Chapter 3: Introduction to Physical Layer

Physical layer in the 0SI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signalling mechanism. The physical layer’s main functionality is transmitting data from one
computer another. Physical layer is the only layer of 0Sl network model which actually deals
with the physical connectivity of two different computers.
Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames
to physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary data.
The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media. It performs symbol encoding,
transmission, reception and decoding.
This layer provides an electrical, mechanical, and procedural interface to the transmission
medium. This layer interfaces with the data link layer and perform symbol encoding,
transmission, reception and decoding.

Transmission Media
Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits information from the
source transmitter to the receiver. It is a physical path for data transfer through electromagnetic
signal Information is carried over in the form of bits through LAN. It can mediate the
propagation of signals for telecommunication. Signals are imposed on a wave that is suitable for
the chosen medium. These media lie underneath the physical layer that regulates them. There are
two different types of media:

1. Guided Media: It includes all wired/cable communication mediums like optic fibre, twisted
pair cable, or coaxial cable.
2. Unguided Media: lt includes wireless or open-air space communication because there is no
physical connection between sender and receiver. It includes Wi-Fi communication.
Guided media
Guided media are also known as known as wired or bounded media. These media consist
of wires through which the data is transferred. Guided media is a physical link between
transmitter and recipient devices. Signals are directed in a narrow pathway using physical links.
These media types are used for shorter distances since physical limitation limits the signal that
flows through these transmission media.
Features of Guided Media
1 High speed
2. Secure
3. Used for shorter distances.

Basic types of Guided Media

1. Twisted Pair
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Optical Fibre
1. Twisted Pair

Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
modes Ethernet networks. These cables are made by twisting two distinct insulated copper wires
together make a single cable. Shields are often formed of insulating materials, allowing both
cables to transmit independently. This twisted wire is then enclosed inside a protective coating to
make it easier to use.
A twisted cable consists two thin insulated copper wires twisted to from a spiral. A pair of
wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to protect against crosstalk, the
noise generate by adjacent pairs.
There are two types of twisted-pair Cables:
1. Shielded Twisted-pair (STP)
2. Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP)
 1. Shielded Twisted-pair (STP)

This type of cable consists of a special Jacket, a copper braid covering, or a foil shield to
block external interference, It also eliminates the cross-talk which is the undesired effect of
picking up some of the signals traveling in another line. It is used in fast data rate Ethernet and
voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 The twisted conductors are shielded by a copper braid covering, or a foil shield to reduce
noise interference.
 Low cost medium and Support data rates up to several Mbps.
 Twisted pairs can also be used for either analog or digital transmission.
 The bandwidth supported by the wire depends on the thickness of the wire and the
distance to be travelled by a signal on it
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in Comparison to UTP
 Cross talk is eliminated
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 It costs more than UTP .
 STP is harder and heavier to install as the shielding makes less flexible

2. Unshielded Twisted-pair
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of cable can
block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephone applications. Unshielded cables are popular because they are
• Versatile
• Inexpensive
• Easy to install
• Lightweight
• Flexible
Characteristics of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
1. These cables ensure less crosstalk and a higher quality of signal over longer distant Therefore
these cables are popularly used for high-speed computer communication.
2. The wires are not shielded and can support a data rate of several Mbps.
3. Used in applications like analog and digital telephony i.e LAN etc
4. Noise and electromagnetic interference are high.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 It is economical to use .
 UTP is cheap and flexible.
 Easy to install.
 Light weight
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Susceptibility to electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference.
 They also have a smaller bandwidth compared to coaxial cables or fiber optic cables.
Applications of Twisted Pair Cables
• Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
• The DSL lines make use of these cables.
• Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
• They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
• RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair cables.
 Difference between UTP and STP

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors but is constructed differently
to permit it to operate over a wider range of frequencies. It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. The inner conductor is held in place by
either regularly spaced insulating ring or solid dielectric material. The outer conductor is covered
with a jacket or shield. A single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm. Coaxial cable
can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair.

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously .
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk of electromagnetic inference.
 It supports high bandwidth signal transmission compare to twisted pair.
 It is easy to wire and easy to expand due to flexibility
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 It is bulky.
 It is expensive to install for longer distances due to its thickness and stiffness.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

Applications of Coaxial Cables

 In analog telephone networks: A single coaxial network can carry about 10,000 voice
signals.
 In digital telephone networks: A coaxial network has a data rate of 600 Mbps
 The coaxial cables are also used in CCTV systems
 In cable TV networks.

3. Fiber Optics

Optical fibre is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses traveling
along with a long fibre which is usually made of plastic or glass. Metal wires are preferred for
transmission in optical fibre communication as signals travel with less damage. Optical fibres are
also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fibre optical cable uses the application of
total internal reflection of light. The fibers are designed such that they facilitate the propagation
of light along with the optical fiber depending on the requirement of power and distance of
transmission. Single-mode fibre is used long distance transmission. While multimode fibre is
used for shorter distances. The outer cladding of these fibers needs better protection than metal
wires.
Types of Optical Fibres
The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of
propagation of light.
The classification based on the refractive index is :
• Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform
index of refraction.
• Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial distance
from the fibre axis increases.
The classification based on the materials used is:
• Plastic Optical Fibres: Polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the transmission
of light.
• Glass Fibres: These consists of extremely fine glass fibres.

The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

• Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of signals.

Advantages of Optical Fibres

 Economical and cost-effective
 Thin and non-flammable
 Less power consumption
Disadvantages of Optical Fibres
 These cables are very difficult to merge so there will be loss of beam with in cable.
 Installation of these cables is cost effective.
 These cables are more delicate than copper
Applications
 Wires Optical fiber is often found in backbone networks due to its wide bandwidth.
 Some cable TV use both fiber optics and coaxial cable.
 LAN Such as fast Ethernet use optical fiber.
Comparison of all Physical Medium

Unguided Medium/Wireless Medium

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Wireless
transmission can be used as the medium in both LAN and WAN environments .signals are
normally broad cast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.
Unguided transmission media transmit data signals without using a physical conductor.
Unguided / Wireless communication systems consist of:
Transmitters: A transmitter is a necessary component of all electronic devices such as cell
phones, television stations, etc., They are also used for navigation purposes.
Antennas: radiates electromagnetic energy into air.
Receivers: It is an electronic device that receives signals & radio waves that are transmitted b
transmitter.
Suppose if we want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and the source generates a signal
at 300 MHz.
 Amplifier – strengthens the initial signal
 Oscillator – creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
 Mixer – combines signal with oscillator and produces 900 MHz (also does modulation,
etc)
 Filter – selects correct frequency

 Amplifier – Strengthens the signal before sending.

Major types of Wireless Transmission
 Radio Waves
 Micro waves
 Infrared rays
Radio Waves
Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, and can travel long distances
waves are those of low and medium frequencies, and can penetrate walls. Thus an AM radio can
receive signals inside a building also. Radio waves are effortless to generate, and they can travel
long distance.
Features of Radio Transmission
 It can easy to generate
 It is Omni-directional.
 It can traverse long distances.
 They can pass through construction quickly, so they find considerable use in
communication both indoor and outdoor
Advantages of Radio Transmission
 Radio waves offers mobility at a lower price.
 It has a very low setup price as it does not need digging and laying the cables.
 Radio waves can transit long distances.
 Radio waves can penetrate well, therefore we can also receive signals within a building
Disadvantages of Radio Transmission
 It is uncertain and simple to tap communication.
 It gets effected by weather effects like rain, thunderstorms etc.
Radio Wave Propagation
In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The
antennas of different specifications can be used for these purposes. The sizes of these antennas
depend upon the bandwidth and frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and free space may be
divided into the following three categories –
 Line of sight (LOS) propagation
 Ground wave propagation
 Sky wave propagation
Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation:
Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we
commonly notice. In line-of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a
minimum distance of sight. Which means it travels to the distance up to which the naked eye can
see. Now, what happens after that? We need to employ an amplifier cum transmitter here to
amplify the signal and transmit it again.
Ground Wave Propagation:
Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of the earth. Such a wave is
called a direct wave. The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets
reflected in the receiver. Such a wave can be termed a reflected wave. The wave then propagates
through the Earth’s atmosphere and is known as a ground wave. The direct wave and reflected
wave together contribute to the signal at the receiver station.
Sky Wave Propagation:
Sky wave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here
the wave is projected onto the sky and it is again reflected onto the earth. Travel of the wave
from the transmitter to the ionosphere and from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky
Wave Propagation.
Microwave System
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. These signals are used to transmit data without the use of cables. Very high-
frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. It is the line of sight transmission which means
the signal travels in a straight line out signals in one free of material obstacles. Microwaves need
unidirectional antennas that send out signal direction.
Definition : Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by electromagnetic
waves between locations.
Features of Microwave Transmission
 Frequency Range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-
23 GHZ.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: It is inexpensive for a short distance.
 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
  Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions
and antenna size.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
 Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation
of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
 Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
 Eavesdropping: Eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can
catch the signal in the air by using its antenna.
 Out of Phase Signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
There two types of Microwave transmission
1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave

 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a

radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
 Satellite Microwave System: A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth
at a known height.
Characteristics between TMT and SMS

Infrared Rays
Infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges. The
frequency of the infrared is in the range of 300 GHz to 400 THz. It is used for short-range
communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote operation, and data
transfer between a computer and cell phone residing in the same closed area. It supports high
bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high. Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot be interrupted by nearby rooms.
Infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference. Infrared
communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun’s rays will interfere with the
infrared waves.

Comparison between Radio, Microwave and Infrared transmission

Data and Signals

We represent data that we wish to send in the form of signals. It’s called encoding. The number
of data bits we send per second is called as Data Rate. It is represented as bits per second or bps.
Several signal components we send per second are known as Baud Rate. It is represented as
signal components per second.
Signals are of two types
1. Analog
2. Digital
Analog Signals
An Analog signal takes any value among an infinite set of values in any range. For example,
when we speak, our voice is analog.
Analog Properties

• Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.
• Time period: Frequency is also related to the period.
Frequency = 1/Period
• Amplitude: The maximum distance moved by a point or wave measured from its equilibrium
position.
• Phase: The position of a point in time on a waveform cycle.

Digital Signals
Digital signals in digital technology, translation of information is into binary format (either O or
1)
Digital Properties

 Bit Interval: The time taken to transport are single bit is called bit interval.
 Bit Rate: The number of bit intervals per second is known as bit rate.
Transmission Impairment
Transmission impairment is the damage or harm caused to the signal during the signal
transmission. Due to the transmission impairment, the signal received at the receiver end may
differ from the signals sent by the sender. This difference in the strength of the signal is signal
impairment. This means signal at beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at end of
the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
There are 3 causes of impairment are:
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
Attenuation
Attenuation means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as
attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to the attenuated signal which gives the original signal
back and compensate for this loss.
As the signal travels through the medium, its strength decreases as distance increases. As the
distance increases, attenuation also increases.
Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape which can occur in a composite signal
made of different frequencies.
Noise
The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise. In other
words, noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
There are four types of noise.
1. Thermal Noise: It is the random motion of electrons in the wire which creates an extra
signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
2. Induced Noise : Induced noise comes from sources such as motors & appliances. These
devices act as a sending antennae. The transmission-medium acts as the receiving
antenna.
3. Crosstalk : Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending-
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
4. Impulse Noise : Impulse Noise is a spike that comes from power lines, lightning, and so
on.
Data Rate Limits
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second. Over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1 The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formula we developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noise less
channels and other one is Shannon for a noisy channel.
Noiseless channel: Nyquist bit-rate
For noiseless channel, the Nyquist formula defines the theoretical maximum bit-rate .
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth *log2L
where Bandwidth = bandwidth of the channel
L = number of signal -levels used to represent data
Bit Rate = bit rate of channel in bps
According to the formula,
• By increasing the number of signal levels, we can increase the bit rate. Although the idea is
theoretically correct, practically there is a limit.
• When we increase the number of signal levels, we impose a burden on the receiver
• If no. of levels in a signal is 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between 0 and 1.
• If no. of levels is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64
different
• In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy For a noisy channel,
the Shannon capacity formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate.
Capacity= Bandwidth x log (1 + SNR)
Where , Bandwidth = Bandwidth of Channel in bps
SNR= Signal-to-Noise Ratio and
Capacity = Capacity of channel in bps.
This formula does not consider the no. of levels of signals being transmitted (as
done in the Nyquist bit rate). This means that no matter how many levels we have, we
cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the
formula defines a characteristic of the channel not the method of transmission.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) channel
SNR İs used to find the theoretical bit-rate limit. SNR is defined as the ratio of Signal Power to
that Noise Power. SNR is the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise). A
high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise. A low SNR means the signal is more
corrupted by noise. Because SNR is the ratio of 2 powers, it is often described in decibel units,
SNR dB, defined as
SNR(dB)= 10 log10SNR
Performance
We evaluate the performance of a network on certain parameters. Based on that, We can tell
which is a better network option for different applications. The following are the parameters.
Bandwidth:
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. Bandwidth of analog and
digital signals is calculated in separate ways.
(a) Bandwidth of an Analog Signal (in hz) : The bandwidth of an analog signal is expressed in
terms of its frequencies. Bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies that the channel can
carry. It is calculated by the difference b/w the maximum frequency and the minimum frequency.
For example, when the channel allows a signal of a minimum Frequency of F1 = 1000Hz and a
maximum frequency of F2 = 5000Hz, the bandwidth is given by F2- F1= 5000 - 1000 = 4000
Hz.
(b) Bandwidth of a Digital Signal (in bps) : Bandwidth refers to the number of bits transmitted
in one second in a channel (or link). For example, the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. (This means that this network can send 100 Mbps).
Throughput:
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can send data through a network. Although
bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A link may have a
bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B. In
other words,
1. The bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link.
2. The throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the
end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps
through this link
Latency (Delay):
The latency defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time +Queing Time + Processing Time
(a) Propagation Time : Propagation time is defined as the time required for a bit from
source to travel destination. The propagation time is given by
Propagation Time = (Distance / Propagation Speed)
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and frequency of
the signal.
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on the
frequency of the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 x
10^8 m/s. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable.
(b) Transmission Time: In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a
message. The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its
destination: the last bit also may take the same amount of time. However, there is a time
between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver. The first
bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later. The time
required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.
The time required for transmission of a message depends on size of the message and
bandwidth of the channel. The transmission time is given by
Transmission Time = (Message Size/Bandwidth)
(c) Queuing Time : Queuing time is the time needed for each intermediate device to hold the
message before it can be processed.
The queuing time is not a fixed factor: it changes with the load imposed on the network.
When there is heavy traffic on the network. the queuing time increases. An intermediate
device, Such as a router, the queue processes arrived messages one by one. If there are
many messages, each message will have to wait.
(d) Processing Delay: Processing delay is the time taken by the routers to process the packet
header.