in the contracted sarcomere (b), as a result longed muscle contractions. How forcefully a muscle
of increased myofilament overlap, the light H zone in contracts depends to a large extent on how many of its
the center of the A band has disappeared, the Z discs cells are stimulated. When only a few fibers are stim-
are closer to the thick filaments, and the I bands have ulated, the muscle as a whole contracts only slightly.
nearly disappeared. The A bands of adjacent sarcomeres When all the motor units are active and all the muscle
move closer together but do not change in length. fibers are stimulated, the muscle contraction is as
strong as it can get. Thus, muscle contractions can
range from slight to vigorous depending on the work
6.3b Contraction of a Skeletal to be done. The same hand that lifts a single sheet of
Muscle as a Whole paper can also lift a heavy backpack full of books!
Learning Objective
Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction
✓✓ Define graded response, tetanus, isotonic and
­isometric contractions, and muscle tone as these Learning Objective
terms apply to a skeletal muscle. ✓✓ Describe three pathways for ATP regeneration
during muscle activity.
Graded Responses
In skeletal muscles, the “all-or-none” law of muscle As a muscle contracts, the bonds of ATP molecules
physiology applies to the muscle fiber, not to the are hydrolyzed to release the needed energy.
whole muscle. It states that a muscle fiber will con-
tract to its fullest extent when it is stimulated ade-
quately; it never partially contracts. However, the
*Tetanic contraction is normal and desirable. It is quite differ-
whole muscle reacts to stimuli with graded
ent from the pathological condition of tetanus (commonly
responses, or different degrees of shortening, which called lockjaw), which is caused by a toxin made by bacteria.
generate different amounts of force. In general, Lockjaw causes muscles to go into uncontrollable spasms,
graded muscle contractions can be produced two finally causing respiratory arrest.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 211

Fused tetanus
Unfused tetanus
Tension (g) Partial relaxation

(Stimuli)

(a) Twitch (b) Summing of (c) Unfused (d) Fused (complete) 6

contractions (incomplete) tetanus tetanus

Figure 6.9 A whole muscle’s increases because effects of the very rapid rate of stimulation. (Points
response to different stimulation individual twitches are summed at which stimuli are delivered are
rates. A single stimulus (a) causes (added). Further fusion (c) of the indicated by red arrows. Tension
muscle contraction and relaxation (a twitches (unfused tetanus) occurs as [measured in grams] on the vertical
twitch). As stimuli are delivered more stimuli are delivered at a still faster axis refers to the relative force of
frequently (b), the muscle does not rate. Fused tetanus (d), a smooth muscle contraction.)
have time to completely relax before continuous contraction without any
the next stimulus; contraction force evidence of relaxation, results from a

mitochondria and involves a series of metabolic

CONCEPT LINK pathways that use oxygen. These pathways are col-
Recall that ATP can be compared to a tightly coiled lectively referred to as oxidative phosphorylation.
spring that is ready to uncoil with tremendous energy During aerobic respiration, glucose is broken
when the “catch” is released (Chapter 2, p. 76). down completely to carbon dioxide and water,
Remember that all bonds store energy and that the and some of the energy released as the bonds are
“catch” in this example is one of the characteristic high- broken is captured in the bonds of ATP molecules.
energy phosphate bonds in ATP. Although aerobic respiration provides a rich ATP
harvest (about 32 ATP per 1 glucose), it is fairly
slow and requires continuous delivery of oxygen
Surprisingly, muscles store very limited supplies of and nutrient fuels to the muscle to keep it going.
ATP—only a few seconds’ worth, just enough to get you
• Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid
going. Because ATP is the only energy source that can be
­formation (Figure 6.10c). The initial steps of
used directly to power muscle activity, ATP must be
glucose breakdown occur via a pathway called
regenerated continuously if contraction is to continue.
glycolysis, which does not use oxygen and hence
Working muscles use three pathways to regener-
is anaerobic (literally “without oxygen”). During
ate ATP:
glycolysis, which occurs in the cytosol, glucose
• Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine is broken down to pyruvic acid, and small
phosphate (Figure 6.10a, p. 212). The unique amounts of energy are captured in ATP bonds
high-energy molecule creatine phosphate (2 ATP per 1 glucose molecule). As long as
(CP) is found in muscle fibers but not other cell enough oxygen is present, the pyruvic acid then
types. As ATP is depleted, interactions between enters the oxygen-requiring aerobic pathways
CP and ADP result in transfers of a high-energy that occur within the mitochondria to produce
phosphate group from CP to ADP, thus regen- more ATP as described above. However, when
erating more ATP in a fraction of a second. muscle activity is intense, or oxygen and glucose
Although muscle fibers store perhaps five times delivery is temporarily inadequate to meet the
as much CP as ATP, the CP supplies are also needs of working muscles, the sluggish aerobic
soon exhausted (in less than 15 seconds). pathways cannot keep up with the demands for
• Aerobic pathway (Figure 6.10b). At rest and dur- ATP. Under these conditions, the pyruvic acid
ing light to moderate exercise, some 95 percent of generated during glycolysis is converted to lactic
the ATP used for muscle activity comes from aero- acid, and the overall process is referred to as
bic respiration. Aerobic ­respiration occurs in the anaerobic glycolysis.

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 212 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

(a) Direct phosphorylation (b) Aerobic pathway (c) Anaerobic pathway

Coupled reaction of creatine Aerobic cellular respiration Glycolysis and lactic acid
phosphate (CP) and ADP formation
Energy source: CP Energy source: glucose; pyruvic Energy source: glucose
acid; free fatty acids from adipose
tissue; amino acids from protein
catabolism

P Creatine ADP Glucose (from Glucose (from

glycogen breakdown or glycogen breakdown or
delivered from blood) delivered from blood)

Pyruvic acid Glycolysis

Creatine ATP
Fatty in cytosol
acids O2
Aerobic respiration
Amino in mitochondria 2 ATP
acids Pyruvic acid
net gain
32 ATP
CO2 Released Lactic acid
H2O net gain to blood
per
glucose
Oxygen use: None Oxygen use: Required Oxygen use: None
Products: 1 ATP per CP, Products: 32 ATP per glucose, Products: 2 ATP per glucose,
creatine CO2, H2O lactic acid
Duration of energy provision: Duration of energy provision: Duration of energy provision:
15 seconds Hours 40 seconds, or slightly more

Figure 6.10 Methods of regenerating ATP during muscle activity. eText

The fastest mechanism is (a) direct phosphorylation; the slowest is Mastering A&P > Study Area > Animations
(b) aerobic respiration. & Videos > Interactive Physiology (IP)
Video

Anaerobic glycolysis produces only about 5 per- Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
cent as much ATP from each glucose molecule as Learning Objective
aerobic respiration. However, it is some 2½ times
✓✓ Define oxygen deficit and muscle fatigue, and list
faster, and it can provide most of the ATP needed for possible causes of muscle fatigue.
30 to 40 seconds of strenuous muscle activity.
Anaerobic glycolysis has two main shortcomings: it If we exercise our muscles strenuously for a long
uses huge amounts of glucose for a small ATP har- time, muscle fatigue occurs. A muscle is fatigued
vest, and the accumulating lactic acid promotes when it is unable to contract even though it is still
muscle soreness. being stimulated. Without rest, a working muscle
begins to tire and contracts more weakly until it
finally ceases reacting and stops contracting.
Factors that contribute to muscle fatigue are not
Did You Get It? fully known. Suspected causes are imbalances in
11. What are the three processes used to generate ions (Ca21, K1) and problems at the neuromuscular
energy for skeletal muscle contraction? junction. However, many agree that the major factor
12. What is the direct source of energy used by muscle is the oxygen deficit that occurs during prolonged
fibers for contraction?
For answers, see Appendix A.
muscle activity. Oxygen deficit is not a total lack of
oxygen; rather, it happens when a person is not able

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 213

to take in oxygen fast enough to keep the muscles against some more or less immovable object. For
supplied with all the oxygen they need to continue example, when you push the palms of your hands
aerobic ATP production when they are working vig- together in front of you, your arms and chest mus-
orously. Obviously, then, the work that a muscle can cles are contracting isometrically.
do and how long it can work without becoming
fatigued depend on how good its blood supply is. Muscle Tone
When muscles lack sufficient oxygen for aerobic res- One aspect of skeletal muscle activity cannot be con-
piration, lactic acid begins to accumulate in the mus- sciously controlled. Even when a muscle is volun-
cle via the anaerobic pathway. We can recognize this tarily relaxed, some of its fibers are contracting—first
event by the burning sensation we experience. In one group and then another. These contractions are 6
addition, the muscle’s ATP supply starts to run low, not visible, but thanks to them, the muscle remains
and ionic imbalances tend to occur. Together these firm, healthy, and constantly ready for action. This
factors cause the muscle to contract less and less state of continuous partial contractions is called
effectively and finally to stop contracting altogether. muscle tone. Muscle tone is the result of different
True muscle fatigue, in which the muscle quits motor units, which are scattered through the muscle,
entirely, rarely occurs in most of us because we feel being stimulated by the nervous system in a system-
tired long before it happens and we simply slow down atic way. Think of these motor units as being “on
or stop our activity. It does happen in marathon run- duty” in case action is required.
ners. Many of them have literally collapsed when their
muscles became fatigued and could no longer work.
Oxygen deficit, which always occurs to some Homeostatic
extent during vigorous muscle activity, is like a loan Imbalance 6.2
that must be “paid back” whether fatigue occurs or If the nerve supply to a muscle is destroyed (as in an
not. During the recovery period after activity, the indi- accident), the muscle is no longer stimulated in this
vidual breathes rapidly and deeply. This continues manner, and it loses tone. Soon after, it becomes
until the muscles have received the amount of oxygen flaccid (flă9sid), or soft and flabby, and begins to
needed to get rid of the accumulated lactic acid and atrophy (waste away). This is called flaccid paralysis.
replenish ATP and creatine phosphate reserves. Compare this with a condition that increases muscle
tone until the muscle is no longer controllable—for
Types of Muscle Contractions—Isotonic example, the disease tetanus, which is caused by a
and Isometric bacterial toxin. This is called spastic paralysis.
Until now, we have been discussing contraction in
terms of shortening, but muscles do not always shorten Effect of Exercise on Muscles
when they contract. (I can hear you saying, “What kind
Learning Objective
of double-talk is that?”—but pay attention.) The event
that is common to all muscle contractions is that ten- ✓✓ Describe the effects of aerobic and resistance
­exercise on skeletal muscles and other body organs.
sion (force) develops in the muscle as the myosin cross
bridges attempt to slide the thin actin-containing fila- The amount of work a muscle does changes the mus-
ments past the thick myosin filaments. cle. Muscle inactivity (due to a loss of nerve supply,
Isotonic contractions (literally, “same tone” or immobilization, or whatever the cause) always leads
tension) are familiar to most of us. In isotonic con- to muscle weakness and wasting. Muscles are no
tractions, the myofilaments are successful in their exception to the saying “Use it or lose it!” Conversely,
sliding movements, the muscle shortens, and move- regular exercise increases muscle size, strength, and
ment occurs. Bending the knee, lifting weights, and endurance. However, not all types of exercise pro-
smiling are all examples of isotonic contractions. duce these effects—in fact, there are important dif-
Contractions in which the muscles do not ferences in the benefits of exercise.
shorten are called isometric contractions (literally, Aerobic exercise, or endurance exercise, such
“same measurement” or length). In isometric con- as participating in an aerobics class, jogging, or bik-
tractions, the myosin filaments are “spinning their ing (Figure 6.11a, p. 214), results in stronger, more
wheels,” and the tension in the muscle keeps increas- flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue.
ing. They are trying to slide, but the muscle is pitted

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 214 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

much force as possible. The increased muscle size

and strength that result are due mainly to enlarge-
ment of individual muscle fibers (they make more
contractile myofilaments) rather than to an increase
in their number. The amount of connective tissue
that reinforces the muscle also increases.
Because endurance and resistance exercises pro-
duce different patterns of muscle response, it is
important to know what your exercise goals are.
Lifting weights will not improve your endurance for
a marathon. By the same token, jogging will not
make you stronger for lifting furniture. Obviously,
the best exercise program for most people includes
both types of exercise.

(a) (b) Did You Get It?

Figure 6.11 The effects of aerobic training versus 13. Gary is trying with all his might to pull a tree
strength training. (a) A marathon runner. (b) A stump out of the ground. It does not budge.
weight lifter. Which type of contraction are his muscles
performing?
14. What is meant by the term oxygen deficit?
These changes come about, at least partly, because 15. To develop big skeletal muscles, you should focus
the blood supply to the muscles increases, and the on which type of exercise: aerobic or resistance
individual muscle fibers form more mitochondria exercise?
and store more oxygen. Aerobic exercise helps us For answers, see Appendix A.
reach a steady rate of ATP production and improves
the efficiency of aerobic respiration.
However, aerobic exercise benefits much more 6.4 Muscle Movements, Roles,
than the skeletal muscles. It makes overall body and Names
metabolism more efficient, improves digestion (and
elimination), enhances neuromuscular coordina- Learning Objectives
tion, and strengthens the skeleton. The heart enlarges ✓✓ Define origin, insertion, prime mover, antagonist,
(hypertrophies) and pumps out more blood with each synergist, and fixator as they relate to muscles.
beat, helping to clear more fat deposits from the ✓✓ Demonstrate or identify the different types of
blood vessel walls. The lungs become more efficient body movements.
in gas exchange. These benefits may be permanent or There are five basic guidelines for understanding
temporary, depending on how often and how vigor- gross muscle activity. We refer to these as the Five
ously a person exercises. Golden Rules of skeletal muscle activity because they
Aerobic exercise does not cause the muscles to make it easier to understand muscle movements and
increase much in size, even though the exercise may appreciate muscle interactions (Table 6.2).
go on for hours. The bulging muscles of a profes-
sional bodybuilder result mainly from resistance 6.4a Types of Body Movements
exercise, or isometric exercise (Figure 6.11b), Every one of our 600-odd skeletal muscles is attached
which pit the muscles against an immovable (or dif- to bone, or to other connective tissue structures, at
ficult to move) object. no fewer than two points. One of these points, the
Resistance exercises require very little time and origin, is attached to the immovable or less movable
little or no special equipment. A few minutes every bone (Figure 6.12). Think of the origin as the anchor,
other day is usually sufficient. You can push against or leverage, point. Another point, the insertion, is
a wall, and you can strongly contract buttock mus- attached to the movable bone. When the muscle
cles even while standing in line at the grocery store. contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin.
The key is forcing your muscles to contract with as

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 215

Table 6.2 The Five Golden Rules of

Skeletal Muscle Activity
Muscle
1. With few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross at
contracting
least one joint.
2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies proximal to
the joint crossed.
3. All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: Origin
the origin and the insertion.
6
4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push.
Brachialis

5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle insertion moves

toward the origin.

Some muscles have interchangeable origins and Tendon

insertions, depending on the action being performed. Insertion
For example, the rectus femoris muscle of the ante-
rior thigh crosses both the hip and knee joints. Its
most common action is to extend the knee, in which Figure 6.12 Muscle attachments (origin and
insertion). When a skeletal muscle contracts, its
case the proximal pelvic attachment is the origin.
insertion moves toward its origin.
However, when the knee bends (by other muscles),
the rectus femoris can flex the hip, and then its distal
attachment on the leg is considered the origin. so that your chin points toward the ­ceiling) is
Generally speaking, body movement occurs called hyperextension (Figures 6.13a and 6.13b).
when muscles contract across joints. The type of • Rotation. Rotation is movement of a bone
movement depends on the mobility of the joint and around its longitudinal axis (Figure 6.13c).
the location of the muscle in relation to the joint. Rotation is a common movement of ball-and-
The most obvious examples of the action of muscles socket joints and describes the movement of the
on bones are the movements that occur at the joints atlas around the dens of the axis (as in shaking
of the limbs. However, less freely movable bones are your head “no”).
also tugged into motion by the muscles, such as the • Abduction. Abduction is moving a limb
vertebrae’s movements when we bend to one side. away (generally in the frontal plane) from the
Next we describe the most common types of ­midline, or median plane, of the body (Fig­
body movements (Figure 6.13, pp. 216–217). Try to ure 6.13d). The terminology also applies to the
act out each movement as you read the following fanning movement of your fingers or toes when
descriptions: they are spread apart.
• Flexion. Flexion is a movement, generally in • Adduction. Adduction is the opposite of
the sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of ­abduction, so it is the movement of a limb
the joint and brings two bones closer together toward the body midline (Figure 6.13d). Think
(Figures 6.13a and 6.13b). Flexion is typical of of adduction as “adding” a body part by
hinge joints (bending the knee or elbow), but it ­bringing it closer to the trunk.
is also common at ball-and-socket joints (for
example, bending forward at the hip). • Circumduction. Circumduction is a combina-
tion of flexion, extension, abduction, and
• Extension. Extension is the opposite of flex- adduction commonly seen in ball-and-socket
ion, so it is a movement that increases the angle, joints, such as the shoulder. The proximal end of
or distance, between two bones or parts of the limb is stationary, and its distal end moves
the body (straightening the knee or elbow). in a circle. The limb as a whole outlines a cone
Extension that is greater than 180° (as when (Figure 6.13d), as when you do big arm circles.
you move your arm posteriorly beyond its
­normal anatomical position, or tip your head (Text continues on page 218.)

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 216 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Flexion
Hyperextension

Extension

Flexion

Extension

(a) Flexion, extension, and hyperextension of the shoulder and knee

Hyperextension Extension

Rotation

Flexion

Lateral
rotation

Medial
rotation

(b) Flexion, extension, and hyperextension

Figure 6.13 Body movements. (c) Rotation

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 217

Inversion Eversion 6
Abduction

(f) Inversion and eversion

Adduction Circumduction

Pronation Supination
(radius rotates (radius and ulna
over ulna) are parallel)

(d) Abduction, adduction, and circumduction

P
S

Dorsiflexion

(g) Supination (S) and pronation (P)

Plantar flexion Reference line

Opposition
Dorsiflexion
Point toes up
reduced angle
with tibia

Point toes down,

reduced angle with
imaginary extension Plantar flexion
of leg
(e) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion (h) Opposition

Figure 6.13 (continued)

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 218 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Special Movements each other. Muscles are arranged so that whatever

Certain movements do not fit into any of the previ- one muscle (or group of muscles) can do, other mus-
ous categories and occur at only a few joints. cles can reverse. In general, groups of muscles that
produce opposite movements lie on opposite sides
• Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. Up-and-
of a joint (Figure 6.14). Because of this arrangement,
down movements of the foot at the ankle are
muscles are able to bring about an immense variety
given special names. Lifting the foot so that its
of movements.
superior surface approaches the shin (point-
The muscle that has the major responsibility for
ing your toe toward your head) is dorsiflexion,
causing a particular movement is called the prime
whereas pointing the toes away from your head
mover. Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement
is plantar flexion (Figure 6.13e). Dorsiflexion of
are antagonists (an-tag9o-nists). When a prime
the foot corresponds to extension and hyperex-
mover is active, its antagonist is stretched and
tension of the hand at the wrist, whereas plantar
relaxed. Antagonists can be prime movers in their
flexion of the foot corresponds to flexion of
own right, but for different actions. For example, the
the hand.
biceps brachii and brachialis muscles of the arm
• Inversion and eversion. Inversion and ever- (prime movers of elbow flexion) are antagonized
sion are also special movements of the foot by the triceps brachii (a prime mover of elbow
(Figure 6.13f). To invert the foot, turn the sole extension).
medially, as if you were looking at the bottom Synergists (sin9er-jists; syn = together, erg =
of your foot. To evert the foot, turn the sole work) help prime movers by producing the same
laterally. movement or by reducing undesirable movements.
• Supination and pronation. The terms When a muscle crosses two or more joints, its con-
­supination (soo0pı̆-na9shun; “turning back- traction will cause movement in all the joints crossed
ward”) and pronation (pro-na9shun; “turning unless synergists are there to stabilize them. For
forward”) refer to movements of the radius example, the flexor muscles of the fingers cross both
around the ulna (Figure 6.13g). Supination the wrist and the finger joints. You can make a fist
occurs when the forearm rotates laterally so without bending your wrist because synergist mus-
that the palm faces anteriorly (or up) and the cles stabilize the wrist joints and allow the prime
radius and ulna are parallel, as in anatomical mover to act on your finger joints.
position. Pronation occurs when the forearm Fixators are specialized synergists. They hold a
rotates medially so that the palm faces posteri- bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover so
orly (or down). Pronation brings the radius all the tension can be used to move the insertion
across the ulna so that the two bones form an bone. The postural muscles that stabilize the verte-
X. A helpful memory trick: If you lift a cup of bral column are fixators, as are the muscles that
soup up to your mouth on your palm, you are anchor the scapulae to the thorax.
supinating (“soup”-inating). In summary, although prime movers seem to get
• Opposition. In the palm of the hand, the sad- all the credit for causing certain movements, the
dle joint between metacarpal 1 and the carpals actions of antagonistic and synergistic muscles are
allows opposition of the thumb (Figure 6.13h). also important in producing smooth, coordinated,
This is the action by which you move your and precise movements.
thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers on
the same hand. This unique action makes the
human hand a fine tool for grasping and manip- Did You Get It?
ulating objects. 16. What action is being performed by a person who
sticks out his thumb to hitch a ride?
6.4b Interactions of Skeletal Muscles 17. What actions take place at the neck when you nod
in the Body your head up and down as if saying “yes”?
18. In what way are fixator and synergist muscles
Muscles can’t push—they can only pull as they
important?
contract—so most often body movements result
­ For answers, see Appendix A.
from two or more muscles acting together or against

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 219

(a) A muscle that crosses on the anterior side of a joint produces flexion*

Example:
Pectoralis major
(anterior view)

(b) A muscle that crosses on the posterior side of a joint produces extension*

Example: Latissimus
dorsi (posterior view)
The latissimus dorsi
is the antagonist of
the pectoralis major.

(c) A muscle that crosses on the lateral side of a joint produces abduction

Example: Deltoid
middle fibers
(anterolateral
view)

(d) A muscle that crosses on the medial side of a joint produces adduction

Example:
Teres major
(posterolateral view)
The teres major is
the antagonist of
the deltoid.

* These generalities are reversed for the knee and ankle because the lower limb is rotated during development.
The muscles that cross these joints posteriorly produce flexion, and those that cross anteriorly produce extension.

Figure 6.14 Muscle action. The action of a muscle can be inferred by the eText
muscle’s position as it crosses a joint. Mastering A&P > Study Area >
Animations & Videos > A&P Flix
Video

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 220 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

6.4c Naming Skeletal Muscles • Action of the muscle. When muscles are
Learning Objective
named for their actions, terms such as flexor,
extensor, and adductor appear in their names. For
✓✓ List seven criteria used in naming muscles. example, the adductor muscles of the thigh all
Like bones, muscles come in many shapes and sizes bring about its adduction, and the extensor
to suit their particular tasks in the body. Muscles are muscles of the wrist all extend the wrist.
named on the basis of several criteria, each of which
focuses on a particular structural or functional char-
6.4d Arrangement of Fascicles
acteristic. Paying close attention to these cues can Skeletal muscles consist of fascicles (refer to Fig­
greatly simplify your task of learning muscle names ure 6.1), but fascicle arrangements vary, producing
and actions: muscles with different structures and functional prop-
erties. Next, let’s look at the most common patterns of
• Direction of the muscle fibers. Some mus-
fascicle arrangement: circular, convergent, fusiform,
cles are named in reference to some imaginary
parallel, multipennate, bipennate, and unipennate.
line, usually the midline of the body or the long
In a circular pattern, the fascicles are arranged in
axis of a limb bone. When a muscle’s name
concentric rings (Figure 6.15a). Circular muscles are
includes the term rectus (straight), its fibers or
typically found surrounding external body openings
whole structure run parallel to that imaginary
which they close by contracting, creating a valve.
line. For example, the rectus femoris is the
A general term for such muscles is sphincters
straight muscle of the thigh. Similarly, the term
(“­squeezers”). Examples are the orbicularis muscles
oblique in a muscle’s name tells you that the
surrounding the eyes and mouth.
muscle fibers run obliquely (at a slant) to the
In a convergent muscle, the fascicles converge
imaginary line.
toward a single insertion tendon. A convergent mus-
• Relative size of the muscle. Such terms as cle is triangular or fan-shaped, such as the pectoralis
­maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), and longus major muscle of the anterior thorax (Figure 6.15b).
(long) are sometimes used in the names of In a parallel arrangement, the length of the fas-
­muscles—for example, the gluteus maximus is cicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle, as in
the largest muscle of the gluteus muscle group. the sartorius of the anterior thigh. These muscles
• Location of the muscle. Some muscles are are straplike (Figure 6.15d). A modification of the
named for the bone with which they are associ- ­parallel arrangement, called fusiform, results in a
ated. For example, the temporalis and frontalis spindle-shaped muscle with an expanded belly
­
muscles overlie the temporal and frontal bones (midsection) and tapered ends. An example is the
of the skull, respectively. Note the spellings! biceps brachii muscle of the arm (Figure 6.15c).
• Number of origins. When the term biceps, In a pennate (pen9ˉat; “feather”) pattern, short fas-
­triceps, or quadriceps forms part of a muscle cicles attach obliquely to a central tendon. In the
name, you can assume that the muscle has two, extensor digitorum muscle of the leg, the fascicles
three, or four origins, respectively. For example, insert into only one side of the tendon, and the muscle
the biceps muscle of the arm has two heads, or is unipennate (Figure 6.15g). If the fascicles insert into
origins, and the triceps muscle has three. opposite sides of the tendon, the muscle is bipennate
(Figure 6.15f). If the fascicles insert from several differ-
• Location of the muscle’s origin and inser-
ent sides, the muscle is multipennate (Figure 6.15e).
tion. Occasionally, muscles are named for their
A muscle’s fascicle arrangement determines its
attachment sites. For example, the sternocleido-
range of motion and power. The longer and the
mastoid muscle has its origin on the sternum
more nearly parallel the fascicles are to a muscle’s
(sterno) and clavicle (cleido) and inserts on the
long axis, the more the muscle can shorten, but such
mastoid process of the temporal bone.
muscles are not usually very powerful. Muscle power
• Shape of the muscle. Some muscles have a depends more on the total number of muscle fibers
­distinctive shape that helps to identify them. For in the muscle. The stocky bipennate and multipen-
example, the deltoid muscle is roughly triangu- nate muscles, which pack in the most fibers, shorten
lar (deltoid means “triangular”), like the Greek very little but are very powerful, like the rectus femo-
letter delta (Δ). ris of the anterior thigh.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 221

(a)
(e)
(b)
(c)
(a) Circular (b) Convergent (e) Multipennate
(orbicularis oris) (pectoralis major) (deltoid)
6

(d)
(f)

(f) Bipennate
(rectus
(g) femoris)

(c) Fusiform (d) Parallel (g) Unipennate

(biceps brachii) (sartorius) (extensor digitorum longus)

Figure 6.15 Relationship of fascicle arrangement to muscle structure.

are usually grouped into two large categories—facial

Did You Get It? muscles and chewing muscles. Facial muscles are
19. Based on their names, deduce some characteristics of unique because they insert into soft tissues, such as
the following muscles: tibialis anterior, erector spinae,
other muscles or skin. When they pull on the skin of
rectus abdominis, extensor carpi radialis longus.
20. What is the fascicle arrangement of the orbicularis the face, they permit us to express ourselves by frown-
oris muscle? ing, smiling, and so forth. The chewing muscles
For answers, see Appendix A. begin to break down food for the body. All head and
neck muscles we describe are paired except for the
platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis, and occipitalis.
6.5 Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Facial Muscles
Muscles Frontalis and Occipitalis The frontalis, which cov-
Learning Objective ers the frontal bone, runs from the cranial aponeuro-
sis to the skin of the eyebrows, where it inserts. This
✓✓ Name and locate the major muscles of the
human body (on a torso model, muscle chart, muscle allows you to raise your eyebrows, as in sur-
or diagram), and state the action of each. prise, and to wrinkle your forehead. At the posterior
end of the cranial aponeurosis is the small occipita-
It is beyond the scope of this book to describe the lis muscle, which covers the posterior aspect of the
hundreds of skeletal muscles of the human body. We skull and pulls the scalp posteriorly.*
describe only the most important muscles here. All
the superficial muscles we consider are summarized Orbicularis Oculi The fibers of the orbicularis oculi
in Tables 6.3 and 6.4 (pp. 234–235) and illustrated (or-bik0u-la9ris ok9u-li) run in circles around the
in the overall body views shown later in the chapter
(Figures 6.22 and 6.23, pp. 232–233).
*Although the current references on anatomic terminology
6.5a Head and Neck Muscles refer to the frontalis and occipitalis as the frontal and occipital
The head muscles (Figure 6.16, p. 222) are an inter- bellies of the epicranius (“over the cranium”) muscle, we will
continue to use the terms frontalis and occipitalis here.
esting group. They have many specific functions but

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 222 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Cranial
Frontalis aponeurosis

Temporalis
Orbicularis
oculi Occipitalis

Zygomaticus

Buccinator
Masseter

Orbicularis
oris Sternocleidomastoid

Trapezius
Platysma

Figure 6.16 Superficial muscles of the head and neck.

eyes. It allows you to close your eyes, squint, blink, Temporalis The temporalis is a fan-shaped muscle
and wink. overlying the temporal bone. It inserts into the man-
dible and acts as a synergist of the masseter in clos-
Orbicularis Oris The orbicularis oris is the circular ing the jaw.
muscle of the lips. Often called the “kissing” muscle,
it closes the mouth and protrudes the lips. Neck Muscles
For the most part, the neck muscles, which move the
Buccinator The fleshy buccinator (buck9sı̆-na0tor) head and shoulder girdle, are small and straplike. We
muscle runs horizontally across the cheek and inserts consider only two neck muscles here (Figure 6.16).
into the orbicularis oris. It flattens the cheek (as in
whistling or blowing a trumpet). It is also listed as a Platysma The platysma is a single sheetlike muscle
chewing muscle because it compresses the cheek to that covers the anterolateral neck (see Figure 6.16). It
hold food between the teeth during chewing. originates from the connective tissue covering of the
chest muscles and inserts into the area around the
Zygomaticus The zygomaticus (zi0go-mat9i-kus) mouth. Its action is to pull the corners of the mouth
extends from the corner of the mouth to the cheek- inferiorly, producing a downward sag of the mouth
bone. It is often referred to as the “smiling” muscle (the “sad clown” face).
because it raises the corners of the mouth.
Sternocleidomastoid The paired sternocleidomas-
Masseter As it runs from the zygomatic process of toid (ster0no-kli0do-mas9toid) muscles are two-
the temporal bone to the mandible, the masseter headed muscles, one found on each side of the neck.
(mă-se9ter) covers the angle of the lower jaw. This Of the two heads of each muscle, one arises from the
muscle elevates the mandible to close the jaw. sternum, and the other arises from the clavicle (see

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 222 16/03/21 12:51

 Learn more at Mastering A&P > Study Area >
Additional Study Tools > A Closer Look A
CLOSER
Anabolic Steroids: LOOK
Dying to Win?
S ome people who feel the pressure
to look and perform their best turn
to performance-enhancing drugs. Ana-
muscle mass, strength, and oxygen-
carrying capacity of the blood.
Do the claimed slight advantages
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a deeper voice, become infertile, and
have an increased risk of osteoporosis.
bolic steroids are variants of testoster- conferred by steroids outweigh their It is also increasingly clear that steroids
one, the hormone responsible for the risks? Absolutely not! Side effects can be addictive and lead to serious
changes during puberty that usher boys from steroid use vary but include psychological issues such as depres-
into manhood. The most notable effect increased risk of heart attack and sion, delusions, paranoia, and aggres-
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mass. Anabolic steroids were introduced enlarged heart, dangerous changes in rage.”
in the 1950s to treat certain muscle- cholesterol levels, fluid retention, and
wasting diseases, anemia, and muscle acne. Adolescents can experience The Essentials
atrophy in patients immobilized after stunted growth and early onset of
surgery, and they puberty. Gender- • Anabolic steroids are versions
became available to specific side effects of the male sex hormone
the general public can also occur: ­testosterone.
during the 1980s. Men may experi- • Serious side effects of steroid
Although most ence baldness, use include increased risk of
international athletic breast enlarge- heart attack and stroke.
competitions and ment, and shrink- • Gender-specific risks include
leagues have banned ing testicles, with shrinking testicles in men and
anabolic steroids, an increased risk of infertility and facial hair in
some athletes still prostate cancer. women.
claim they increase Women may grow

Figure 6.22, p. 232). The heads fuse before inserting 6.5b Trunk Muscles
into the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The trunk muscles include (1) muscles that move the
When both sternocleidomastoid muscles contract vertebral column (most of which are posterior anti-
together, they flex your neck. (It is this action of bow- gravity muscles); (2) anterior thorax muscles, which
ing the head that has led some people to call these move the ribs, head, and arms; and (3) muscles of
muscles the “prayer” muscles.) If just one muscle the abdominal wall, which “hold your guts in” by
contracts, the face is rotated toward the shoulder on forming a natural girdle and help to move the verte-
the opposite side and tilts the head to its own side. bral column.

Homeostatic Anterior Muscles (Figure 6.17, p. 224)

Imbalance 6.3 Pectoralis Major The pectoralis (pek0to-ra9lis) major
In some difficult births, one of the sternocleidomas- is a large fan-shaped muscle covering the upper part of
toid muscles may be injured and develop spasms. A the chest. Its origin is from the sternum, shoulder
baby injured in this way has torticollis (tor0ti-kol9is), girdle, and the first six ribs. It inserts on the proximal
or wryneck, and the neck remains rotated toward one end of the humerus. This muscle forms the anterior
side. wall of the axilla (armpit) and acts to adduct and flex
the arm.

Did You Get It? Intercostal Muscles The intercostal muscles are deep
21. Which muscle raises your eyebrow? muscles found between the ribs. (Although they are
22. Which two muscles are synergists in closing your jaw? not shown in Figure 6.17, which shows only
For answers, see Appendix A.

223

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 224 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Clavicle

Deltoid
Pectoralis
major
Sternum

Pectoralis
major Rectus
abdominis
Transversus
Biceps
abdominis
brachii
Internal
Brachialis oblique
External
Brachio- oblique
radialis
Aponeurosis

(a) (b)
Figure 6.17 Muscles of the anterior trunk, shoulder, and arm. (a) Muscles
crossing the shoulder joint, causing movements of the arm. The platysma of the
neck is removed. (b) Muscles of the abdominal wall. Portions of the superficial
muscles of the right side of the abdomen are cut away to reveal the deeper muscles.

superficial muscles, they are illustrated in Figure 6.22, • Rectus abdominis. The paired straplike rectus
p. 232.) The external intercostals, which lie toward the abdominis muscles are the most superficial
lateral edge of the rib cage, are important in breathing muscles of the abdomen. They run from the
because they help to raise the rib cage when you pubis to the rib cage, enclosed in an aponeuro-
inhale. The internal intercostals, which lie deep and sis. Their main function is to flex the vertebral
medial to the external intercostals, depress the rib cage, column. They also compress the abdominal con-
helping to move air out of the lungs when you exhale tents during defecation and childbirth (they
forcibly. help you “push”) and are involved in forced
breathing.
Muscles of the Abdominal Girdle The anterior ab- • External oblique. The external oblique muscles
dominal muscles (rectus abdominis, external and are paired superficial muscles that make up the
internal obliques, and transversus abdominis) form lateral walls of the abdomen. Their fibers run
a natural “girdle” that reinforces the body trunk. downward and medially from the last eight ribs
Taken together, they resemble the structure of ply- and insert into the ilium. Like the rectus abdomi-
wood because the fibers of each muscle or muscle nis, together they flex the vertebral column, but
pair run in a different direction. Just as plywood is individually they also rotate the trunk and bend
exceptionally strong for its thickness, the abdominal it laterally.
muscles form a muscular wall that is well suited for
• Internal oblique. The internal oblique muscles
its job of containing and protecting the abdominal
are paired muscles deep to the external obliques.
contents.
Their fibers run at right angles to those of the

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 224 16/03/21 12:51

 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 225

Occipital bone
Sternocleidomastoid
Spine of scapula C7
Trapezius Deltoid (cut) T1
Deltoid

6
Triceps Erector spinae
brachii • Iliocostalis
Latissimus • Longissimus
dorsi • Spinalis

Quadratus
Humerus lumborum
Olecranon
process of
(a) ulna (deep (b)
to tendon)
Figure 6.18 Muscles of the posterior neck, trunk, and arm. (a) Superficial
muscles. (b) The erector spinae muscles (longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis), deep
muscles of the back.

external obliques. They arise from the iliac crest Latissimus Dorsi The latissimus (lah-tis9ı̆-mus) dorsi
and insert into the last three ribs. Their functions muscles are the two large, flat muscles that cover the
are the same as those of the external obliques. lower back. They originate on the lower spine and
• Transversus abdominis. The deepest muscle ilium and then sweep superiorly to insert into the
of the abdominal wall, the transversus abdominis proximal end of the humerus. Each latissimus dorsi
has fibers that run horizontally across the abdo- extends and adducts the humerus. These are very
men. It arises from the lower ribs and iliac crest important muscles when the arm must be brought
and inserts into the pubis. This muscle com- down in a power stroke, as when swimming or striking
presses the abdominal contents like a wide belt. a blow.

Posterior Muscles (Figure 6.18) Erector Spinae The erector spinae (e-rek9tor spi9ne)
Trapezius The trapezius (trah-pe9ze-us) muscles group is the prime mover of back extension. These
are the most superficial muscles of the posterior paired muscles are deep muscles of the back
neck and upper trunk. When seen together, they (Figure 6.18b). Each erector spinae is a composite
form a diamond- or kite-shaped muscle mass. Their muscle consisting of three muscle columns (longis-
origin is very broad. Each muscle runs from the simus, iliocostalis, and spinalis) that collectively
occipital bone of the skull down the vertebral col- span the entire length of the vertebral column.
umn to the end of the thoracic vertebrae. They then These muscles not only act as powerful back exten-
flare laterally to insert on the scapular spine and sors (“erectors”) but also provide resistance that
clavicle. The trapezius muscles extend the head (thus helps control the action of bending over at the
they are antagonists of the sternocleidomastoids). waist. Following injury to back structures, these
They also can elevate, depress, adduct, and stabilize muscles go into spasms, a common source of lower
the scapula. back pain.

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 226 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

6.5c Muscles of the Upper Limb

The upper limb muscles fall into three groups. The
first group includes muscles that arise from the
shoulder girdle and cross the shoulder joint to insert
Deltoid into the humerus (see Figures 6.17 and 6.18a). We
muscle
have already considered these muscles, which move
the arm—they are the pectoralis major, latissimus
dorsi, and deltoid.
The second group causes movement at the elbow
joint. These muscles enclose the humerus and insert
on the forearm bones. In this section we will focus
on the muscles of this second group.
The third group of upper limb muscles includes
Humerus the muscles of the forearm, which insert on the hand
bones and cause their movement. The muscles of
this last group are thin and spindle-shaped, and
there are many of them. We will not consider them
here except to mention their general naming and
function. As a rule, the forearm muscles have names
Figure 6.19 The fleshy deltoid muscle is a favored
that reflect their activities. For example, the flexor
site for administering intramuscular injections.
carpi and flexor digitorum muscles, found on the
anterior aspect of the forearm, flex the wrist and fin-
Quadratus Lumborum The fleshy quadratus lum- gers, respectively. The extensor carpi and extensor
borum (qwad-ra9tus lum-bor9um) muscles form digitorum muscles, found on the lateral and poste-
part of the posterior abdominal wall. Acting sepa- rior aspect of the forearm, extend the same struc-
rately, each muscle of the pair flexes the spine later- tures. (Table 6.4 and Figure 6.23 briefly describe
ally. Acting together, they extend the lumbar spine. some of these muscles; see pp. 233, 235).
These muscles arise from the iliac crests and insert
Muscles Causing Movement at the Elbow Joint
into the upper lumbar vertebrae (Figure 6.18b).
All anterior muscles of the humerus cause elbow flex-
Deltoid The deltoids are fleshy, triangle-shaped ion. In order of decreasing strength these are the bra-
muscles that form the rounded shape of your shoul- chialis, biceps brachii, and brachioradialis (Figures
ders. Because they are so bulky, they are a favorite 6.17a and 6.22, p. 232).
injection site (Figure 6.19) when relatively small
amounts of medication (less than 5 ml) must be Biceps Brachii The biceps brachii (bra9ke-i) is the
given intramuscularly (into muscle). The origin of most familiar muscle of the arm because it bulges
each deltoid winds across the shoulder girdle from when you flex your elbow (see Figure 6.17a). It
the spine of the scapula to the clavicle. It inserts into originates by two heads from the shoulder girdle
the proximal humerus. The deltoids are the prime and inserts into the radial tuberosity. This muscle is
movers of arm abduction. a powerful prime mover for flexion of the forearm
and acts to supinate the forearm. The best way to
remember its actions is to think of opening a bot-
Did You Get It? tle of wine. The biceps supinates the forearm to
23. Which muscle group is the prime mover of back turn the corkscrew and then flexes the elbow to pull
extension? the cork.
24. What structural feature makes the abdominal
musculature especially strong for its thickness?
Brachialis The brachialis lies deep to the biceps
25. Which muscle of the posterior trunk is the
synergist of the pectoralis major muscle in brachii and, like the biceps, is a prime mover in
arm adduction? elbow flexion. The brachialis lifts the ulna as the
For answers, see Appendix A. biceps lifts the radius.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 227

Brachioradialis The brachioradialis is a fairly weak that forms most of the flesh of the buttock
muscle that arises on the humerus and inserts into the (Figure 6.20a). It is a powerful hip extensor that
distal forearm (see Figure 6.22, p. 232). Hence, it acts to bring the thigh in a straight line with the
resides mainly in the forearm and aids elbow flexion. pelvis. Although it is not very important in walk-
ing, it is probably the most important muscle for
Triceps Brachii The triceps brachii is the only mus- extending the hip when power is needed, as when
cle fleshing out the posterior humerus (see Fig­ climbing stairs or jumping. It originates from the
ure 6.18a). Its three heads arise from the shoulder sacrum and iliac bones and inserts on the gluteal
girdle and proximal humerus, and it inserts into the tuberosity of the femur and into the large tendi-
olecranon process of the ulna. Being the powerful nous iliotibial tract. 6
prime mover of elbow extension, it is the antagonist
of the biceps brachii and brachialis. This muscle Gluteus Medius The gluteus medius runs from the
straightens the arm—for instance, to deliver a strong ilium to the femur, beneath the gluteus maximus for
jab in boxing. most of its length. The gluteus medius is a hip abduc-
tor and is important in steadying the pelvis during
6.5d Muscles of the Lower Limb walking. It is also an important site for giving intra-
Muscles that act on the lower limb cause movement muscular injections, particularly when administering
at the hip, knee, ankle, and foot joints. They are more than 5 ml (Figure 6.20b). Although it might
among the largest, strongest muscles in the body and appear that the large, fleshy gluteus maximus that
are specialized for walking and balancing the body. forms the bulk of the buttock mass would be a better
Because the pelvic girdle is composed of heavy, fused choice, note that the medial part of each buttock over-
bones that allow little movement, no special group lies the large sciatic nerve; hence this area must be care-
of muscles is necessary to stabilize it. This is very dif- fully avoided to prevent nerve damage. This can be
ferent from the shoulder girdle, which requires sev- accomplished by imagining the buttock is divided
eral fixator muscles. into four equal quadrants (shown by the division
Many muscles of the lower limb span two joints lines on Figure 6.20b). The superolateral quadrant
and can cause movement at both of them. Therefore, then overlies the gluteus medius muscle, which is usu-
in reference to these muscles, the terms origin and ally a very safe site for an intramuscular injection.
insertion are often interchangeable depending on the Injections at or near the sciatic nerve can result in
action being performed. physical trauma from the needle or degeneration of
Muscles acting on the thigh are massive mus- the nerve itself.
cles that help hold the body upright against the
pull of gravity and cause various movements at the Iliopsoas The iliopsoas (il0e-o-so9as; the p is silent)
hip joint. Muscles acting on the leg form the flesh is a fused muscle composed of two muscles, the ilia-
of the thigh. (Remember, anatomically the term cus and the psoas major (Figure 6.20c). It runs from
leg refers only to that part between the knee and the iliac bone and lower vertebrae deep inside the
the ankle.) The thigh muscles cross the knee and pelvis to insert on the lesser trochanter of the femur.
cause its flexion or extension. Because many of the It is a prime mover of hip flexion. It also acts to keep
thigh muscles also have attachments on the pelvic the upper body from falling backward when we are
girdle, they can cause movement at the hip joint standing erect.
as well.
Muscles originating on the leg cause assorted Adductor Muscles The muscles of the adductor
movements of the ankle and foot. We will consider group form the muscle mass at the medial side of
only three muscles of this group, but there are many each thigh (Figure 6.20c). As their name indicates,
others that extend and flex the ankle and toe joints. they adduct, or press, the thighs together. However,
because gravity does most of the work for them, they
Muscles Causing Movement at the Hip Joint tend to become flabby very easily. Special exercises
(Figure 6.20, pp. 228–229) are usually needed to keep them toned. The adduc-
Gluteus Maximus The gluteus maximus (gloo9te- tors have their origin on the pelvis and insert on the
us max9ı̆-mus) is a superficial muscle of the hip proximal aspect of the femur.

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 227 16/03/21 12:51

 228 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Posterior superior
iliac spine

Iliac crest
Gluteus medius

Gluteus maximus Safe area in

gluteus medius

Gluteus maximus

Adductor
magnus Sciatic nerve

Iliotibial tract

(b)
Biceps femoris

Semitendinosus Hamstring group

Semimembranosus

Gastrocnemius

(a)
Figure 6.20 Pelvic, hip, and thigh muscles of the right side of the body.
(a) Posterior view of hip and thigh muscles. (b) Diagram showing deep structures of
the gluteal region and the proper site for administering an injection into the gluteus
medius muscle.

Muscles Causing Movement at the Knee Joint the fact that butchers use their tendons to hang hams
(Figure 6.20) (consisting of thigh and hip muscles) for smoking.
Hamstring Group The muscles forming the mus- You can feel these tendons at the back of your knee.
cle mass of the posterior thigh are the hamstrings
(Figure 6.20a). The group consists of three ­muscles— Sartorius Compared with other thigh muscles
the biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendino- described here, the thin, straplike sartorius (sar-to9re-
sus—which originate on the ischial tuberosity and us) muscle is not too important. However, it is the
run down the thigh to insert on both sides of the most superficial muscle of the thigh and so is rather
proximal tibia. They are prime movers of thigh hard to miss (Figure 6.20c). It runs obliquely across
extension and knee flexion. Their name comes from the thigh from the anterior iliac crest to the medial

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 228 16/03/21 12:52

 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 229

Q  hat is the insertion for the rectus femoris during hip flexion: the pelvis or the
W
tibial tuberosity? Which is the insertion during knee extension?

12th
thoracic vertebra
12th rib

Iliac crest
Psoas major
Iliopsoas
Iliacus 5th
lumbar vertebra

Anterior superior
iliac spine

Inguinal
ligament
Sartorius
Adductor
group Adductor
muscles
Rectus femoris
Sartorius
Quadriceps*

Vastus lateralis

Vastus
lateralis

Vastus medialis

Patella
(d)
Patellar
Figure 6.20 (continued) (c) Anterior view of
ligament
pelvic and thigh muscles. (d) Diagram showing
the proper site for administering an injection into
the lateral thigh (vastus lateralis muscle). *Note
that the fourth quadriceps muscle, the vastus
(c) intermedius, is deep to the rectus femoris.

insertion is the tibial tuberosity.

A
flexion is the pelvis, and during knee extension, the
The insertion for the rectus femoris during hip

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 229 16/03/21 12:52

 230 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Fibularis longus Gastrocnemius

Tibia
Fibularis brevis
Soleus
Tibialis anterior
Extensor digitorum
longus

Fibularis tertius
Soleus

Calcaneal (Achilles)
tendon

Medial malleolus
Lateral
malleolus

(a) (b)

Figure 6.21 Superficial muscles of the right leg. (a) Anterior view.
(b) Posterior view.

side of the tibia. It is a weak thigh flexor. The sarto- patellar ligament. The group as a whole acts to
rius is commonly referred to as the “tailor’s” muscle extend the knee powerfully, as when kicking a soccer
because it acts as a synergist to help tailors sit with ball. Because the rectus femoris crosses two joints,
both legs crossed in front of them. the hip and knee, it can also help to flex the hip. The
vastus lateralis and rectus femoris are sometimes
Quadriceps Group The quadriceps (kwod9rı̆-seps) used as intramuscular injection sites (Figure 6.20d),
group consists of four muscles—the rectus femoris particularly in infants, who have poorly developed
and three vastus muscles—that flesh out the anterior gluteus muscles.
thigh. (Only two vastus muscles are visible in
Figure 6.20c. The third, the vastus intermedius, is Muscles Causing Movement at the Ankle
obscured by the rectus femoris muscle, which lies and Foot (Figure 6.21)
over it.) The vastus muscles originate from the Tibialis Anterior The tibialis anterior is a superfi-
femur; the rectus femoris originates on the pelvis. All cial muscle on the anterior leg. It arises from the
four muscles insert into the tibial tuberosity via the proximal tibia and then parallels the anterior crest as

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 230 16/03/21 12:52

 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 231

it runs to the tarsal bones, where it inserts by a long 6.6 Developmental Aspects
tendon. It acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot.
of the Muscular System
Extensor Digitorum Longus Lateral to the tibialis
Learning Objectives
anterior, the extensor digitorum longus muscle arises
from the lateral tibial condyle and proximal three- ✓✓ Explain the importance of a nerve supply and
exercise in keeping muscles healthy.
quarters of the fibula and inserts into the phalanges
✓✓ Describe the changes that occur in aging muscles.
of toes 2 to 5. It is a prime mover of toe extension.
In the developing embryo, the muscular system is 6
Fibularis Muscles The three fibularis muscles— laid down in segments, and then each segment is
longus, brevis, and tertius—are found on the lateral invaded by nerves. The muscles of the thoracic and
part of the leg. They arise from the fibula and insert lumbar regions become very extensive because they
into the metatarsal bones of the foot. The group as a must cover and move the bones of the limbs. The
whole plantar flexes and everts the foot, which is muscles and their control by the nervous system
antagonistic to the tibialis anterior. develop rather early in pregnancy. The expectant
mother is often astonished by the first movements
Gastrocnemius The gastrocnemius (gas0trok- (called the quickening) of the fetus, which usually
ne9me-us) muscle is a two-bellied muscle that forms occur by the 16th week of pregnancy.
the curved calf of the posterior leg. It arises by two
heads, one from each side of the distal femur, and
inserts through the large calcaneal (Achilles) tendon Homeostatic
into the heel of the foot. It is a prime mover for plan- Imbalance 6.4
tar flexion of the foot; for this reason it is often Very few congenital muscular problems occur. The
called the “toe dancer’s” muscle. If the calcaneal ten- exception to this is muscular dystrophy—a group
don is severely damaged or cut, walking is very diffi- of inherited muscle-destroying diseases that affect
cult. The foot drags because it is not able to “push specific muscle groups. The muscles appear to
off” the toe (raise the heel). enlarge because of fat and connective tissue deposits,
but the muscle fibers degenerate and atrophy.
Soleus Deep to the gastrocnemius is the fleshy The most common and serious form is
soleus muscle. Because it arises on the tibia and fib- Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy, which is
ula (rather than the femur), it does not affect knee expressed almost exclusively in boys. This tragic dis-
movement, but like the gastrocnemius, it inserts into ease is usually diagnosed between the ages of 2 and
the calcaneal tendon and is a strong plantar flexor of 7 years. Active, normal-appearing children become
the foot. clumsy and fall frequently as their muscles weaken.
Figure 6.22 (p. 232) and Figure 6.23 (p. 233) The disease progresses from the extremities upward,
show anterior and posterior views of the whole body, finally affecting the head and chest muscles. Children
including most of the superficial muscles we have with this disease rarely live beyond their early twen-
described. Table 6.3 (p. 234) and Table 6.4 (p. 235) ties and generally die of respiratory failure. Although
summarize these muscles. Take time to review these researchers have identified the cause of muscular
muscles again before continuing with this chapter. dystrophy—the diseased muscle fibers lack a protein
(called dystrophin) that helps maintain the sarco-
lemma—a cure is still elusive.
Did You Get It?
26. Which muscle is the antagonist of the biceps
brachii when the biceps flexes the elbow?
27. Which muscle group is the antagonist of the After birth, a baby’s movements are all gross
hamstring muscles? reflex types of movements. Because the nervous sys-
28. What are two good sites for intramuscular tem must mature before the baby can control mus-
injections in adults? cles, we can track nervous system function by
29. Which two muscles insert into the calcaneal observing a baby’s development of muscle control.
tendon? What movement do they effect?
This development proceeds in a superior/inferior
For answers, see Appendix A.
(Text continues on page 236.)

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 232 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Facial
• Frontalis
Facial
• Orbicularis oculi
• Temporalis
• Zygomaticus
• Masseter • Orbicularis oris
Neck
Shoulder
• Platysma
• Trapezius • Sternocleidomastoid
Thorax
• Deltoid • Pectoralis minor
• Pectoralis major
Arm • Serratus anterior
• Triceps brachii
• Biceps brachii • Intercostals
• Brachialis
Abdomen
• Rectus abdominis
Forearm • External oblique
• Brachioradialis
• Internal oblique
• Flexor carpi radialis
• Transversus abdominis

Pelvis/thigh
• Iliopsoas

Thigh
• Sartorius
• Adductor muscles
Thigh (Quadriceps)
• Rectus femoris
• Vastus lateralis
• Vastus medialis
• Vastus intermedius (not shown,
deep to rectus femoris)

Leg
• Fibularis longus
• Extensor digitorum longus Leg
• Gastrocnemius
• Tibialis anterior
• Soleus

Figure 6.22 Major superficial

muscles of the anterior
surface of the body.

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 233

Figure 6.23 Major superficial muscles

of the posterior surface of the body.
Neck
• Occipitalis

• Sternocleidomastoid

• Trapezius

6
Shoulder/Back
• Deltoid
Arm
• Triceps brachii
• Brachialis
• Latissimus dorsi
Forearm
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor carpi radialis
longus
• Flexor carpi ulnaris
• Extensor carpi ulnaris Hip
• Extensor digitorum • Gluteus medius

• Gluteus maximus

Thigh
Iliotibial tract
• Adductor muscle
• Hamstrings:
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus

Leg
• Gastrocnemius

• Soleus

• Fibularis longus

Calcaneal
(Achilles)
tendon

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 234 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Table 6.3 Superficial Anterior Muscles of the Body (See Figure 6.22)
Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Head/neck muscles

Frontalis Cranial aponeurosis Skin of eyebrows Raises eyebrows

Orbicularis oculi Frontal bone and maxilla Tissue around eyes Blinks and closes eye
Orbicularis oris Mandible and maxilla Skin and muscle around Closes and protrudes lips
mouth
Temporalis Temporal bone Mandible Closes jaw
Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Skin and muscle at corner Raises corner of mouth
of lips
Masseter Temporal bone Mandible Closes jaw
Buccinator Maxilla and mandible near Orbicularis oris Compresses cheek (as
molars in sucking); holds food
between teeth during
chewing
Sternocleidomastoid Sternum and clavicle Temporal bone (mastoid Flexes neck; laterally rotates
process) head
Platysma Connective tissue covering Tissue around mouth Tenses skin of neck (as in
of superior chest muscles shaving)
Trunk muscles

Pectoralis major Sternum, clavicle, and first Proximal humerus Adducts and flexes humerus
to sixth ribs
Rectus abdominis Pubis Sternum and fifth to Flexes vertebral column
seventh ribs
External oblique Lower eight ribs Iliac crest Flexes and rotates vertebral
column
Arm/shoulder muscles

Biceps brachii Scapula of shoulder girdle Proximal radius Flexes elbow and supinates
forearm
Brachialis Distal humerus Proximal ulna Flexes elbow
Deltoid (See Table 6.4) Abducts arm
Hip/thigh/leg muscles

Iliopsoas Ilium and lumbar vertebrae Femur (lesser trochanter) Flexes hip
Adductor muscles Pelvis Proximal femur Adduct and medially rotate
thigh
Sartorius Ilium Proximal tibia Flexes thigh on hip
Quadriceps group (vastus Vasti: femur Tibial tuberosity via patellar All extend knee; rectus
medialis, intermedius, and ligament femoris also flexes hip on
lateralis; and the rectus Rectus femoris: pelvis Tibial tuberosity via patellar thigh
femoris) ligament
Tibialis anterior Proximal tibia First cuneiform (tarsal) and Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
first metatarsal of foot
Extensor digitorum longus Proximal tibia and fibula Distal toes 2–5 Extends toes
Fibularis muscles Fibula Metatarsals of foot Plantar flex and evert foot

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 235

Table 6.4 Superficial Posterior Muscles of the Body (Some Forearm Muscles Also Shown)
(See Figure 6.23)
Name Origin Insertion Primary action(s)

Head/Neck/trunk/shoulder muscles

Occipitalis Occipital and temporal Cranial aponeurosis Fixes aponeurosis and pulls
bones scalp posteriorly
Trapezius Occipital bone and all Scapular spine and clavicle Raises, retracts, and rotates
cervical and thoracic scapula 6
vertebrae
Latissimus dorsi Lower spine and iliac crest Proximal humerus Extends and adducts
humerus
Erector spinae* Iliac crests, ribs 3–12, and Ribs, thoracic and cervical Extends and laterally flexes
vertebrae vertebrae spine
Quadratus lumborum* Iliac crest, lumbar fascia Transverse processes of Flexes spine laterally;
upper lumbar vertebrae extends spine
Deltoid Scapular spine and clavicle Humerus (deltoid Abducts humerus
tuberosity)

Arm/forearm muscles

Triceps brachii Shoulder girdle and Olecranon process of ulna Extends elbow
proximal humerus
Flexor carpi radialis Distal humerus Second and third Flexes wrist and abducts
metacarpals hand (see Figure 6.22)
Flexor carpi ulnaris Distal humerus and Carpals of wrist and fifth Flexes wrist and adducts
posterior ulna metacarpal hand
Flexor digitorum Distal humerus, ulna, and Middle phalanges of second Flexes wrist and fingers
superficialis† radius to fifth fingers
Extensor carpi radialis Humerus Base of second and third Extends wrist and abducts
metacarpals hand
Extensor digitorum Distal humerus Distal phalanges of second Extends fingers
to fifth fingers

Hip/thigh/leg muscles

Gluteus maximus Sacrum and ilium Proximal femur (gluteal Extends hip (when forceful
tuberosity) extension is required)
Gluteus medius llium Proximal femur Abducts thigh; steadies
pelvis during walking
Hamstring muscles (biceps Ischial tuberosity Proximal tibia (head of Flex knee and extend hip
femoris, semitendinosus, fibula in the case of biceps
semimembranosus) femoris)
Gastrocnemius Distal femur Calcaneus (heel via Plantar flexes foot and
calcaneal tendon) flexes knee
Soleus Proximal tibia and fibula Calcaneus Plantar flexes foot

*Erector spinae and quadratus lumborum are deep muscles (they are not shown in Figure 6.23; see Figure 6.18b).
†Although its name indicates that it is a superficial muscle, the flexor digitorum superficialis lies deep to the flexor carpi radialis and is not visible in a
superficial view.

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 236 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

direction, and gross muscular movements precede

fine ones. Babies can raise their heads before they
can sit up and can sit up before they can walk.
Muscular control also proceeds in a proximal/distal
direction; that is, babies can perform the gross move-
ments like waving “bye-bye” and pulling objects to
themselves before they can use the pincer grasp to
pick up a pin. By midadolescence, we have reached
the peak level of development of this natural control
and can simply accept it or bring it to a fine edge by
athletic training.
Because of its rich blood supply, skeletal muscle
is amazingly resistant to infection throughout life,
and given good nutrition, relatively few problems
afflict skeletal muscles. We repeat, however, that
muscles, like bones, will atrophy, even with normal
tone, if they are not used continually. A lifelong pro-
gram of regular exercise keeps the whole body oper- A female patient with myasthenia gravis. Notice the effect on
ating at its best possible level. the patient’s eyelid muscles.

As we age, the amount of connective tissue in

Homeostatic muscles increases, and the amount of muscle tissue
Imbalance 6.5
decreases; thus the muscles become stringier, or
One rare autoimmune disease that can affect mus-
more sinewy. Because skeletal muscles represent so
cles during adulthood is myasthenia gravis
much of our body mass, body weight begins to
(­mi0as-the9ne-ah gr ă9vis; asthen = weakness; gravi =
decline in older adults as this natural loss in muscle
heavy), a disease characterized by drooping upper
mass occurs. Muscle strength also decreases by about
eyelids, difficulty in swallowing and talking, and
50 percent by age 80. Regular exercise can help offset
generalized muscle weakness and fatigability. The
the effects of aging on the muscular system, and frail
disease results when there are too few acetylcholine
older people who begin to “pump iron” (use leg and
receptors at neuromuscular junctions because anti-
hand weights) can rebuild muscle mass and dramat-
bodies specific for acetylcholine receptors have
ically increase their strength.
attacked them. Antibodies are immune m ­ olecules—
in this case, made by a person’s own immune
­system—that will mark the receptors for destruc- Did You Get It?
tion. Because the muscle fibers are not stimulated 30. What must happen before babies can control their
properly, they get progressively weaker. Death muscles?
­usually occurs when the respiratory muscles can 31. How does lifelong exercise affect our skeletal
muscles and muscle mass in old age?
no longer function, which leads to respiratory
For answers, see Appendix A.
­failure.

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 SYSTEMS IN SYNC

Homeostatic Relationships between the

Muscular System and Other Body Systems

Nervous System
Endocrine System • Facial muscle activity allows
emotions to be expressed
• Growth hormone and androgens • Nervous system stimulates and
influence skeletal muscle strength regulates muscle activity
and mass

Respiratory System

Lymphatic System/Immunity • Muscular exercise increases

respiratory capacity
• Physical exercise may enhance • Respiratory system provides
or depress immunity depending oxygen and disposes of carbon
on its intensity dioxide
• Lymphatic vessels drain leaked
interstitial fluids; immune system
protects muscles from disease
Cardiovascular System
• Skeletal muscle activity increases
efficiency of cardiovascular
functioning; helps prevent
Digestive System atherosclerosis and causes
• Physical activity increases cardiac hypertrophy
gastrointestinal mobility • Cardiovascular system delivers
when at rest oxygen and nutrients to muscles;
• Digestive system carries away wastes
provides nutrients
needed for muscle
health; liver metabolizes Reproductive System
lactic acid
• Skeletal muscle helps support
pelvic organs (e.g., uterus in
females); assists erection of
penis and clitoris
Urinary System • Testicular androgen promotes
increased skeletal muscle size
• Physical activity promotes normal
voiding behavior; skeletal muscle
forms the voluntary sphincter of
the urethra Integumentary System
• Urinary system disposes of • Muscular exercise enhances
nitrogen-containing wastes circulation to skin and improves
skin health; exercise also
increases body heat, which the
skin helps dissipate
• Skin protects the muscles by
Muscular System external enclosure

Skeletal System
• Skeletal muscle activity maintains
bone health and strength
• Bones provide levers for
muscle activity

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 238 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Listen to the story of this chapter in a brief summary at Mastering A&P >
Summary Study Area > Author Narrated Audio Summaries

6.1 Overview of Muscle Tissues (pp. 199–203) 6.3 Skeletal Muscle Activity (pp. 205–214)
6.1a. The three types of muscle differ in structure, 6.3a. Skeletal muscle fibers are stimulated by a
location, and how they are controlled motor neuron at a neuromuscular junction
• Skeletal muscle—forms muscles attached to the • A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it inner-
skeleton, which move the limbs and other body vates is called a motor unit
parts • As a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal,
∘∘ Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are long and the neuron releases a neurotransmitter
multinucleate; skeletal muscle also known as (­acetylcholine), causing sarcolemma
striated muscle and voluntary muscle ­permeability to change
∘∘ Connective tissue coverings (endomysium, ∘∘ Sodium ions enter the muscle fiber, causing
perimysium, and epimysium) enclose and an action potential to flows across the entire
protect the muscle fibers and increase the ­sarcolemma, resulting in release of calcium ions
strength of skeletal muscles (Ca21) from the SR
■■ Epimysium ends blend to form tendons or
• Calcium binds to regulatory proteins on the thin
aponeuroses that attach the muscle to the filaments, exposing myosin-binding sites
body
∘∘ Myosin heads attach to actin, forming cross
• Smooth muscle—uninucleate, spindle-shaped, bridges; contraction occurs when the attached
arranged in opposing layers in the walls of hollow heads pivot, sliding the thin filaments toward
organs the center of the sarcomere
∘∘ Move substances (food, urine, a baby) along ∘∘ ATP provides the energy for the sliding process,
internal pathways, under involuntary control which continues as long as ionic calcium is
• Cardiac muscle—striated, branching cells that fit present
closely together and are arranged in spiral bun-
6.3b. Although individual muscle fibers contract
dles in the heart wall
completely when adequately stimulated, a whole
∘∘ Contraction pumps blood through the blood muscle (an organ) exhibits graded responses,
vessels; control is involuntary meaning it responds to stimuli to different
6.1b. The function of muscle tissue is to contract degrees
(shorten) to generate tension, thereby causing • Graded responses occur by changing frequency
movement, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints, of stimulation or the number of motor units
and generating heat stimulated
∘∘ Most skeletal muscle contractions exhibit a
6.2 Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle ­version of tetanus due to rapid nerve impulses
(pp. 203–205) (stimuli), reducing the amount of time a
• Skeletal muscle fibers contain myofibrils (organ- ­muscle can relax between contractions
elles made of overlapping myofilaments) ■■ Unfused tetanus—partial relaxation

∘∘ Myofibrils are composed of sarcomeres ­between stimuli

■■ Fused tetanus—no relaxation between
arranged end-to-end
■■ Sarcomere—the structural and functional ­stimuli; results in smooth, sustained
unit of skeletal muscle contraction
∘∘ Striations in myofibrils reflect the arrangement ∘∘ The strength of whole muscle contraction
of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments reflects the relative number of muscle fibers
(myosin) within the sarcomeres contracting (more = stronger)
• Each myofibril is loosely enclosed by sarcoplas- • ATP provides energy for muscle contraction and is
mic reticulum (SR) (specialized ER)—plays an stored in muscle fibers in small amounts
important role in storing and releasing calcium • ATP is regenerated three ways (fastest to slowest)
ions ∘∘ Creatine phosphate (CP) donates a phos-
∘∘ Calcium ions—final “go” signal for muscle phate to ADP
­contraction

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 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 239

∘∘ Anaerobic glycolysis, which results in lactic • Fascicle arrangements include: circular,

acid formation ­convergent, fusiform, parallel, and pennate
∘∘ Aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen (multipennate, bipennate, unipennate)
and produces the most ATP
6.5 Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
• Prolonged, strenuous activity results in muscle
(pp. 221–231)
fatigue
∘∘ Caused by ionic imbalances, lactic acid accu- 6.5a. Muscles of the head—responsible for facial
mulation, decreased ATP supply expressions and chewing
∘∘ After exercise, oxygen deficit is repaid by rapid, • Facial muscles—frontalis, orbicularis oris,
deep breathing ­orbicularis oculi, zygomaticus
• Muscle contractions are isotonic contractions • Chewing muscles—masseter, temporalis, and
(muscle shortens, movement occurs) or isomet- ­buccinator (also aids facial expression)
ric contractions (muscle does not shorten, ten- 6.5b. Muscles of the trunk and neck move the
sion increases) head, shoulder girdle, and trunk; and form the
• Muscle tone is a healthy, ready state abdominal girdle
∘∘ Different fibers are “on duty” at different times • Anterior neck and trunk muscles—sternoclei-
as stimulated by the nervous system domastoid, platysma, pectoralis major, external
and internal intercostals, rectus abdominis,
∘∘ No nerve supply; muscle loses tone, becomes
external and internal obliques, transversus
paralyzed, and atrophies
abdominis
• Inactive muscles atrophy
• Posterior neck and trunk muscles—trapezius,
∘∘ Resistance exercise causes muscles to increase latissimus dorsi, deltoid, quadratus lumborum
in size and strength
• Deep muscles of the back—erector spinae
∘∘ Endurance exercise causes muscles to be more
efficient, stronger, and fatigue resistant; other 6.5c. Muscles of the arm and forearm cause
body systems also benefit movement at the shoulder, elbow, and hand
• Muscles moving the elbow—brachialis, biceps
6.4 Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names brachii, brachioradialis, triceps brachii
(pp. 214–221)
6.5d. Muscles of the thigh and leg cause movement
6.4a. Muscles attach to bones at two or more at the hip, knee, and foot
points • Muscles moving the hip—iliopsoas, gluteus maxi-
• The origin—immovable (or less movable) mus, gluteus medius, adductors
attachment • Muscles moving the knee—quadriceps, ham-
• The insertion—movable bony attachment strings, sartorius
• The insertion moves toward the origin during • Muscles moving the ankle and foot—gastrocne-
contraction mius, tibialis anterior, fibularis muscles, soleus,
• Body movements include flexion, extension, extensor digitorum longus
abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation,
pronation, supination, inversion, eversion, 6.6 Developmental Aspects of the Muscular
­dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, and opposition System (pp. 231–236)
• Increasing muscular control reflects nervous sys-
6.4b. On the basis of functions, muscles are
tem maturation
classified as prime movers, antagonists,
synergists, and fixators ∘∘ Muscle control develops in superior/inferior
and proximal/distal directions
6.4c. Muscles names can be derived from several
functional and structural characteristics, including • Muscles will atrophy without regular exercise;
size, shape, number and location of origins, asso- with vigorous exercise, they hypertrophy
ciated bones, and action • Muscle mass decreases as we age; muscles become
more sinewy
6.4d. Fascicle arrangements influence the force and
degree of shortening a muscle can produce • Exercise helps to retain muscle mass and
strength

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 240 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Access more practice questions at Mastering A&P > Study Area > Study by Chapter
Review Questions
Multiple Choice 6. Which of the following muscles attach to the hip
bones?
More than one choice may apply.
a. Rectus abdominis c. Vastus medialis
1. Compare these images of a relaxed skeletal muscle
b. Rectus femoris d. Vastus lateralis
fiber and a fully contracted muscle fiber. Which
would you see only in the relaxed fiber? 7. Which of these muscles is found on the posterior sur-
face of the leg?
a. Gastrocnemius c. Extensor carpi
b. Extensor digitorum ulnaris
longus d. Biceps femoris
8. Which of the following is (are) true concerning the
pectoralis major?
Relaxed sarcomere a. It raises the clavicle. c. It abducts the arm.
b. It adducts the d. It flexes the humerus.
humerus.

Short Answer Essay

9. Compare skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles in
regard to their microscopic anatomy, location and
arrangement in body organs, and function in the body.
10. Why are the connective tissue wrappings of skeletal
Fully contracted sarcomere muscles important? Name these connective tissue
coverings, beginning with the finest and ending with
a. Z discs d. A bands the coarsest.
b. Sarcomeres e. H zones
c.
c. I bands
2. After ACh attaches to its receptors at the neuromuscu-
b.
lar junction, what is the next step?
a. Sodium channels open.
b. Calcium binds to regulatory proteins on the thin
filaments.
c. Cross bridges attach. a.
d. ATP is hydrolyzed.
3. Your ability to lift that heavy couch would be
increased by which type of exercise?
a. Aerobic c. Resistance
b. Endurance d. Swimming
4. Which of the following can lead to muscle fatigue? 11. Define neuromuscular junction, motor unit, tetanus,
graded response, aerobic respiration, anaerobic glycolysis,
a. Imbalances in ions c. Excessive amounts
muscle fatigue, and neurotransmitter.
b. Excessive amounts of ADP
of oxygen d. Oxygen deficit 12. Describe the events that occur from the time calcium
ions enter the axon terminal at the neuromuscular
5. Which are ways in which muscle names have been junction until muscle cell contraction occurs.
derived?
13. How does muscle activity contribute to the mainte-
a. Attachments c. Function
nance of body temperature? Explain how significant
b. Size d. Location this contribution is.

M06_MARI1942_13_GE_C06.indd 240 16/03/21 12:52

 Chapter 6: The Muscular System 241

14. In addition to acting to flex the spine and compress 15. The hamstring and quadriceps muscle groups are
the abdominal contents, the abdominal muscles are antagonists of each other, and each group is a prime
extremely important in protecting and containing the mover in its own right. What action does each muscle
abdominal viscera. What is it about the arrangement group perform?
of these muscles that makes them so well suited for
16. Explain the general relationship between the muscles
their job?
that flex and extend the wrist, including their location
on the body.

Critical Thinking and Clinical Application Questions

17. Name three muscles or muscle groups used as sites for you have learned about muscle energy metabolism,
intramuscular injections. Which is most often used in respond to the following questions:
babies? a. Why is Eric breathing heavily?
18. While jogging, Mr. Ahmadi was forced to jump out of b. What ATP-harvesting pathway have his working
the way of a speeding car. He heard a snapping sound muscles been using that leads to such a breathing
that was immediately followed by pain in his right pattern?
lower calf. A gap was visible between his swollen calf c. What metabolic product(s) might account for his
and his heel, and he was unable to plantar flex that sore muscles and his feeling of muscle weakness?
foot. What do you think happened?
20. Chemical A binds and blocks acetylcholine receptors
19. When Eric returned from jogging, he was breathing of muscle cells. Chemical B floods the cytoplasm of
heavily and sweating profusely, and he complained muscle cells with calcium ions. Which chemical
that his legs ached and felt weak. On the basis of what would make the best muscle relaxant, and why?

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