BY:

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 Chapter Two
Pile foundation

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2.1. Introduction
 Pile foundations: are the part of a structure used to carry and
transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground
located at some depth below ground surface. The main
components of pile foundation are the pile cap and the piles.
 Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transmit
foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity
to deeper soil or rock having a higher bearing capacity.

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 Pu = Load of the structure
Pile cap
Ground Surface

Soft compressible soil

Piles layer

Hard incompressible
soil layer or rock

Fig. 1.1 a Pile Foundation

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Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:
 When the upper soils are highly compressible and very weak to support
the load transmitted by the structure.
 When the foundation soil is highly expansive or collapsible soil
 Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structural loads
through deep water to a firm stratum.
 When a large lateral load capacity is required.
 Piles are used for the foundations of some structures, such as transmission
towers, off-shore platforms, which are subjected to uplift forces.
 Piles are required when the soil conditions are such that a wash out erosion
or scour of soil may occur from underneath of shallow foundation.

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 Classification of Piles:

Piles can be classified according to:

 the mode of load transferring and functional behaviour
 the use
 composition or materials of construction
 the method of construction
Classification based on mode of load transfer and function:
A) End-Bearing Piles: these piles penetrate through the soft soil or water and
their bottoms rest on a hard stratum and transmits the load to it.

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 The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as
column. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect
needs only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in
either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or
cohesion. But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may adhere to
the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile.
This, sometimes have considerable adverse effect on the capacity of the
pile.
 Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water
and consolidation of the soil.

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B) Friction piles:

Transfer the load through skin friction between the

embeded surface of the pile and the surrounding soil.
Are used when hard stratum does not exist at a
reasonable depth.
The ultimate capacity of the pile is equal to the
frictional resistance.
The frictional resistance is developed from friction(ϕ)
for cohesionless soils and from adhesion(c) for
cohesive soil.

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C) Combined End-Bearing and Friction Piles:
 These piles transfer loads by a combination of end bearing of the pile
and friction along the surface of the pile shaft.
 An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not
hard, such as a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower
material to develop adequate frictional resistance.
 A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged
bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the
soft stratum immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base.

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Fig: 1.1b: End-bearing piles

Fig: 1.1c: Friction piles/

Cohesion piles

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Fig 1.1d: End-bearing piles

Fig 1.1e: Friction or Cohesion pile

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Classification of Piles Based on Use

 Uplift Piles: These piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift or
overturning movement.
 Batter Piles: These piles are driven at an inclination to resist inclined
loads and are used to resist lateral forces in case of retaining walls,
abutments etc.
 Compaction Piles: They are used to compact loose granular soils in order
to increase their bearing capacity.
 Sheet Piles: These piles are used to enclose soil so as to prevent the leakage
of water and to enclose soft material.

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Fig. 1.1 f: Batter piles: non-linear
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Classification of Piles According to their Composition or Material of
Construction
 Timber Piles
 Concrete Piles
 Pre-Cast Concrete Piles
 Cast-in situ Concrete Piles
 Steel Piles
 Composite Piles

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a)Timber Piles

 The timber to be used for the construction should be free from

defects; decay etc. and it should be well seasoned and treated
with preservatives.
 These piles are circular or square in cross section. Top of these
piles is provided with an iron ring to prevent it from splitting
under blows of the hammer.
 The bottom is fitted with an iron shoe to facilitate sinking of the
piles and to protect from damage.
 Piles entirely submerged in water last long without decay. When
a pile is subjected to alternate wetting and drying, the useful life
is relatively short.

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b) Concrete pile
Pre cast and Cast-in situ Concrete Piles

i. Pre cast concrete Piles

 Usually of square, triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced

in short length in one meter intervals between 3 and 13 meters.
 They are pre-cast so that they can be easily connected together in order to
reach to the required length.

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Fig 1.1g: a) Concrete Pile Connecting Detail b) Squared Pre-cast
Concert pile

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 ii. Cast-in situ Concrete Piles

 These types of piles are constructed in their locations in the bore

holes prepared for these purpose. The operation consists of
boring a hole, filling it with only concrete or with steel
reinforcement and concrete.

 Straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at

intervals may be cast at site.
 The latter type is termed as under-reamed pile.

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 Under-reamed pile

Plain Piles

Single bulb pile

Straight bored pile
Double bulbs pile
Fig: 1.1h: Plain piles and under-reamed piles

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Fig. 1.1i: Cast in place concrete piles
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Fig: 1.1j:Cast in place concrete piles
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 c) Steel piles
 Steel piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their
relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength
makes penetration easier in firm soil.

b) H – cross- c) Circular cross-

a) x- cross- section
section section
Fig. 1.1 k: Steel piles cross-sections 22
Fig. 1.1l: H–section steel pile
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H –section steel pile
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d) Composite piles
 Combination of different materials in the same pile, as indicated
earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground water
could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay.
 To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water
level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level.

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a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level

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Classification Based on Method of Construction (Installation)
Driven Piles: These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a
heavy hammer on their tops. Driven piles are considered to be
displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile into the ground,
soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There may also
be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.

Bored Piles: Bored piles(Replacement piles) are generally considered to

be non-displacement piles. A void is formed by boring or excavation
before piles are introduced. Piles can be produced by casting concrete in
the void.
 Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the formation
of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not require temporary
support except close to the ground surface.

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 In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary
support from casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may
be permanent, but driven into a hole which is bored as casing is
advanced.
 There are two types of cast-in-piles:
(a)Driven and Cast In-Situ Piles and,
(b) Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles

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 Driven and Cast In-Situ Piles: These piles are formed by driving a
casing with a closed bottom end into the soil. The casing is later
filled with concrete.

 Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles: These piles are formed by excavating
a hole into the ground and then filling it with concrete.

 Screw Piles: The piles are screwed into the soil.

 Jacked Piles: These piles are jacked into the soils by applying a
downward force with the help of a hydraulic jack.

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2.2. Design Procedure
 Structural design of reinforced concrete pile foundation
will follow the following design procedures:
 Sketch soil profiles, showing soil stratification and
establishing permanent water level (and its fluctuation)
 Establish pile type, diameter and spacing.
 Calculate load on group and single piles and establish
factor of safety
 Determine pile capacity and pile length
 Check stresses in lower strata
 Analyze settlement
 Design pile cap
 Design individual piles
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 2.3 load on piles
The total load acting on a group of piles include :
•Load from the superstructure (super structural load)
•Weight of pile cap and soil above it, if any
•Negative skin friction force from fill or from compressible soil layer, if any
Pd
M GS

Fill

Rock/ hard stratum 31

 2.4 Pile reactions (Loads)

 Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support

load imposed on them. Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical
loads as well as lateral loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined
with raking piles to support horizontal and vertical forces.
 .
 However if a group of piles is subjected to lateral load or eccentric
vertical load or combination of vertical and lateral load which can
cause moment force on the group, the load distribution is done by
using flexural formula.

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 Case-1: Vertically loaded piles
u
Often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the
calculation of load distribution on single pile that as member of
the group is assumed to be the total load divided by the number
of piles in the group.
P
Psupn 
n
Where;
Pn = load on the nth pile
W
n = total number of piles

Pbu
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Case-2: Eccentric loading
For eccentric loading conditions, i.e. pile cap loaded with force P and moment M, one uses the
flexural formula in which planar stress distribution is assumed:

P M yx Mxy
pn   
n  x2  y2

Where;
p n = load on the nth pile
M x , M y = moment about x and y axes respectively
x,y = distance from y and x axes to any pile. x and y axes have their origin at the centroid
of the pile group.
x 2 , y 2 = moment of inertia of the pile group, I as computed from I  I 0  Ax 2
(I0 = moment of inertia of each pile)
A = cross-sectional area of each pile.
The I0 term is negligible for driven piles.
The A term cancels since it appears in both the numerator and denominator of above

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2.5 Pile arrangement: Vertical
• Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a
group of piles. The pile cap distributes the applied load
to the individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load
to the bearing ground.
•The individual piles are spaced and connected to the
pile cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect
the pile to the structure at cut-off level, and depending
on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load,
they can be arranged in different patterns. Figure below
illustrates the sample of basic formation of pile groups:

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Q=Vertically applied load
H= Horizontally applied load

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 2.6 Pile Spacing and horizontal arrangement
 Piles are normally installed in groups. Because of anticipated alignment
problems, some building codes do not permit the use of less than three piles
under major columns and less than two under foundation walls. Typical
horizontal arrangement of pile groups are given in Figure below.

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Typical arrangement of pile groups
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 The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such as
overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles, cost of foundation and efficiency
of the pile group.
 When piles are too closely spaced, there is a possibility of stress overlap
which cause shear failure and excessive settlement
 But large spacing will cause excessive pile cap deflection unless too thick
pile cap is used which may not be economical.
Large concentration of piles under the centere of the
pile cap should be avoided. This could lead to load
concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in
the pile cap. Varying length of piles in the same pile
group may have similar effect.

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Pressure isobars
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The minimum allowable spacing of piles is usually stipulated in building codes. EBCS 7
gives minimum spacing for piles in order to minimize the cost of pile cap.
Table 1.5: Minimum Pile Spacing According to EBCS-7
No. Pile Type Center to Center Spacing, S
1 End-bearing piles passing through relatively compressible
strata 2.5d
2 End-bearing piles passing through compressible strata and
resting on stiff clay 3.5d
3 Compaction piles 2d
4 Friction piles 3d
5 Driven piles 2.5d
6 Bored Piles 3d but not less than 1.10m
8 Under-reamed piles 2du
d = average pile diameter
du = diameter of under-reamed pile base

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 2.7. Selection of Type and Length of Piles
The choice of a pile is governed largely by the site and soil
conditions.
Based on the soil conditions the following types of piles
are recommended:
Soil conditions Choice of pile Remarks
Coarse sand or Gravel Driven pile Develops point bearing
or cast in situ pile and friction resistance
Firm stratum with soft Cast in-situ Pile Improves bearing
material below with enlarged base capacity
Hard stratum at reasonable Point bearing pile Embed pile about 1m
depth (15-30m). With no soft inside hard stratum
material below
Where hard stratum is very Friction pile Cheaper than long
deep (>30m) point bearing pile
Expansive and poor soils Short cast Base shall rest on
overlying firm soil stratum in-situ pile with stable zone
enlarged base
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•Based on site conditions the following type of piles
are recommended:

Site conditions Choice of Remarks

piles

Close to existing Cast in-situ Cause less damage

building pile to existing
building
Under water Driven pile Easier to install
construction and also cheaper

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2.8 VERTICAL LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A SINGLE VERTICAL PILE
 During pile design, the following factors should be taken into
consideration:
compression and tension capacity of pile material
deformation of pile and bending moment capacity of pile
condition of the pile at the top and the end of the pile
eccentricity of the load applied on the pile
soil characteristics
ground water level ..etc.
Nevertheless, calculation method that can satisfy all of these
conditions will be complicated and difficult to carry out manually,
instead four widely used simplified methods are presented.
These four methods are :

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A. A. Computational (analytical) methods
B. Pile loading tests
C. Sounding tests ( SPT and CPT)
D. Dynamic pile-driving formulas [Not much reliable)

2.8.1. Analytical Determination of Bearing Capacity of piles

The static methods give the ultimate capacity of an individual pile,

depending upon the characteristics of the soil. The ultimate load
capacity is given by: Qu= QP +Qs

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 Qb= (cNc+q'0Nq+0.5ydNƴ)Ab

 But for driven piles the third term is negligible.

 This implies that Qb= (cNc+q'0Nq)Ab

 For sand soil c=o in which Qb=(q'0Nq)Ab

 For saturated clay soil(ф=0), c=cu, Nq=1 which gives Qb=(CbNc+q’)Ab

 But the net ultimate base resistance Qb==(CbNc)Ab

And
Qs=fs*As
For sand soil Qs=

For clay soil Qs=

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 2.8.2 Bearing capacity of piles in cohesionless soils
Critical Depth
 The ultimate bearing capacity Qu in cohesionless soils is

 The equation implies that both the qb and the fs are functions of the effective
overburden pressure qo and increase linearly with the depth of embedment, L, of
the pile.
 However, extensive research work carried out by Vesic (1967) has revealed that
the base and frictional resistances remain almost constant beyond a certain depth
of embedment which is called critical depth, Lc.
 Experiments of Vesic have indicated that Lc is a function of ɸ.
 The Lc/d ratio as a function of ɸ is expressed as follows (Poulos and Davis, 1980)

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The above equations indicated that:

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2.8.3 Determination of Qb in sand soil
I. Tomlinson's Solution for qb in sand
A) Driven piles
qb= q’Nq
• The theoretical Nq factor in the above Eq. is a function of ф
• There is great variation in the values of Nq derived by different investigators
• But Tomlinson adopted Berezantsev's values of Nq as given in the Fig. below
• It may be seen from curve that there is a rapid increase in Nq for high values
of ф, giving thereby high values of base resistance.
• Therefore, the allowable working load on an isolated pile driven to virtual
refusal, using normal driving equipment, in a dense sand or gravel consisting
predominantly of quartz particles, is given by the allowable load on the pile
considered as a structural member rather than by consideration of failure of
the supporting soil
• As per Tomlinson, the maximum base resistance qb is limited to 11000 kN/m2
whatever might be the penetration depth of the pile.

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Berezantsev's bearing capacity factor, Nq (after Tomlinson, 1986)
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B) Bored piles
 It is assumed that the soil around the pile shaft and at the base is loosened as a
result of the boring operations, even though it may be initially be in a dense or
medium dense state.
 Tomlinson suggests that the values of the parameters used in bearing capacity
equation must be taken by assuming that the ф value will represent the loose
condition.
 Generally, it is reasonable to take:
a) qb (bored pile) = (1/3) qb (driven pile)
b) the frictional parameter may be calculated by assuming a
value of ф equal to 28°

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II. Meyerhof's Method of Determining Qb for Piles in Sand
A) Driven piles
• Meyerhof considers the critical depth ratio (Lc/d) for estimating the value of Qb.
 According to Meyerhof, the bearing capacity factors increase with Lb/d and reach a
maximum value at (Lb/d)= 0.5 (Lc/d), where Lb is the actual thickness of the
bearing stratum.
 Normally, the magnitude of Lb/d for piles is greater than 0.5 (Lc/d)
 So, maximum values of Nc and Nq may apply for the calculation of qb.
 Meyerhof prescribes a limiting value qbl for qb
 The expression for the limiting value, qbl, is

 The limiting qbl values remain practically independent of the effective overburden
pressure and groundwater conditions beyond the critical depth

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53
  The equation for base resistance in sand may now be expressed as

where q'o = effective overburden pressure at the tip of the pile

Lc/d and Nq = bearing capacity factor
B) Bored piles
For bored cast-in-situ piles the value of qb is to be reduced by
one third to one-half.
Clay Soil (ф = 0)
The base resistance ,Qb for piles in saturated clay soil may be expressed as
Qb=Nc*cu*Ab=9cu*Ab
where Nc = 9, and cu = undrained shear strength of the soil at the base level of the
pile.

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III. VESIC'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb

 The unit base resistance of a pile in a (c - ф) soil may be expressed as

 As per Vesic, the base resistance is not governed by the vertical ground pressure q' but by the mean effective
normal ground stress σm expressed as

Now, the bearing capacity may be expressed as

Where:

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 Vesic has developed an expression for N*σ based on the ultimate pressure
needed to expand a spherical cavity in an infinite soil mass as

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IV. JANBU'S METHOD OF DETERMINING Qb

 The bearing capacity equation of Janbu is

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2.8. 4 The Ultimate Skin Resistance Of A Single Pile In Cohesionless Soil
a) Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft)
 The ultimate skin resistance in a homogeneous soil is
expressed as
 In a layered system of soil qo,Ks and δ vary with respect
to depth. In this case, the above equation may be
rewritten as:

The effective overburden pressure does not increase linearly with depth.
It reaches a constant value beyond the critical depth

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Values of Ks tan δ in sand as per (a) Poulos and Davis 1980, (b) Meyerhof, 1976
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b) Skin Resistance on Tapered Piles

 Nordlund (1963) has shown that even a small taper of 1° on the shaft gives a four
fold increase in unit friction in medium dense sand under compression loading.
 Based on his analysis, curves have been developed, giving a relationship between
taper angle of ω and a taper correction factor Fω.

𝐿
 Qs= 0
( )
Where,

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2.8.5. STATIC BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES IN CLAY SOIL

 The static ultimate bearing capacity of piles in uniform clay is given by:

 For layered clay soils where the cohesive strength varies along the shaft:
Qu= CbNcAb+ 𝑛𝑖=0 α𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑖𝐴𝑠i
A) Determination of Base Resistance, Qb
Qb= qb*Ab
Where qb= Cb*Nc
• The value of the bearing capacity factor Nc that is generally accepted
both for derived and bored piles is 9
• The value of Cbmay be obtained either from laboratory tests on
undisturbed samples or from the relationships established between cu
and field penetration tests.

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B) Determination of skin frictional Resistance, Qs

I. by α-Method

 Tomlinson (1986) has given some empirical correlations for evaluating α for
different types of soil conditions and L/d ratio
 Dennis and Olson developed a single curve giving the relationship between
α and cu of clay as shown.
 This curve can be used to estimate the values of α for piles with penetration
lengths less than 30 m.
 For embedment greater than about 50 m the value of α should be multiplied
by a factor 0.56.
 For embedment between 30 and 50 m, the reduction factor may be vary
linearly from 1.0 to 0.56.

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II) Skin Resistance by λ-Method

 Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972) have suggested a different approach for

computing skin resistance of steel-pipe piles on the basis of examination of
load test results on such piles.
 The equation is of the form

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68
C)β-Method or the Effective Stress Method of Computing Qs

 In this method, the unit skin friction fs is defined as:

 For normally consolidated clay soil, the lower limit of β

is given as:

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 For driven piles in stiff overconsolidated clay, Ks is roughly 1.5 times greater
than Ko. For overconsolidated clays KO may be found from the expression:

D)Meyerhof 's Method (1976)

Meyerhof has suggested a semi-empirical relationship for estimating skin friction
in clays.
For driven piles:

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2.8.5 Bearing Capacity Of Piles from Sounding tests

 Empirical formula are used to determine the point resistance and the shaft
resistance from the standard penetration number (N) and Cone penetration
resistance qc.
 Alternatively, the static formula can be used after determining the test-
values, as these value are related to the angle of shearing resistance (Ф).
a)Standard Penetration test
i) For Driven piles in sand,
 The unit tip resistance (qp) is related to the uncorrected blow count (N) near
the pile point (Meyerhof 1976).
qp=40N(L/B)< 400N
Where qp=point resistance, L=length of pile, B=width (diameter) of pile.
 The average unit frictional resistance (fs) is related to the average value of
the blow count (N).
For high displacement piles, fs=2.0N KN/m2
For low displacement piles, fs=1.0N KN/m2
 Where N is average of uncorrected N-Values along the length of the pile.

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ii) For bored piles in sand

qp=14N(Lb/B)KN/m2
Where Lb=actual penetration into the granular soil.
 For bored piles in sand, unit frictional resistance (fs) is given by;
fs=0.67N KN/m2
b)Dutch cone test
 Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit point resistance (qp) and the unit
skin traction (fs) of driven piles to the cone point resistance (qc).
 Point resistance, qp=[qc/10]*[Lb/B]
 Unit skin friction, a) fs(dense sand)=qc/200
b) fs(loose sand)=qc/400
c) fs(silt)=qc/150

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 1.8.6 Determination of pile capacity by Pile Loading Tests
 The loading test gives reliable results.
 It consists of loading one pile and recording the load and the corresponding
settlement data.
 Then load settlement curve is plotted , from which the allowable load on the
foundation is determined.
 The set up generally consists of two anchor piles provided with a reaction girder.
 The test pile is installed between the anchor piles.
 The test pile should be place at least three times the width or 2.5m clear from the
anchor piles.

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 The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder.
 The measurements of pile movement are taken with respect to a fixed
reference mark.
 The test is conducted after period of 3 days after the installation in sandy
soils and a period of one month in silts and soft clays.
 The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of allowable load.
 Settlements should be recorded with three dial gauges.
 Each stage of the loading is maintained till the rate of movement of the pile
top is not more than 0.1mm per hour in sandy soils and 0.02mm per hour in
case of clayey soils .
 Under each load increment, settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 4, 8, 12, 16,
20, 60, minutes.
 The load increment should be continued up to twice the safe load or the load
at which the total settlement reaches a specified value.
 The load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interval and the final
rebound is recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.
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 For any given load, the net pile settlement (Sn) is given by
 Sn=St - Se
 Where, St=Total settlement (gross settlement), Se=Elastic settlement
(rebound).
 Plastic (net) settlement curve can be drawn from total settlement using the
above equation

Fig. Determination of plastic settlement from total settlement curve

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 The limiting load is read either from load-total settlement or
from load-plastic settlement curves.
 A. From Load Total Settlement Curves
 The limiting pile load may be determined from one of the following methods:
(i)The point at which the end tangents of the load-settlement curve meet
(Mansur/Kaufmann 1956[27])
(ii)The point at which the curve begins to show a steeper slope (DIN 1054[8])
(iii)The point at which the curve manifests the steepest slope i.e., ds/dQ= max
(Vesic 1963[39]).
(iv) a) For a total settlement of 0.1d (Terzaghi/Peck 1961[37]). Where ‘d’ is pile
diameter.
b)For a total settlement of 50mm(Terzaghi/Peck 1948[36])
c)For a total settlement of 25mm(New York City Building Law [31])
d)For a total settlement of 20mm(Muhs 1959, 1963[27])

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 B. From Load Plastic Settlement Curve

 The following suggestions are proposed to determine the limiting pile load
from load-plastic settlement curve:
(i) For a plastic settlement of 0.025d (DIN 4026[11]
(ii) For a plastic settlement of 0.020d (U.S.A.[quoted in 31]
(iii) For a plastic settlement of 8mm (Magnel 1948[21])
(iv) For a plastic settlement of 35mm (AASHTO)

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78
 Assignment 1
Q2 Why?

Failure of the group may occur either by failure of the

individual piles or as failure of the overall block of soil.

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Fig. stress under piles
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83
Pile efficiency

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Single Pile Settlement
.
Meyerhof’s and vesic method
Steps
1. Assume imaginary rigid block of size Bg x Lg
placed at 2/3L from Pile cap carrying the total
load
2. Divide the soil layers below 2/3L into thin
layers and determine both initial state of stress
σo and increased stress ∆σ at the middle of
each divided layers.
3. Compute the consolidation settlement for each
layer by using the following formula:
Cc∗Ho∗ σo+ ∆σ
∆Sc(i) = log( )
1+𝑒𝑜 σ𝑜
4. Finally, find 𝑛1 ∆Sc(i) to get the consolidation
settlement of the pile group.
Sc = 𝑛1 ∆Sc(i)
EXAMPLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. Consolidation Settlement of pile groups:
9
 .
a. For long piles in granular soils
 B) Elastic solution for laterally loaded piles embedded in cohesive soils

• Elastic solutions for laterally loaded piles embedded in

cohesive soils were developed by Davisson and Gill (1963).
These equations are:
a. The deflection Xz at any depth z is:

(11.92)
b. Moment Mz at any depth z:
B.
Pile Cap
 Pile cap is used to transfer loads from a column or wall to an underlying group of
piles.
 To ensure stability against lateral forces, a pile cap must include at least three piles;
otherwise it should be connected by the beams to adjacent caps.
 Pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile group
coincides with the line of action of load, to ensure that all piles carry an equal load
and avoid tilting of group in compressible bearing stratum.
 The procedure of designing pile cap is similar to the deign of reinforced concrete
footing, except that the former is subject to a series of concentrated loads, while the
later is subject to relatively uniformly distributed loads.

131
30cm
7.5cm
10cm
(Embedded length)

30cm

132
133
Pile caps and grade beams
134