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Hypothesis Testing (1)

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5 views

Hypothesis Testing (1)

Uploaded by

Vidhi Tanwar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Hypothesis testing

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make decisions or inferences


about a population based on sample data. It helps you determine whether the
evidence in your sample data supports a specific claim or hypothesis about the
population.
1.Null Hypothesis (H₀):
 This is the default assumption or claim that there is no effect or no
difference in the population. It’s the hypothesis that you're trying to test
against.
 Example: "The average height of adult men in a city is 170 cm."
o H 0: μ=170

2.Alternative Hypothesis (H₁):


 This is the claim that there is an effect or a difference. It’s what you want to
prove.
 Example: "The average height of adult men is different from 170 cm."
o H 1: μ≠170

3.Significance Level (α):


 This is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually
true (Type I error). It is typically set at 0.05, meaning you are willing to
accept a 5% chance of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis.
4.Test Statistic:
 A test statistic is a standardized value calculated from the sample data that
is used to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis. It helps compare
your data to the distribution under the null hypothesis.
 Common test statistics include z, t, F, and chi-square values and ANOVA.
5.P-Value:
 The p-value measures the probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as
extreme as the one observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
 If the p-value is less than α, you reject the null hypothesis.
6.Decision:
 Reject H 0: If the evidence suggests that the sample data is sufficiently
different from what the null hypothesis predicts, you reject it.
 Fail to Reject H 0: If the data does not show strong enough evidence, you do
not reject the null hypothesis

Critical value:
In hypothesis testing, critical value and critical region are key concepts used to
determine whether to reject the null hypothesis based on the test statistic.
 The critical value is a threshold or cutoff point that defines the boundary
between the rejection region and the non-rejection region for the null
hypothesis.
 It is determined based on the significance level α (e.g., 0.05 or 0.01) and the
type of test being conducted (one-tailed or two-tailed).
 If the calculated test statistic (e.g., z-score or t-score) is more extreme than
the critical value, you reject the null hypothesis.
Critical Value and the Significance Level (α):
 For a significance level of α=0.05, the critical value represents the point
beyond which there is only a 5% chance that the test statistic will fall if the
null hypothesis is true.
Example:
 For a z-test with α=0.05, the critical value for a two-tailed test is
approximately ±1.96, meaning that if the calculated z-value is less than -
1.96 or greater than 1.96, you reject H 0.

Critical Region:
 The critical region (or rejection region) is the area in the tails of the
distribution that corresponds to extreme values of the test statistic. If the
test statistic falls within this region, the null hypothesis is rejected.
 The size of the critical region is determined by the significance level α. In a
two-tailed test with α=0.05, the critical region consists of the upper 2.5%
and lower 2.5% of the distribution (together making up 5%).
Example of Critical Region:
 For a two-tailed z-test with α=0.05, the critical region lies in both tails of
the standard normal distribution, at z-values greater than 1.96 and less than
-1.96.
 For a one-tailed z-test with α=0.05, the critical region would lie in just one
tail (greater than 1.645 or less than -1.645, depending on the direction of
the test).
Z-test:
 A Z-test is a type of statistical test used to determine whether there is a
significant difference between sample and population means, or between
the means of two samples, assuming the population variance is known.
 It is used when the sample size is large (typically n>30) and the data follows
a normal distribution.

Assumptions of Z-tests:
 The population standard deviation (σ) is known.
 The data is normally distributed.
 Large sample size (for the Central Limit Theorem to hold)

Hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis ( H 0): The means of the two samples are equal.
 Alternative hypothesis ( H 1): The means of the two samples are not equal

x̄−μ
Z= σ
√n
Where
x̄ = sample mean,

μ= population mean,
σ = population standard deviation,
n = sample size
t – test:
A t-test is a statistical test used to compare the means of two groups to determine
if they are significantly different from each other. It is commonly used when the
data is normally distributed and the sample sizes are relatively small (typically
n<30).

Assumptions of T-Tests
 The data is approximately normally distributed.
 The variances of the two groups are equal (for independent t-tests).
 The data should be independent of each other in the case of independent
samples.

x̄−μ
t= s
√n
Where
x̄ = sample mean,

μ= population mean,
s = sample standard deviation,
n = sample size

One and two-tailed test:


In hypothesis testing, one-tailed and two-tailed tests are used to determine
the direction of the statistical test based on the research question. These
approaches affect how the test interprets the p-value and determines statistical
significance.
1.One tailed test (Directional Test):
A one-tailed test checks for the possibility of the relationship in one
specific direction. It is used when you have a specific hypothesis about the
direction of the effect (e.g., one mean is greater than or less than a specified
value, but not both).
 Right-tailed (upper-tailed) test: Used when you want to test if the sample
mean is greater than the population mean.
 Left-tailed (lower-tailed) test: Used when you want to test if the sample
mean is less than the population mean.

2. Two-Tailed Test (Non-Directional Test):


A two-tailed test checks for the possibility of the relationship in both
directions. It is used when you're interested in testing whether the sample mean
is significantly different from the population mean, but you don't have a specific
hypothesis about whether it is higher or lower.

Type 1 and Type 2 errors:


Type 1 and Type 2 errors are concepts in statistical hypothesis testing that occur
when making decisions about the null hypothesis (typically a statement of no
effect or no difference).

1. Type 1 Error (False Positive):


 Definition: A Type 1 error occurs when you reject the null hypothesis when
it is actually true.
 Meaning: You conclude that there is an effect or a difference when in
reality, there isn’t one.
 Example: In a clinical trial, if a new drug is found to be effective when in
reality it is not, a Type 1 error has been made.

2. Type 2 Error (False Negative):


 Definition: A Type 2 error occurs when you fail to reject the null hypothesis
when it is actually false.
 Meaning: You conclude that there is no effect or difference when in reality,
there is one.
 Example: In a clinical trial, if a new drug is found to be ineffective when it is
actually effective, a Type 2 error has been made.

Summary Table:

Error Type True State Decision Outcome

Type 1 Null hypothesis is true Reject the null hypothesis False Positive

Type 2 Null hypothesis is false Fail to reject the null hypothesis False Negative

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