UNIT-2

Part 1: ELECTROSTATICS

Q. 1 Define the following terms.

i)Electric flux (ii)Electric flux density (iii)Electric Absolute Permitivity:
Field strength (iv)Relative Permittivity It is defined as “the ratio of electric flux density in
(v)Absolute Permittivity a dielectric medium to the corresponding electric
Electric Flux: field Strength”. It is denoted by [ε].
It is defined as “the total number of electric field D
lines in an electric field”. It is represented by the  Farad/metre
E
symbol  (psi).
Relative Permittivity:
Electric flux,  =Q Coulomb
It is defined as “the ratio of electric flux density in
Electric Flux Density a dielectric medium to that produced in free space
It is defined as “the flux passing through unit area by the same electric field strength under the same
at right angle to the direction of field”. conditions”. It is denoted by [εr]. Being a ratio it is
The electric flux density is denoted by 'D'. unit less.
Q C D
D 2
r 
A m D0
Q.2 Define Capacitance.
Electric Field Strength
Capacitance is the property of capacitor to store the
It is defined as “the force experienced by unit
electric charge.
positive charge at a particular point in a given
electric field”. It is denoted by 'E'.
F N
E
Q C
It is also called as Electric Field Intensity. It is
Let, V: be the applied voltage in Volt.
different at different point in a non-uniform electric
field and same at all points in uniform electric field. Q: be the charge stored by capacitor in Coulomb.
It can also be expressed in Volt/metre. As experimentally,
QV , Q  CV
Permitivity
Where C: be the constant called the capacitance of
It is defined as “readiness of a material or medium
the capacitor
to allow passage of flux through it”. The ratio of
Q
electric flux density in a vacuum or free space to the C
corresponding electric field strength is known as the V
permittivity of free space. It is denoted by [ε0]. It is measured in Farad.
The permittivity of a vacuum or free space is
Q.3 what do you mean by dielectric strength
ε0=8.854 x 10–12 Farad/metre. and breakdown voltage?
When the applied voltage to a dielectric exceeds a
certain value, then it breaks down. The electric
1
current starts flowing through it. Hence, breakdown Q d CV d
 0 r    
voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required A V A V
to break it down. Cd
 0 r 
The ability of dielectric medium to resist its A
breakdown when potential difference is applied  0 r A
across it, is called dielectric strength. It is measured C Farad
d
in V/m. It is usually expressed in kV/mm. Its value Factors affecting Capacitance value:
depends on the following factors: 1. Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of
 Thickness of the insulator, dielectric medium
 Temperature, 2. Surface area of the plates
 Moisture, 3. Distance between the plates
 Shape of the electrodes.
Q.5: Find the equivalent capacitance when the
Q.4 Derive the expression for parallel-plate capacitors are connected in series.
Capacitor. State the factors affecting capacitance
value.

Consider the two capacitors in series connected

Let, across the supply voltage 'V'.
Let, Q be the charge on each capacitor.
A: be the area of each plate in m2.
Then, Q=C1V1
d: be the distance between the plates in m.
and Q=C2V2
V: be the applied voltage between the plates.
Q
r: be the relative permittivity of dielectric  V1=C
1
medium between the plates
Q
The electric field strength in the dielectric is given And V2= C
2
as,
Also, the charge stored by equivalent capacitor,
V
E  …..(1) Q
d Q=CV, i.e. V=C
The flux density in the dielectric is given as, As the charge on each capacitor and on equivalent
Q capacitor is same, we have,
D .…(2)
A CV=C1V1 = C2V2
Dividing equation (II) by (I),
Now, the total voltage, V=V1 + V2
D Q d
  Q Q Q
E A V C =C1 + C2
D
But,   0 r
E

2
 1 1 1 q
= +
C C1 C2 V
C
If the number of capacitors are connected in series Now, the work done to move the charge of one
then equivalent capacitance, Coulomb from one plate to another.
1 1 1 1 q
= + + ……… dw  vdq  dq
C C1 C2 Cn C
Q.6: Find the equivalent capacitance when the This work done is stored in the form of potential
capacitors are connected in parallel. energy in the electric field. Now, total energy stored
Consider, the two capacitors in parallel connected in the capacitor when it is charged to 'Q' Coulomb,
Q
across the supply voltage 'V'. q
dw   C dq
0
Q
1  q2 
W 
C  2  0
Q2
W 
2C
Let, Q1 be the charge on capacitor C1 But, QCV
Q2 be the charge on capacitor C2 Substituting this in above equation, we have
1
Then, Q1=C1 V, Q2=C2 V W  CV 2 Joule
2
Now, Q be the total charge in Coulomb.
1
Q=C.V. W  QV Joule
2
Then, Q=Q1 + Q2 Q.8: Sketch the curves for voltage across the
CV=C1V + C2V charging capacitor and chargingcurrent when
C=C1 + C2 charged through resistance R and connected DC
If the number of capacitors are connected in parallel voltage.Also write down the expression for (i)
then equivalent capacitance, voltage across the capacitor(ii) charging current
(iii) time constant (iv) initial charging current.
C=C1 + C2 + ……… Cn
Consider a circuit as shown in Fig. where capacitor
Q.7: Derive the expression for energy stored in
C is connected in series with a resistance R across a
capacitor.
battery having voltage V and with switch 'S'.

Let us consider a capacitor having capacitance 'C'

Farad and charge to voltage 'V' volt. Let 'q' be the
charge on capacitor in Coulomb. Then potential Curves for voltage and current during charging
difference across the capacitor,

3
 Consider a circuit as shown in Fig. where capacitor
'C' is being discharged through a resistor 'R'.
Capacitor is fully charged to voltage V volts and
discharges through resistor R. The current flowing
through the circuit is in the opposite direction to that
of charging.

Expression for voltage

 
vc  V 1  e t / RC volt
Expression for current
V  t / RC
ic  e Amp ic  Ie t / RC Amp
R
Time constant Expression for voltage
For voltage: Time constant may be defined as the vc  Vet / RC Volt
time during which the capacitor voltage actually
Expression for current
reaches to its 63.2% of its final value.
V
For Current: It is defined as the time during which ic   e t / RC Amp ic  Ie t / RC Amp
R
the capacitor current actually falls to 36.8% of its
Time constant
initial maximum value.
For voltage: Time constant may be defined as the
Expression for time constant
time during which the capacitor voltage actually
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 falls to its 36.8% of its initial value.
Expression for initial charging current For Current: It is defined as the time during which
V
ic  I  Amp the capacitor current actually falls to 36.8% of its
R initial maximum value.
Q.9: Sketch the curves for voltage across the Expression for time constant
discharging capacitor and dischargingcurrent
when discharged through resistance R.Also write 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
down the expression for (i) voltage across the Expression for initial discharging current
capacitor(ii) discharging current (iii) time V
ic   I   Amp
constant (iv) initialdischarging current. R

4
 Part 2: A.C. FUNDAMENTALS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. Define the terms as related to alternating e.g. i1, i2 and i3 shown in Fig. are the instantaneous
quantities. values of alternating current at different instances.
(1)Waveform (2) Cycle (3) Instantaneous value
(4) Periodic Time (5) Frequency (6) Amplitude Time Period (T)
It is the time taken by the alternating quantity to
Waveform complete one cycle.
Waveform is the pictorial representation of an
alternating quantity

Fig. Waveform of Alternating Current

Frequency (f)
Fig. shows the waveform of alternating current.
The number of cycles completed per second by an
Cycle alternating quantity is known as frequency. Its
Each repetition of a complete set of changes symbol is f and unit is cycles per second or Hertz
undergone by the alternating quantity is called cycle. denoted by Hz.
These repetitions recur at equal intervals of time. 1
f  Hz
T
Amplitude
The maximum value attained by an alternating
quantity during its positive or negative half cycle is
called as amplitude or peak value

Instantaneous Value
The value of an alternating quantity at a particular
instant is known as its instantaneous value.

Figure shows the amplitude of A.C. voltage.

It is denoted by Vm or I m where Vm represents peak
value of voltage and I m represents peak value of the
current.

5
 
Q.11:Define RMS Value and derive the  
2

 I   0   sin 2  
m

2   2  0 
expression for RMS value of sinusoidal
alternating current in terms of its peak value.
2
The RMS value of an alternating current is given by
 I  
m

that value of direct current which, when flowing 2

2
through a given circuit for a given time produces the I
same amount of heat as produced by alternating mean square value  m

2
when flowing through the same circuit for the same Im
Root mean square value  Irms  I 
time. 2
Alternating current can be expressed analytically as, Hence, root mean square i.e. r.m.s. value can be
i=Im sin where, =t calculated as, Irms=0.707 Im
Taking square of current,
i2=Im2sin2 Q.12: Define Average value and derive the

expression for average value of sinusoidal
alternating current in terms of its peak value.
Average value of an alternating quantity is defined
as the sum of all the instantaneous values over a
given interval divided by the number of intervals of
that interval.
Alternating current can be expressed analytically as,
i  I m sin 

Wave form for i2 is plotted for an half cycle. To find

the area under the curve (i2), an interval of d is
consider at a distance  from origin.
π
Area of squared curve over half cycle=  i2 · d

0
The length of base is π. Therefore, mean value of
square of current over half cycle,
Area of squared curve over half cycle Figure shows one half cycles for instantaneous
= Length of base over half cycle current. Here to find area under the curve, consider
 an interval of d at a distance  from the origin.
 i d
2

Average value of current over a half cycle,
1 Area under the curve over half cycle
  i d
0 2
Iav= Length of base over half cycle
  0

 1

1
I
2
sin d
2 I avg 
  id
 0
m
0

2 
1  cos  i d
 I m
 d
 0 2 I avg  0

2

 sin 2 
 I m  

 1
2  2  I avg 
 I
0
m sin  d

6
 seconds or when expressed in terms of angle, it is π/2
I avg 
Im
 cos o
 radians.
2I m In-phase Quantities
I avg   0.637 I m

Thus average value of sine wave is equal to 0.637
times the peak value.
Q.13: Define form factor and peak factor
Form factor
The ratio of r.m.s value to average value of an When two alternating quantities of the same
alternating quantity is called as form factor. Thus, for frequency attain their corresponding values (e.g.
sinusoidal voltage and current
zero, positive maximum, etc.) simultaneously, they
R.M.S. value are said to be in phase with each other.
Form factor, Kf = Average value
The two alternating quantities v and i considered can
0.707  Maximum value be represented by the following equations:
= = 1.11
0.637  Maximum value
v  Vm sin   Vm sin t 
Peak factor i  I m sin   I m sin t 
The peak factor of an alternating quaintly is defined
as ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value. This Out of phase Quantities
factor may also be called as crest factor or amplitude Two alternating quantities of the same frequency
factor. which attain their corresponding values at different
For sinusoidal voltage and current, instants are said to be out of phase.
Maximum value Leading alternating quantity as one which attains its
Peak factor, Kp= R.M.S. value
zero or maximum value earlier as compared with the
Maximum value other quantity.
= =1.414
0.707  Maximum value

Q.14: What is phase of an electrical quantity?

Explain the term in phase and out of phase of an
electrical quantity along with phasor diagram.
Phase

Voltage is represented by the equation,

v  Vm sin   Vm sin t 
And current is represented by,
i  I m sin(   )  I m sin t   
Here i is leading ahead v by Φ.
Similarly, lagging alternating quantity is that which
The fraction of the time period (T) that elapses in attains its zero or maximum value latter than the
achieving certain instantaneous value is known as other quantity.
phase of that alternating quantity. For example, in
Fig. phase of the alternating quantity at point S is T/4

7
 Voltage is represented by the equation,
v  Vm sin   Vm sin t 
And the current is represented by,
i  I m sin(   )  I m sin t   
Here i is lagging behind v by Φ.

Solved Numericals
Q 409.756  10–6
V3 =C = = 58.536 volt
3 7  10–6
Unit 2, Part A: Electrostatics
(iii) Energy stored ,
1) Three capacitors of capacitance 2 µF, 3µF and 7
µF are connected in series across 400 volt D.C. 1 2
First Capacitor : 2 C1V1
supply. Calculate
(i) Charge on each capacitor, 1
= 2 (2  10–6)  (204.878)2=0.0419 Joule
(ii) Potential difference across each capacitor,
(iii) Energy stored on each capacitor. 1 2
Second Capacitor :2 C2 V2
Solution :
1
Equivalent capacitance of series combination, = 2 (3  10–6) (136.585) 2=0.0279 Joule
1 1 1 1
= + + 1
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Third Capacitor :2 C3 V23
1 1 1
= + + 1
2  10–6 3  10–6 7  10–6 = 2 (7  10–6)  (58.536)2=0.0119 Joule
Ceq = 1.024 µF
2) Two capacitors of 2 µF and 4 µF are connected
(i) Charge on each capacitor,
in parallel across 100 V D.C. supply. Determine
Q = CV = 1.024  10–6  400=409.756 µC (i) Equivalent capacitance of their combination
(ii) Potential difference across each capacitor. (ii) Charge on each capacitor
Potential difference across2 µF, (iii) Energy stored on each
Q 409.756  10–6 capacitor.
V1=C = = 204.878 volt
1 2  10–6 Solution : Given : C1 = 2 µF, C2 = 4 µF, V = 100
V.
Cequ=C1 + C2=2  10–6 + 4  10–6=6  10–6 F= 6 µF
Potential difference across 3 µF,
Charge on each capacitor,
Q 409.756  10–6
V2 =C = = 136.585 volt Q1 = C1V = 2  10–6  100=200 µC
2 3  10–6
Potential difference across 7 µF, Q2 = C2V = 4  10–6  100=400 µC
Energy stored in each capacitor:

8
 1 1 D 8.854  10–6
E1 = C V2 =  2  10–6  1002 = 0.01 Joule E = = =1  106 V/m
2 1 2 o 8.854  10–12
1 1 5) The capacitance of capacitor of two parallel
E2 = 2 C2 V2=2  4  10–6 1002 = 0.02 Joule
plates each of 200 cm2 area separated by a dielectric
3) The plate area of a parallel-plate capacitor is 0.01 4 mm thick is a 0.0004 µF. A potential difference of
sq. m. The distance between the plates is 2.5 cm. The 20 kV is applied across it. Calculate
insulating medium is air. Find its capacitance. What (i) the total charge on the plates,
would be its capacitance, if the space between the
(ii) potential gradient in V/m,
plates is filled with an insulating material of relative
(iii) dielectric flux density,
permittivity 5 ?
(iv) relative permitivity of dielectric.
Solution : A = 0.01 m2, d = 2.5 cm.
Solution : (i) Total charge on the plate,
(i) When the dielectric medium is air,
Q = CV=0.0004  10–6  20  103 = 8  10–6 C
o A 8.854  10–12  0.01
C = d = =3.5410–12 F dv V
2.5  10–2 (ii) Potential gradient, E=dx = d
(ii) When the dielectric medium having relative
20  103
permittivity = 5. = = 5  106 V/m
4  10–3
o r A 8.854  10–12  5  0.01 Q
C = d =
2.5  10–2 (iii) Dielectric flux density, D=A
=17.71  10–12 F. 8  10–6
= = 4  10–4 C/m2
4) A capacitor consists of two parallel rectangular 200  10–4
plates each 120 mm2 separated by D
(iv) Relative permittivity, E=
1 mm in air. When voltage of 1000 volt is applied o r
between the plates, an average current of 12 mA D 4  10–4
 r= = = 9
flows for 5 seconds. Calculate o E 8.854  10–12  5  106
(i) the charge on the capacitor,
(ii) electric flux density,
(iii) electric field strength in the dielectric.
Solution : A = 120 mm2, d = 1 mm, V = 1000 volt
Capacitance of the capacitor,
o A 8.854  10–12  120  10–6
C = d = Unit 2, Part B: AC Fundamentals
1  10–3
=1.062  10–12 Farad 6) An alternating current is given by
(i) Charge on the capacitor, Q=CV i=14.14sin377t. Find (i)frequency, (ii) R.M.S. value
=1.062  10–12  1000=1.062  10–9 Coulomb of current, (iii) Average value of current (iv) Form
(ii) Electric flux density,
Factor (v) Peak Factor (vi) instantaneous value of
Q 1.062  10–9
D= A = =8.854  10–6 C/m2
120  10–6 current, when t = 3 ms and (vii) time taken by current
(iii) Electric field strength,

9
to reach 10 Amp for 1st time after passing  π
i= Idc + Im1 sin wt + Im2 sin wt –  + Im3 sin
 6 
through zero.
 π
Solution : i=14.14 sin 377 t=Im sin t = Im sin 2πft 5wt + 3
 
2πf=377 π

total current i=10 + 12 sin wt + 6 sin wt – 6 + 4 sin
377 377  
f= 2π = = 60 Hz
2  3.14)  π
5wt + 3
 
Im 14.14
RMS value of current I= = = 10 Amp
2 2 To get RMS value of current, let us find the heat
2𝐼𝑚 2𝑥14.14 produced by them when flows through a wire of
Average value of current Iav= =
𝜋 𝜋
resistance R for time t.
= 9.006 Amp
 Im1  2  Im2  2  Im3  2
RMS value 10 I2 Rt =Idc2Rt +   Rt +   Rt +   Rt
Form factor=Average value = 9.006 = 1.11  2  2  2
 12  2  6  2  4  2
Peak value 14.14 I2 =(10)2 +   +   +   =198
Peak factor = RMS value = 10 = 1.414  2  2  2
I=14.07 Amp.
i, when t=3 ms
8) A non sinusoidal voltage waveform has form
i= 14.14 sin (377  (180/π) 3  10– 3)=12.79 Amp
factor of 1.15 and peak factor of 1.5. If the maximum
i= 10 Amp t=?
value of voltage is 4500 V, calculate the average
10=14.14 sin (377 (180/π) t) value and r.m.s. value of the voltage.
 10 
377 (180/π) t=sin– 1 14.14 Solution : form factor = 1.15, peak factor = 1.5,
 
Vm = 4500
t=2.083 ms
Peak value
7) Find the effective value of a resultant current in a Peak factor=RMS value
wire which carries simultaneously a current of 10
Peak value 4500
RMS value=Peak factor = 1.5 =3000 volt
Amp and alternating current given by

 π  π RMS value
i = 12 sin wt + 6 sin wt – 6 + 4 sin 5 wt + 3 Form factor=Average value
   
Solution : The effective value is the rms value of an 3000
Average value = 1.15
alternating quantity.
3000
Average value= 1.15 = 2608.69 volt.

10
9) An alternating current varying sinusoidally with 10) A 60 Hz sinusoidal current has an instantaneous
a frequency of 50 Hz has a r.m.s. value of 20Amp. value of 7.07 at t = 0 and r.m.s. value of 10 2 A.
At what time, measured from negative and positive Assuming current wave to enter positive half at t = 0.
maximum value, instantaneous current will be Determine (i) Expression for instantaneous current,
10 2 (ii) Magnitude of current at t = 0.0125 second, (iii)
Amp. Magnitude of current at t = 0.025 sec after t = 0.
Solution : f = 50 Hz, Irms = 20 Amp, i= Solution :
1
10 2 , T = 50 = 0.02 sec. = 20 ms

Im = I  2 = 20  2 = 28.28 Amp

i = Im sin t=Im sin (2πft)

= 28.28 sin (2π  50  t)
= 28.28 sin (314 t) Amp. frequency, f=60 Hz, Irms=10 2 Amp.

i=7.07 A at t = 0

we know, Imax= 2 · Irms= 2  10 2 =20 Amps

Given that, current wave when start at t = 0, enters in

positive half i.e. (as per standard equation  = 90o
after is start, as shown in Figure).
 Here, current equation is, i= Im sin (t + )
time required to reach 10 2 first time from t = 0
(since i is not zero at t = 0)
10 2 =20  2 sin (314 (180/π) t)
where  is the angle made by i w.r.t. reference axis.
10
20 = 0.5 = sin (314 (180/π) t) 7.07=Im sin (t + )

314  (180/π) t=sin– 1 (0.5) 7.07=20 sin ()

t=0.00166 sec.= 1.66 ms 7.07

= sin–1 20  =sin–1 (0.3535)
 
time required from -Ve maximum
=20.70o or 0.3613 radian
t1 = 5 ms + 1.66 ms=6.66 ms
(i) expression is, i=Im sin (t + )
time required from + Ve maximum to zero is 5 ms
= 15 ms + 1.66 ms = 16.66 ms =20 sin (2π60 t  (180/π) 20.70) …(1)
put t =0.0124 sec, we get

11
i= 20 sin (120π  (180/π) 0.0125 + 20.70)= – —— 2π
Vm3 = Vm3  = 30  120° = – 15 + j 25.98
3
18.708 Amp.
Resultant maximum value
put t = 0.025 sec, we get
—— —— —— ——
i =20 sin (120 π  (180/π)  0.025 + 20.70) VmR = Vm1 + Vm2 + Vm3

= – 7.07 Amp = (10 + j0) + (14.14 – j 14.14) + (– 15 + j 25.98)

= (10 + 14.14 – 15) + j (– 14.14 + 25.98)
11)𝐼𝑓 𝑉1 = 30 + 𝑗40 = 50∠53.130 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 10 +
= 9.142 + j 11.83=14.95  52.32° volt
𝑗20 = 22.36∠63.4350
𝑉 The expression for resultant voltage,
Find 1) 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 2)𝑉1 − 𝑉2 3)𝑉1 ∗ 𝑉2 4) 𝑉1
2
v=VmR sin (t + )=14.95 sin (t + 52.32°) volt
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = (30 + 10) + 𝑗(40 + 20) = 40 + 𝑗60
= 72.11∠56.30

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = (30 − 10) + 𝑗(40 − 20) = 20 + 𝑗20

= 28.28∠45

𝑉1 ∗ 𝑉2 = 50∠53.130 ∗ 22.36∠63.4350
= 1118∠116.5650

𝑉1 50∠53.130
= = 2.236∠−10.3050
𝑉2 22.36∠63.4350

12) Find the resultant of three voltages given by

 π
V1 = 10 sin wt, V2 = 20 sin wt – 4 , and V3 = 30
 
 π
cos wt + 6
 
 π
Solution : V1 = 10 sin wt, V2= 20 sin wt – 4 , V3=
 
 π π π
30 cos wt + 6 =30 sin 2 + wt + 6 = 30 sin
   
 2π
wt + 3 
 
—— ——
Vm1 = Vm1  0 = 10  0 = 10 + j0,

—— π
Vm2 = Vm2  4 = 20  – 45° = 14.14 – j 14.14

12