BOE 302_ UNIT - III Introduction to Automation

Input Devices
What are Transducers?

Transducers are versatile devices that play a crucial role in transforming energy and enabling a wide range of
technological advancements across various industries.

Types of Transducers

1. Resistive Transducers
A resistive transducer is a type of sensor that converts physical changes (such as displacement, pressure, temperature, or
force) into a measurable change in electrical resistance. The change in resistance can be easily measured and used to
determine the value of the physical quantity being sensed.

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2. Capacitive Transducers

A capacitive transducer is a type of sensor that converts changes in a physical parameter (such as displacement, pressure,
force, or humidity) into a corresponding change in capacitance. The capacitance of a system depends on the geometry of
the capacitor (the distance between the plates and the area of the plates) and the dielectric material between them.

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3. Inductive Transducers

Changes in physical quantities (like displacement

or pressure) modify one or more of these
parameters, resulting in a change in inductance.
This change in inductance can be detected and
measured using appropriate electronic circuits,
such as an LCR (inductor-capacitor-resistor)
circuit or a Wheatstone bridge.

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4. Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers are sensors that convert mechanical energy (such as pressure, force, or vibration) into electrical
energy and vice versa, using the piezoelectric effect. This effect occurs in certain materials, such as quartz or specially
designed ceramics, which generate an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical stress. Conversely, applying an
electrical field to these materials causes them to deform mechanically.

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5. Photoelectric Transducers

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Sensor - is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be
measured or recorded and its acquires information from the “real world”

Elements of Sensing - Human body is endowed with 5 elements of sensing.

Need of Sensors in Daily Life

Relevance/ Applications of Sensors in Industry

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Sensor Vs Transducer
 Transducer converts one form of signal to another form
 Most sensors are transducers, but all transducers are not
sensors
 Transducers do signal conditioning. Can consists of filter,
amplifier.

Working Principle of Sensors

Sensors typically operate by transforming physical phenomena into electrical signals. This can involve:

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Classification of Sensors
Sensors can be categorized based on various criteria
A. By Functionality

 Active Sensors: Generate their own signal and measure the response (e.g., Radar, Lidar).

 Passive Sensors: Measure external energy (e.g., thermocouples, photodiodes).

B. By Physical Quantity

 Temperature Sensors: (e.g., Thermocouples, RTDs) measure temperature changes.

 Pressure Sensors: (e.g., Barometers, Pressure transducers) measure pressure.

 Light Sensors: (e.g., Photocells, Photodiodes) detect light intensity.

 Motion Sensors: (e.g., Accelerometers, PIR sensors) detect movement or acceleration.

 Humidity Sensors: (e.g., Hygrometers) measure moisture levels in the air.

C. By Output Signal

 Analog Sensors: Produce a continuous output signal that is proportional to the measured variable.

 Digital Sensors: Produce discrete output signals, often binary (e.g., on/off states).

D. By Industry Type

 Manufacturing / Factory Automation Sensors -

 Process Automation Sensors

Active and Passive Sensors

Active sensors generate their own energy source to illuminate objects or environments they measure. They emit
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, then detect the response from the environment.

How They Work: Emit energy toward the target and measure the reflected or scattered energy.

Examples:

• Radar: Sends out radio waves and detects the reflections to measure distance, speed, and size.

• Sonar: Uses sound waves to detect objects, often underwater.

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Passive sensors rely on external sources of energy, typically natural sources like sunlight, to detect and measure
radiation or energy reflected or emitted from objects.

How They Work: Measure natural energy (like sunlight) reflected from objects or emitted thermal radiation.

Examples:

 Photographic Cameras: Capture images based on ambient light.

 Thermal Infrared Sensors: Detect heat emitted from objects and measure temperature variations.
 Satellite Imagery Sensors: Use sunlight reflected from Earth’s surface to create visual data for mapping and
analysis.

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Sensor Characteristics

Evaluation of sensors

APPLICATION OF SENSORS

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Classification of Controllers in Industrial Automation

Industrial Control System (ICS) is a collective term used to describe different types of control systems and related
instrumentation, which include the devices, systems, networks, and controls used to operate and/or automate
industrial processes.

Controllers in industrial automation are devices or systems that manage, command, direct, or regulate the
behavior of other devices or systems.

Purpose: To ensure that processes operate within set parameters, improving efficiency, safety, and reliability.

Controllers can be classified based on their design, functionality, application, and the type of control they
provide. The main classifications include:

1. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) Rugged, versatile, and widely used industrial computers that
execute ladder logic programs to control manufacturing processes and equipment.
2. Distributed Control Systems (DCS) Networked systems of interconnected controllers, sensors, and
actuators used to monitor and control complex industrial processes across multiple locations.
3. Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs) Advanced, flexible controllers that combine the
functionality of PLCs, motion control, and industrial PCs to handle a wide range of automation tasks.
4. Industrial PCs (IPCs) Standard PC hardware designed for industrial environments, often used for human-
machine interface (HMI), data logging, and advanced control applications.
5. Embedded Controllers Specialized, single-purpose controllers integrated directly into equipment or
machinery, offering compact, cost-effective solutions for targeted automation tasks.

Benefits of Industrial Automation Controllers

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Applications of Controllers in Industrial Automation

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are versatile and powerful industrial control devices that are widely used in various
industries to automate and control a wide range of processes and machines.

PLCs are designed to monitor inputs, execute programmed logic, and control output devices, making them an essential
component in industrial automation.

Architecture of PLC

Input Devices Vs Output Devices

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Types of PLC
A. Based on Size and Capacity

B. Based on Functionality

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Principles of Operation

Ladder Programming for Logic Functions

Ladder Programming for Logic Functions

Basic guide to implementing logic functions in ladder programming:

1. Basic Ladder Logic Components

 Contacts: Represent inputs or conditions (e.g., push buttons, sensors).

o Normally Open (NO) contact: Allows current when active.

o Normally Closed (NC) contact: Blocks current when active.
 Coils: Represent outputs or actions (e.g., motors, lamps).
o A coil energizes when the rung is true (all conditions in that rung are satisfied).
 Rungs: Horizontal lines in the ladder that contain logic and control the flow of current to activate outputs.

2. Implementing Basic Logic Functions

Below are examples of ladder diagrams to represent fundamental logic functions:

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Merits and Demerits of PLC

Ladder Programming for Logic Functions

Ladder logic diagram is graphical programming language which executes through real time input. It has two vertical line,
which are called as rails, the left rail supplies power to the circuit, then it passes through each rung. Each rung has switches
and output coil.

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Examples of Ladder Logic Functions

1. Motor Control
o Start/Stop Control: Using a start button (NO contact) and a stop button (NC contact) to control a motor
(coil).
o Interlocking: Ensure that only one motor can run at a time by using interlocking contacts.
2. Sequence Control
o Conveyor Belt Operation: Sequentially start and stop motors and actuators to control the movement of
items on a conveyor belt.
3. Timer Applications
o Pump Control: Use an on-delay timer to delay the start of a pump after a signal is received.
o Lighting Control: Use an off-delay timer to keep a light on for a set period after the input signal goes off.
4. Counter Applications
o Batch Counting: Counting products or items passing through a sensor to control batch processes.
o Production Monitoring: Counting the number of cycles a machine completes for maintenance or
productivity tracking.

Advantages of Ladder Logic Programming

 Graphical Representation: Easy to understand and visualize the control logic.
 Integration: Widely supported by PLC manufacturers and automation software.
 Maintenance: Simplifies troubleshooting and modifications with clear graphical representations.

Limitations of Ladder Logic Programming

 Complexity: Large programs can become complex and difficult to manage.
 Flexibility: Limited compared to high-level programming languages in terms of algorithmic complexity.
 Scalability: Limited scalability for very large and complex control systems.

Principles of Hard Wire System and PLC

In industrial automation, control systems are crucial for managing and automating processes. Two fundamental types of
control systems are hard-wired systems and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).

1. Introduction to Hard-Wired Systems

Definition: Hard-wired systems are control systems where all the control logic is implemented using fixed
physical wiring and components like switches, relays, and contactors.

Purpose: To automate processes and control machinery without the need for software programming.

Basic Components of Hard-Wired Systems

1. Switches
o Types: Toggle, push-button, limit switches.
o Function: Manually initiate or stop a process.
2. Relays
o Electromechanical Devices: Operate by opening or closing contacts in response to electrical signals.
o Types: General-purpose relays, solid-state relays, timing relays.

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3. Contactors
o Heavy-Duty Relays: Used for switching higher power loads like motors and lighting circuits.
o Function: Control the power supply to the load.
4. Timers
o Function: Provide time delays in the control process.
o Types: On-delay, off-delay, and interval timers.
5. Sensors
o Types: Proximity sensors, limit switches, temperature sensors.
o Function: Detect physical conditions and send signals to the control system.
6. Actuators
o Types: Solenoids, motors, pneumatic cylinders.
o Function: Convert electrical signals into physical movement.

Principles of Operation
1. Fixed Wiring Configuration
o Control logic is established by physically connecting wires between the components.
o Each wire and connection point represents a specific function in the control logic.
2. Relay Logic
o Relays are used to perform logical operations by energizing or de-energizing contacts.
o Example: AND logic is implemented by wiring relays in series; OR logic by wiring relays in parallel.
3. Sequential Control
o The process is controlled in a specific sequence determined by the arrangement of relays and switches.
o Example: A conveyor system where the start of one section depends on the completion of the previous
section.
4. Signal Transmission
o Signals are transmitted through physical wires.
o Each signal path must be manually wired to connect the appropriate components.
5. Feedback Mechanisms
o Sensors provide feedback to the system to ensure the desired operation.
o Example: A limit switch that stops a motor when a component reaches a specific position.

Applications of Hard-Wired Systems

 Simple Automation Tasks: Basic machinery control, lighting control systems, and small process automation.
 Industrial Processes: Early industrial automation systems and backup systems for critical processes.
 Safety Systems: Emergency stop circuits and interlocks.

Advantages of Hard-Wired Systems

1. Simplicity: Easy to understand and troubleshoot with basic electrical knowledge.
2. Reliability: Mechanical relays and switches are robust and reliable.
3. No Programming Required: Does not require software knowledge or programming skills.
4. Cost-Effective: Lower initial cost for simple applications.

Disadvantages of Hard-Wired Systems

1. Inflexibility: Changes to the control logic require physical rewiring, making it difficult to adapt to new
requirements.
2. Complexity in Large Systems: Large systems can become complex and cumbersome to wire and troubleshoot.
3. Maintenance: Mechanical components like relays and switches wear out and require regular maintenance.
4. Scalability: Limited ability to expand the system without significant rewiring and additional components.

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Comparison of PLC with Hard-Wired Systems

Basics of Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electric actuators

What Are Actuators?

Actuators are mechanical devices that convert energy into motion. This involves a control command that signals
a change in a physical system which then generates force to accomplish a task. The commanding signal can be
human-operated or automatically controlled while the energy source varies.

The primary function of actuators is to control machines and allow parts to move. This motion can be any one
of hundreds of operations such as lifting, clamping, blocking and ejecting. Typically, actuators are key parts in
industrial and manufacturing operations where they activate valves, pumps, motors and switches.

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Actuators usually control and direct mechanized motion. Movements can be linear, rotary or oscillatory. In
other terms, that motion can be in one direction, circular or back and forth in regular intervals. No matter what
end motion a mechanized system desires, it would impossible to achieve without actuator assistance.

What Are the Three Types of Actuators?

There are three different actuator types — hydraulic, pneumatic and electric.

Actuators classify first by the type of motion they produce. While rotary actuators generate rotation, linear actuators
move in a straight path. Either type can also take the designation of oscillating if the movement cycles regularly.

Actuator types are next characterized by what energy form the actuator employs to convert the source from a potential
state into physical motion. Potential energy is stored energy with the ability to do work. Kinetic energy is the energy of
motion. The most common energy sources are compressed fluids, compressed gas and electricity.

Hydraulic actuators operate with compressed fluid and control movement by managing the amount of fluid inside. Adding
fluid increases pressure while reducing it lessens the force. These actuators are ideal for applications that need more
significant power, but you can also commonly find them in products like exercise equipment.
 The primary advantage of pneumatic systems is that they run on compressed air or gas instead of fluid. As a result,
they are involatile and require no electricity to perform. Pneumatic actuators are versatile and affordable, making
them popular for braking systems and pressure sensors.
 The function of an electric actuator is to generate mechanical power from electricity input. Since the power source
is consistent and continuous, these actuator types offer easy maintenance and are ideal for high-precision work.
Electric actuators are common in manufacturing, robotics and electric vehicles.

Hydraulic Actuators
It is a device used to convert fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear
type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.

The pressurized hydraulic fluid delivered by the hydraulic pump is supplied to the actuators, which converts the energy
of the fluid into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used to get the work done.

The hydraulic systems consist a number of parts for its proper functioning. These include storage tank, filter, hydraulic
pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic cylinder, piston, and leak-proof fluid flow pipelines. The schematic of
a simple hydraulic system is shown in figure.
It consists of:
1. A Movable Piston Connected to the Output Shaft in an Enclosed Cylinder
2. Storage Tank
3. Filter
4. Electric Pump
5. Pressure Regulator
6. Control Valve

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Pneumatic Actuators
Compressing air is a technology that’s been around a long time. It’s simply intaking air at atmospheric pressure and then
mechanically compressing it to a higher pressure. Most actuator systems that use pneumatic power have compression
rates of about 80 to 100 psi.

This limited pressure rate makes pneumatic systems stable and safe. However, the low pressure rating makes them less
powerful than higher capacity hydraulic actuators. Selecting a pneumatic system over a hydraulic or electric actuator is
also a matter of application.

Pneumatic actuator systems have five main parts — a primary motor, a compressor unit, a storage tank, a delivery hose
network and the actuator device. In the right situation, such as lighter duty applications, pneumatic systems are good
choices. Here are some pros and cons of pneumatic actuators.

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Electric Actuators
Electric activators work on alternating current that energizes an electric motor. Electric energy converts into torque which
drives the actuator. This is a straightforward principle that’s becoming far more accepted in the actuator industry.

Electric actuators use mechanical components like lead screws and gears to open and close their applications. The
difference between pneumatic and electric actuators is that the electric motor is part of the actuator assembly rather than
separate. Once applicable to light-duty work, that’s now changing. Here are more pros and cons of electric actuators.

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