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 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
FOR

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

David L. Goetsch

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Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations
have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Goetsch, David L.
Project management for engineering & technology/by David L. Goetsch.
pages cm
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-281640-3
ISBN-10: 0-13-281640-7
1. Project management. I. Title. II. Title: Project management for engineering and technology.
T56.8.G63 2014
658.4’04—dc23 2013042178

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-281640-7

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-281640-3
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface xiii

PART ONE Overview of Project Management

Chapter 1 Overview of Project Management 1
Chapter 2 Roles and Responsibilities of Project Managers 19

PART TWO Project Management—Process Functions

Chapter 3 Project Initiation 39
Chapter 4 Project Planning: The Schedule 59
Chapter 5 Project Planning: The Cost Estimate and Budget 80
Chapter 6 Project Planning: Human Resource, Communication,
Procurement, and Quality Plans 95
Chapter 7 Project Planning: The Risk Management Plan 115
Chapter 8 Project Execution: Build the Project Team 137
Chapter 9 Project Execution: Procurements 160
Chapter 10 Project Monitoring and Control 182
Chapter 11 Project Closeout 206

PART THREE Project Management—People Functions

Chapter 12 Project Managers as Team Leaders 219
Chapter 13 Project Managers as Motivators 233
Chapter 14 Project Managers as Communicators
and Negotiators 253
Chapter 15 Project Managers and Personal Time
Management 280
Chapter 16 Project Managers and Change 295
Chapter 17 Project Managers and Diversity 304
Chapter 18 Project Managers and Adversity 319

Index 330
iii
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii

PART ONE Overview of Project Management

Chapter 1 Overview of Project Management 1
Project Defined 1
Need for Project Managers 6
Essential Elements of a Project 7
Internal Versus External Projects 10
Speaking the Language of Project Management 12
Project Success Criteria 14
People Skills in Project Management 15
Summary 16
Key Terms and Concepts 17
Review Questions 17
Application Activities 17
Endnotes 18

Chapter 2 Roles and Responsibilities of Project Managers 19

The Project Manager’s Functions 19
Process Functions of Project Managers 19
People Functions of Project Managers 26
Characteristics of an Effective Project Manager 29
Functional, Matrix, and Project-Based Organizations 31
Project Management Certifications 34
Summary 36
Key Terms and Concepts 37
Review Questions 37
Application Activities 38
Endnotes 38

PART TWO Project Management—Process Functions

Chapter 3 Project Initiation 39
Outcomes of the Project Initiation Phase 40
Project Description 41
v
vi Contents

Project Feasibility Analysis 41

Project Concept Document 43
Project Charter 45
Stakeholder Register 52
Project Kickoff Meeting 54
Summary 57
Key Terms and Concepts 57
Review Questions 57
Application Activity 58
Endnotes 58

Chapter 4 Project Planning: The Schedule 59

Benefits of Planning and Scheduling 59
The Planning and Scheduling Process 62
Developing the Work Breakdown Structure 63
Key Facts About Developing a WBS 68
The WBS Dictionary 68
Enterprise Environmental Factors 69
Estimating Activity Duration and Sequencing Activities 69
Displaying the Project Schedule 70
The CPM Network Diagram 72
Scheduling Software and Combined Schedule Formats 76
Summary 78
Key Terms and Concepts 78
Review Questions 79
Application Activities 79
Endnotes 79

Chapter 5 Project Planning: The Cost Estimate

and Budget 80
The Cost Estimate 81
Costs to Be Included in Estimates 82
Estimating Methods 85
Estimating Products 87
The Budget 91
Summary 92
Key Terms and Concepts 93
Review Questions 93
Application Activities 94
Endnotes 94
 Contents vii

Chapter 6 Project Planning: Human Resource, Communication,

Procurement, and Quality Plans 95
The Human Resource Plan 95
The Communication Plan 101
Procurement Plan 102
The Quality Management Plan 106
Summary 112
Key Terms and Concepts 113
Review Questions 114
Application Activities 114
Endnotes 114

Chapter 7 Project Planning: The Risk Management Plan 115

Risk Defined 116
Risk Management Defined 117
Classifications of Risk Factors 118
Risk as it Relates to Project Success Criteria 119
Risk Identification Process 121
Qualitative Risk Analysis 126
Quantitative Risk Analysis 129
Quantitative Analysis Tools 130
Summary 134
Key Terms and Concepts 134
Review Questions 135
Application Activities 135
Endnotes 136

Chapter 8 Project Execution: Build the Project Team 137

Teambuilding Defined 137
Common Mission: The Basis of Effective Teamwork 137
Building the Project Team 139
Explaining the Roles of Team Members 141
Explain How the Team Is Supposed to Operate 141
Four-Step Model for Building Effective Teams 142
Initiating the Team’s Work 147
Teams Should Be Coached 147
Handling Conflict in Teams 154
Summary 157
Key Terms and Concepts 158
viii Contents

Review Questions 158

Application Activities 159

Chapter 9 Project Execution: Procurements 160

Procurement Methods 160
Preparing an RFP or RFQ Package 166
Bonds, Addenda, and Alternates 170
Contracts for Subcontractors and Materials Suppliers 171
Evaluating Bidders and Bids 174
Ethics in Procurement 175
Summary 180
Key Terms and Concepts 181
Review Questions 181
Application Activities 181

Chapter 10 Project Monitoring and Control 182

Monitoring and Controlling Scope 182
Monitoring and Controlling the Schedule 186
Monitoring and Controlling Costs 187
Quality Monitoring and Control Methods 196
Monitoring and Controlling Risk 202
Summary 203
Key Terms and Concepts 204
Review Questions 204
Application Activities 205
Endnotes 205

Chapter 11 Project Closeout 206

Steps in the Project Closeout Process 208
Verify the Scope 208
Close Out the Contract 209
Close Out the Administrative Aspects of the Project 210
Conduct a Lessons-Learned Review 211
Develop the Project Closeout Report 214
Recognize Team Members 215
Complete the Final Step 216
Summary 217
Key Terms and Concepts 217
Review Questions 217
Application Activities 218
 Contents ix

PART THREE Project Management—People Functions

Chapter 12 Project Managers as Team Leaders 219
Leadership Defined 219
Influencing Team Members 221
Eight Cs of Leadership for Project Managers 222
Caring and Leadership 224
Competence and Leadership 228
Character and Leadership 228
Communication and Leadership 229
Clarity and Leadership 229
Commitment and Leadership 229
Courage and Leadership 230
Credibility and Leadership 231
Summary 231
Key Terms and Concepts 232
Review Questions 232
Application Activity 232

Chapter 13 Project Managers as Motivators 233

Motivation Defined 234
Motivational Context 234
Basic Survival Needs and Motivation 235
Safety and Security Needs and Motivation 237
Social Needs and Motivation 238
Esteem Needs and Motivation 240
Self-Actualization Needs and Motivation 248
Developing Personal Motivation Plans 248
Additional Motivation Strategies 249
Summary 250
Key Terms and Concepts 251
Review Questions 251
Application Activities 252
Endnotes 252

Chapter 14 Project Managers as Communicators

and Negotiators 253
Begin with a Communication Plan 253
Communication Skills Can Be Learned 254
x Contents

Communication Defined 255

Communication Is a Process 256
Not All Communication Is Effective 257
Factors That Can Inhibit Communication 258
Listening Well Improves Communication 260
Nonverbal Communication 264
Verbal Communication 266
Communicating Corrective Feedback 267
Written Communication 269
Influencing and Negotiating in Project Management 270
Negotiation Defined 270
Characteristics of Effective Negotiators 271
Preparation and Successful Negotiations 272
Conducting Negotiations 273
After Agreeing—Follow Through 276
Summary 277
Key Terms and Concepts 278
Review Questions 278
Application Activities 279

Chapter 15 Project Managers and Personal Time

Management 280
Poor Time Management and Team Performance 281
Common Time Management Problems and Their Solutions 281
Summary 293
Key Terms and Concepts 294
Review Questions 294
Application Activities 294

Chapter 16 Project Managers and Change 295

Change Management Model for Project Managers 296
Summary 302
Key Terms and Concepts 303
Review Questions 303
Application Activities 303

Chapter 17 Project Managers and Diversity 304

Diversity Defined 304
Diversity-Related Concepts 305
Prejudice is Learned Behavior That Can Be Unlearned 313
 Contents xi

Overcoming Prejudice and Embracing Diversity 313

Summary 317
Key Terms and Concepts 317
Review Questions 318
Application Activities 318

Chapter 18 Project Managers and Adversity 319

Do Not Give Up and Never Quit 320
Face Adversity and Overcome It 322
Accept Adversity as a Normal Part of Life 323
Accept That Life Can Be Unfair 324
Help Team Members Who Are Facing Adversity 325
Dealing with Micromanagers Who Create Problems 325
Summary 328
Key Terms and Concepts 329
Review Questions 329
Application Activities 329

Index 330
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE

BACKGROUND
In the fields of engineering and technology, efficient, effective project management is criti-
cal. All engineering and technology projects—design, manufacturing, quality improvement,
process development—share common goals: The projects are to be completed on time,
within budget, and according to specifications. These goals cannot be achieved without
effective project management. Engineering and technology projects range from the design
and manufacture of the largest jetliner to the smallest circuit board, and projects must be
well managed if they are to be completed successfully.
This unrelenting demand to complete projects on time, within budget, and accord-
ing to specifications has created a pressing need for specialized education and training
for those who manage engineering and technology projects. Project managers must know
how to manage processes and lead people. The process aspects of project management
include: cost estimation, planning/scheduling, procurement, risk management, monitoring,
and closeout. The people aspects of project management include: leadership, motivation,
communication, and efficient/effective management of time, change, diversity, and adver-
sity. Project management has become a specialized field within the broad fields of engineer-
ing and technology, a specialized field requiring specialized instructions in both the process
and people aspects of the job.

WHY IS THIS BOOK WRITTEN AND FOR WHOM?

This book is written to fulfill the need for a comprehensive, up-to-date, practical teaching
resource that focuses on helping engineering and technology students become effective
project managers. This book is developed in accordance with specifications contained in
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) maintained by the
Project Management Institute (PMI), Pennsylvania. It provides comprehensive coverage of
both aspects of project management—process management and leading people—specifically
from the perspective of engineering and technology projects. Educators and students in
engineering and technology disciplines will benefit from the material presented herein. The
direct, straightforward presentation of material focuses on making the principles of project
management practical, understandable, and useful for students. Up-to-date research has
been integrated throughout the text along with real-world activities and cases.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The text contains 18 chapters organized in three parts. Part Two covers all of the process
skills needed by project managers. Part Three covers all of the people skills needed by pro-
ject managers. The chapters are presented in an order that is compatible with the typical
organization of a course in project management, and a standard chapter format is maintained
xiii
xiv Preface

throughout the book. In addition to text, photos, and illustrations, each chapter contains
a list of chapter topics, summary, key terms and concepts, review questions, and practical
application activities. Every chapter contains a case study of a challenging engineering project
that illustrates for students how complex the projects they might work on can be and why
effective project management is so critical.

DOWNLOAD INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES FROM THE INSTRUCTOR

RESOURCE CENTER
Supplementary teaching and learning materials are provided online. These materials include
a PowerPoint presentation covering all chapters in the book, a comprehensive test bank,
and an Instructor’s Manual. To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to
request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc to register for an
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ficulties accessing the site or downloading a supplement, please contact Customer Service at
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HOW THIS BOOK DIFFERS FROM OTHERS

The approach taken in this book is the result of more than 100 interviews with project man-
agers, students, and professors in engineering and technology disciplines. Through these
interviews the author learned that most textbooks on project management take a generic
approach in an attempt to reach the broadest possible market. Consequently, this text focuses
solely on project management as it relates to engineering and technology so that all text,
illustrations, cases, and activities can be specific to engineering and technology and so that
concepts can be treated in greater depth than is possible in a generic text.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

David L. Goetsch is Emeritus Vice President and Professor at Northwest Florida State
College. Prior to entering higher education full time, Dr. Goetsch had a career in the private
sector that included project management positions in engineering and manufacturing settings.
He served as a project manager in an engineering and manufacturing firm that designed,
manufactured, and assembled the components for nuclear reactors. He now serves on the
board of directors of Fort Walton Machining, Inc. in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. Dr. Goetsch
has been selected as Professor of the Year at Northwest Florida State College and the University
of West Florida, Florida’s Outstanding Technical Instructor of the Year, and was also the
recipient of the U.S. Secretary of Education Award for having the Outstanding Technical
Program in the United States in 1984 (Region 10).
 C H A P T E R 1

Overview of Project
Management

Much of the work of engineering and technology firms consists of projects completed by
teams of individuals using specific resources and processes. Assume that an engineering and
technology firm wins a contract to design and develop a communication system for a new
aircraft, a special seat for a luxury automobile, or a software package for a new application.
All of these contracts would become the basis for projects. Assume that a firm is asked to
develop a prototype for a new landing gear system for a jet aircraft or set up a new process
for manufacturing printed circuit boards for the next generation of computers. Once again,
these assignments would become projects.
Projects in engineering and technology firms are completed by project teams. Project
teams are led by project managers who are responsible for ensuring that their projects are
completed on time, within budget, and according to specifications. Consequently, engineer-
ing and technology professionals should be prepared to manage projects and lead project
teams. Becoming an effective project manager requires the development of specific process
and people skills. Preparing engineering and technology students and professionals to be
effective project managers is the purpose of this book. This preparation begins with a defini-
tion of project management as a concept.

PROJECT DEFINED
Groups of college students are sometimes required to work together on class projects. When
this happens, the new group usually calls a meeting to: (1) select a group leader to coor-
dinate the activities of individual members and to ensure that all of the work is completed
properly and on time and (2) divide the work and assign it to different group members. In
this example, the assignment from the professor is a project and the person selected to lead
the group is the project manager.
The class project consists of multiple individual assignments that require people,
resources, and processes to complete them. There is a definite start and end date for the
1
2 Part 1 • Overview of Project Management

project and specific grading criteria (success criteria). For example, assume that a professor
divides his class into five groups and gives each group the assignment of solving a well-
defined problem. To complete their assignments, the students in each group are to use
such resources as computers, books, the Internet, calculators, paper, and, of course, human
knowledge and skills. In developing their presentation, the students apply such processes
as research, word processing, and public speaking. There is a definite date on which the
assignment is made and a definite date on which the final presentation must be made. During
the presentation, the professor applies specific success criteria in arriving at a grade.
All projects—whether in college classes or in engineering and technology firms—have
these same characteristics. Hence, a project can be defined as follows:

A project is a fully coordinated group of interdependent tasks that are completed by people
using resources and processes. Projects have definite starting and ending dates and success
criteria.

There are several important concepts in this definition of a project including the following:
fully-coordinated interdependent tasks, people, resources, processes, starting date, ending
date, and success criteria (see Figure 1.1). Project managers should understand all of these
concepts and their significance.

Fully Coordinated Interdependent Tasks

Assume that you and several friends are driving in a car and have a flat tire. The group is
in a hurry so it is important to get the tire changed as quickly as possible. To expedite the
process, each individual in the group agrees to complete a different task. One individual
might get the jack out of the trunk while another retrieves the spare tire. One might loosen
the lug nuts while another stands by to take the flat tire off and put the spare tire on. The
individual who took the lug nuts off is prepared to put them back on once the spare tire is
in place. The individual who jacked the car up is prepared to let it down and put the jack
and flat tire back in the trunk of the car.
All of the individual tasks that must be performed in order to change the flat tire are
interdependent. This means that one task depends on another for its successful completion,
and all of the individual tasks must be done in the proper order for the project to be success-
fully completed. For example, the flat tire cannot be taken off until the car has been jacked
up and the lug nuts have been removed. Then, the car cannot be let down until the new tire
has been put on and the lug nuts tightened. Projects in engineering and technology firms
are like this example in that they involve a lot of different tasks to be performed—some

Project-Related Concepts
• Fully coordinated interdependent tasks
• People, processes, and resources
• Starting and ending dates
• Success criteria

FIGURE 1.1 Important project-related concepts.

 Chapter 1 • Overview of Project Management 3

simultaneously and some in a specific order. Coordinating all of these interdependent tasks
and making sure they are performed in the right way and in the proper order is the job of
the project manager.

People, Processes, and Resources

Returning to the example of changing the flat tire, the project—like all projects—required
people, processes, and resources. People do the work required to complete the project. In
doing the work of the project, people use processes and resources. In the flat tire example,
the people riding in the car used such processes as jacking up the car, loosening the lug
nuts, removing the flat tire, putting on the spare tire, and tightening the lug nuts. In apply-
ing these processes they used resources including a jack, a lug-nut wrench, a spare tire,
and time. In addition, the people who did the work of changing the tire were, collectively,
a resource. Resources are simply assets that are needed to complete a project. The human
resource is an important resource in any project.

Starting and Ending Dates

Projects typically start once a contract has been awarded or shortly thereafter. They also
have a definite ending date—a deadline by which all work on the project must be finalized.
Ensuring that projects are completed on time is one of the most important responsibilities of
project managers. Some contracts received by engineering and technology companies con-
tain penalty clauses that are activated if the project is not completed on time and according to
specifications. Specifications are the next project component. They specify the quality criteria.

Success Criteria
When engineering and technology firms receive a contract, it is accompanied by specifi-
cations. Specifications explain in detail how the project is supposed to turn out—what a
successful project will look like. For example, the publisher that received the contract to
produce this book needed to know certain things before it could proceed. It needed to
know what kind of page layout was desired, the type and size of font for text and headings,
if the book would be produced in color or black and white, page size, hardback or soft
cover, and cover design to name just a few areas of concern. This information was provided
in the form of specifications.
One of the challenges facing project managers and their teams is to complete projects
not just on time and not just within budget, but also according to customer specifications.
The specifications—along with the budget and all applicable deadlines—constitute the suc-
cess criteria for a project. In other words, the success criteria for projects are as follows:

• Complete the project on time

• Complete the project within budget
• Complete the project according to specifications

Projects Are Process-Oriented

A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) is recognized as the
authoritative reference for practicing project managers. Published by the Project Management
Institute, the PMBOK Guide makes the important point that the work of projects is completed
4 Part 1 • Overview of Project Management

through processes.1 It describes the processes of project management in terms of three com-
ponents:2

• Inputs (documents, plans, designs, specifications)

• Tools and techniques
• Outputs (documents, products, services)

The PMBOK Guide encompasses more than 40 different processes that fall into one of
five broad process groups as follows:3

• Initiating
• Planning
• Executing
• Monitoring
• Closing

These five process groups encompass the major responsibilities of project managers
and describe what they do. The work of project managers revolves around initiating, plan-
ning, executing, monitoring, and closing out projects. The knowledge needed to carry out
the processes of project management falls into nine knowledge areas. In other words, the
40 plus processes recognized in the PMBOK Guide fall into five process groups and nine
knowledge areas. These knowledge areas are as follows:4

• Integration management
• Scope management
• Time management
• Cost management
• Quality management
• Human resource management
• Communications management
• Risk management
• Procurement management

Figure 1.2 is a chart that shows how the five process groups and nine knowledge areas
of project management are related to each other. It also shows some of the processes that
must be completed during the course of a project and which process group/knowledge
area each falls into. The five process groups of project management can be seen on the left
side of the matrix while the knowledge areas read from left to right across the top. As an
example of how to read the matrix, find the process group labeled planning and the knowl-
edge area labeled scope. At the intersection of these two headings—a process group and a
knowledge area—two processes are listed: (1) scope development and (2) work breakdown
structure development. The various processes shown in Figure 1.2 represent the basics that
students and professionals who want to be project managers must learn.
It is important for students of project management to understand processes as a con-
cept, the three components of a process, and the specific processes that are used in com-
pleting projects. The most important and most widely used of these processes are explained
in this book. The better project managers become at using these processes, the more effec-
tive they will be as project managers.
 KNOWLEDGE AREAS
Communi-
Process Time Cost Quality HR cation Risk Procurement
Groups Integration Scope Management Management Management Management Management Management Management

Initiating • Project – – – – – • Identify – –

charter stakeholders
(Contract,
drawings, and
specifications)

Planning • Project • Scope • Estimate • Estimate • Plan quality • Develop HR • Develop • Identify and • Develop
management development time and costs plan communi- analyze risks procurement
plan • Work duration of • Establish cation • Plan risk plan
breakdown activities budget plan management
structure • Develop
development schedule

Executing • Project – – – • Assure • Establish • Communicate – • Procure

execution quality build/lead with all needed
project stakeholders resources
regularly

Monitoring/ • Monitor, track • Control • Control • Control • Control • Monitor • Report on • Monitor and • Manage the
Controlling progress, scope schedule costs quality team progress and control risks procurement
control performance performance process
• Adjust as
changes occur

Closing • Close – – – – – – – • Close

procurements

FIGURE 1.2 Phases and elements of the project management process.

6 Part 1 • Overview of Project Management

NEED FOR PROJECT MANAGERS

Engineering and technology firms receive contracts from other entities that need something
designed, developed, tested, and/or produced. These contracts become projects that are
undertaken by project teams. Engineering and technology firms also undertake internal pro-
jects on the basis of their own initiative to improve on some aspect of their performance or
to add new capabilities. External and internal projects in engineering and technology firms
are undertaken by project teams. A project team in an engineering and technology firm is
like a symphony orchestra: It has a lot of different players—each with a specific instrument
and role. Without a conductor to lead, coordinate, and facilitate, the symphony members are
more likely to produce more noise than music. Like orchestras, project teams in engineering
and technology firms are often cross-functional in nature. This means they are composed of
individuals from various different functional units or departments.
A firm that provides both engineering and manufacturing services would be com-
posed of several different departments or functional units including engineering/design,
manufacturing, quality, purchasing, human resources, sales and marketing, and accounting
(see Figure 1.3). Project teams in firms such as the one shown in this figure are often cross-
functional in that their members come from all or at least several of the various departments.
This is not always the case, but it often is.
Regardless of whether they are cross-functional or composed of individuals from just
one department, project teams, like an orchestra, need a conductor who can meld the
members into one coherent, mutually supportive, well-coordinated team and keep them
on task and on time. That conductor is the project manager. Without project managers who
can step across departmental boundaries and transform a disparate group of people into a
well-coordinated, mutually supportive team, an engineering and technology firm will tend
to operate as a collection of disjointed, disconnected, autonomous departments.
In a competitive business environment, engineering and technology firms excel by
completing the projects they undertake on time, within budget, and according to specifica-
tions. Those that cannot meet these basic success criteria soon lose business to other firms

CEO
XYZ Tech, Inc.

VP
VP VP VP VP Human VP Sales & VP
Engineering/
Manufacturing Quality Purchasing Resources Marketing Accounting
Design

Cross-functional
Project Team

FIGURE 1.3 Project teams often get their members from different departments.
 Chapter 1 • Overview of Project Management 7

that can. Ensuring that a project is completed on time, within budget, and according to
specifications is the job of the project manager. Without a conductor, orchestras are likely to
make more noise than music. Without a project manager, project teams are likely to make
more problems than progress.
Just as the best orchestra conductors know the music, the parts of all of the various
players, and the capabilities of each individual player, the best project managers know their
projects, the processes required to complete them, and the capabilities of the members of
project teams.

Project Management Scenario 1.1

Why Do We Need a Project Manager?

Dale Cartwright is the Quality Director for ABC Technologies, Inc. He has been given the
challenge to form a team for establishing performance benchmarks for all of ABC’s manu-
facturing processes. Further, he has been asked to be the project manager. Cartwright agrees
that the processes need to be benchmarked, but does not understand why the company
needs to be so formal. “Why do we need a project manager? Why not just assign a process
to each team member and let them get it benchmarked? These are all good people. They
know what to do.” Cartwright’s supervisor tried to explain that there would be more to the
project than just making work assignments, but Cartwright still did not seem to understand
why there needed to be a project manager.

Discussion Question
In this scenario, Dale Cartwright has been assigned to serve as project manager for an in-
ternal project. But he thinks his company is going overboard by forming a project team and
asking him to be the project manager. He does not understand the need for a project man-
ager. If he asked you to explain why a project team needs a project manager, what would
you tell him?

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A PROJECT

Regardless of size and complexity, all projects require the following: (1) charter/scope/plan,
(2) schedule, (3) resources, and (4) leadership. These four essential components are all
interrelated and interdependent. It is important for project managers to understand each of
these components as well as how one can affect the other.

Project Charter/Scope/Plan
Every project undertaken by an engineering and technology firm begins with a need. For
external projects—those originated by a customer—the customer needs a certain product
or service. To secure the product or service it sends out a request for proposals (RFP) or a
request for quotes (RFQ) to which engineering and technology firms respond. The response
that best meets the needs of the customer is selected and a contract is awarded to an engi-
neering and technology firm to provide the product or service. The contract gives the engi-
neering and technology firm a charter to complete the project.
8 Part 1 • Overview of Project Management

For internal projects—those originated by an engineering and technology firm to en-

hance its competitiveness in some way—the process is different. Higher management in the
firm decides that an improvement of some type needs to be made. It develops a charter
that describes the needed improvement and everything a project manager will need to lead
a project ream in making the improvement. The project team undertakes the improvement
project on the basis of the internally developed project charter.
The project—whether it is external or internal—has what is known as a scope. The
scope of a project is the entirety of all work that must be accomplished to complete the
project. In some instances—as with external projects—the scope is spelled out in the con-
tract. With internal projects the scope is spelled out in the charter document(s) provided to
the project manager. In any case, the scope of a project encompasses everything the mem-
bers of the project team will need to do to complete the project on time, within budget, and
according to specifications.
Regardless of whether the project in question is external or internal and regardless of
how detailed the contract is, the scope of a project should be made clear for the project
team through the development of a written scope statement. The scope statement for an en-
gineering and technology project should answer the following questions:

• What result is the project team committing to (e.g., purpose of the project, expecta-
tions of the customer, objectives, deliverables, features and functions of the products
and/or services)?
• What resources and other types of support does the project team need to fulfill its
commitment (e.g., funds, people, time, facilities, technology)?
• What assumptions have been made by the project team’s organization concerning the
terms and conditions under which the work of the project will be completed by the
project team (e.g., assumptions, restrictions, and constraints that apply)?

A practical and effective outline to use when writing a scope statement for an engi-
neering and technology project is as follows (Figure 1.4):

• Project overview. In this element of the scope statement, the following types of infor-
mation should be completed: (1) how the project came into being, (2) why the project
is being undertaken, (3) scope of the work to be completed, (4) how the project might

Typical Outline for a Project Scope Statement

• Project overview
• Deliverables
• Features and functions descriptions
• Acceptance criteria
• Restrictions/constraints
• Uncertainties

FIGURE 1.4 This is a practical outline for a project scope statement.

 Chapter 1 • Overview of Project Management 9

affect other activities in the organization, and (5) how the project might be affected by
other activities in the organization.
• Deliverables. In this element of the scope statement, the products and/or services the
project team will produce are listed. Some project managers write this element as a
list of objectives for the project (e.g., to produce the next generation of the XYZ radar
system, etc.).
• Features and functions descriptions. In this element of the scope statement the
required features and functions of the product or service to be delivered are described.
• Acceptance criteria. This element of the scope statement describes the process that
will be used for customer acceptance of the product or service delivered and the crite-
ria that will be used for determining what is or is not acceptable.
• Restrictions/constraints. This element of the scope statement describes all con-
straints that might restrict or inhibit what the project team is able to produce and when.
For example, assume that the project team can produce the expected deliverables on
time only if it is able to procure a certain material that is in worldwide shortage at the
time. This constraint would be explained in the restrictions section of the scope state-
ment. Common constraints on engineering and technology projects are time, cost/
budget, personnel, material, equipment/technology, and quality expectations.
• Uncertainties. In any project there will be areas of uncertainty. For example, if the
design of a certain product depends on the outcome of a specified test and the results
of the test are uncertain, this issue would be explained. This element in the scope state-
ment would also explain how the project team plans to deal with the uncertainty. This
explanation might take the form of an “if-then” statement or several if-then statements.

The project charter is broader than just the project scope. The project charter is what
empowers the firm to undertake the project in question. It provides all of the information
needed by the project manager, including the scope of the project. With external projects, the
project charter can take any one of several forms. For example, it is typically a package of
project documents including the customer’s contract, specifications, and the information con-
tained in the firm’s response to the customer’s RFP or RFQ. The project scope statement can
be developed on the basis of the customer’s RFP/RFQ or using material contained in the con-
tract, specifications, and RFP/RFQ response. It contains the more specific information shown
above concerning the actual undertaking and proposed approach to completing the project.
The project plan or project management plan, as it is sometimes called, is a compre-
hensive package of smaller plans that documents how the project is going to be completed
and how all aspects of the project are going to be managed over the course of the project.
The project management plan typically consists of several smaller plans, including the scope
statement, budget, schedule, quality plan, human resource plan, communications plan, risk
management plan, and procurement plan.

Project Schedule
Every project has a beginning and an ending date. However, it is wise to also establish
intermediate dates for the work of the project. For example, assume that a given task is
to begin on January 5 and must be completed by June 1. The project manager should set
intermediate target dates for when the task should be 25 percent, 50 percent, 75 percent,
and 100 percent complete. A complete project schedule will show all of the activities that
10 Part 1 • Overview of Project Management

must be completed and the sequence in which they must be completed. It will also show
the planned duration of each activity. Of course, few projects are linear in their makeup.
Consequently, activities often overlap in terms of their starting and ending dates. There are a
variety of scheduling tools available to help project managers with this element of the scope
statement (Chapter Four).

Project Resources
In the context of project management, a resource is any asset necessary to complete a pro-
ject on time, within budget, and according to specifications. The most common resources
necessary for engineering and technology projects are people, money, time, technology,
facilities, and materials. Time is such a critical resource for project managers that it is covered
in detail in three chapters of this book. Chapter Four explains how to develop a schedule for
an engineering and technology project. Chapter Ten explains how to monitor the schedule,
and Chapter Twelve explains how project managers can manage their own time. All of the
resources needed to complete a project on time, within budget, and according to specifi-
cations must be considered when developing a bid in response to an RFP or RFQ and in
developing the project budget.

Leadership
One can manage budgets and control processes, but it is necessary to lead people. Project
teams are made up of people, all of whom have their own personalities, agendas, motiva-
tions, and points of view. The essential ingredient in melding a disparate group of people
into a well-coordinated, mutually supportive team whose members are committed to the
mission is leadership. Leadership is the act of inspiring people to make a wholehearted com-
mitment to the mission that brought them together. Leadership is so important a people skill
for project managers that Chapter Twelve is devoted to this topic.

INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL PROJECTS

Most projects in engineering and technology firms are initiated by a contract from a cus-
tomer. After all, completing development, design, testing, and manufacturing projects is the
purpose of engineering and technology firms. Customers of engineering and technology
firms are other organizations that need a product designed, developed, and/or tested or a
service provided. Engineering and technology firms bid to provide the needed product or ser-
vice. The firm that wins the bid receives a contract and the contract is converted into a project.
Projects that are initiated in this way are external projects because their source comes from
outside of the firm. Projects can also be internally initiated.
Internal projects are initiatives undertaken by engineering and technology firms to
enhance their competitiveness. In a competitive environment, engineering and technology firms
sustain themselves in two ways: by providing superior value to their customers (superior
value is a combination of superior quality, superior cost, and superior service); and by inno-
vating (anticipating new and emerging market needs and being first or best in meeting them).
The most competitive engineering and technology firms self-initiate internal projects
on a continual basis to enhance value. These projects involve continually improving the
quality of products and services while simultaneously lowering their costs (think of the
microcomputer chip). Competitive engineering and technology firms also self-initiate internal
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be given "in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ!" Nothing can be
allowed to stand in the way of this. "No constitution, declaration, or
any order of living"—not even the law of God—can be set up against
the general! He occupies the place of God, and must be obeyed,
howsoever the peace and welfare of the multitude may be imperiled,
or the nations be convulsed from center to circumference. The
society of Jesuits must obtain the mastery, even if general anarchy
shall prevail, or all the world besides be covered with the fragments
of a universal wreck!
There should be no mistake at this point, for the doctrine involved is
vital to the Jesuits. Their society could no more exist without it than
could a watch keep time after the removal of its mainspring.
Although, unlike Nicolini, Bartoli does not give the precise words of
the constitution, this important vow, as set forth by him in his life of
Loyola, has substantially the same meaning. According to him, its
import is plainly this, that the general, whether "wise or imprudent,
holy or imperfect," stands in "the place of God;" that, whilst in the
abstract it is sinful to commit sin, when the act is performed upon
individual judgment, yet, if the general shall order it, and the
conscience of the Jesuit rebel against it because he considers it sin,
he shall "rely" upon the general, and not upon himself; that is, he
shall so close his mind that no conscientious convictions shall
penetrate it. And until he has reached this condition of stupid and
servile obedience, he is "far from the perfection which his religious
state requires." And, to reduce the matter to the plainest and
simplest proposition, the Jesuit is bound "to believe that a thing
ought to be, because the superior orders it;" so that, if he shall
order sin to be committed, the Jesuit is required not to consider it as
sin because God, through the general, commands it! This is precisely
as if it were said that sin may be justifiably committed in God's
name, whensoever it shall be required by "the particular good of
each," or by the "general advantage" of the society. It requires, of
course, no argument to show that this authority of the general is
considered comprehensive enough to justify resistance or covert
opposition to the constitution and laws of any State, or the violation
of any treaty, contract, or oath, which shall stand in the way of the
society in its struggle after universal dominion.
Here we have information from two sources with reference to Jesuit
doctrine upon a point of the very chiefest importance. Nicolini was a
native Italian, and resided at Rome, where he undoubtedly had
access to the best and most reliable sources of information. Bartoli
was a Jesuit, and must have been familiar with the principles and
teachings of the society, or he would not have been trusted and
patronized by it as the biographer of Loyola. They do not disagree
materially with regard to the general principle which forbids sin in an
abstract form and upon individual responsibility, but justifies its
commission when ordered by the general of the Jesuits. It is,
therefore, obviously deducible from this general principle, as stated
by both of them, that when the general shall require the
perpetration of any crime, or the violation of any obligation, or oath,
or constitution, or law, or the performance of any act howsoever
perfidious or shameless,—in all, or any of these cases, the Jesuit
shall execute his commands without "fear of offense." The general is
thus placed above all governments, constitutions, and laws, and
even above God himself! There are no laws of a State, no rules of
morality established by society, no principles of religious faith
established by any Church—including even the Roman Church itself
—that the Jesuit is not bound to resist, when commanded by his
general to do so, no matter if it shall lead to war, revolution, or
bloodshed, or to the upheaval of society from its very foundations.
Everything is centered in the good of the society, and to that all else
must defer. No wonder that the Jesuit casuists have found in this
provision of their constitution the source of that odious and
demoralizing maxim that "the means are justified by the end;" in
other words, if, in the judgment of the general, the end is considered
right, howsoever criminal or sinful, it becomes sanctified, and may
be accomplished without "the fear of offense."
Nor is this all. After, as Nicolini says, "having thus transferred the
allegiance of the Jesuit from his God to his general, the constitution
proceeds to secure that allegiance from all conflict with the natural
affections or worldly interests."[28] It does not allow anything—any
affections of the heart or earthly interests of any kind or nature
whatsoever—to intervene between the Jesuit and his superior. If he
has family ties, he must break them; if friends, he must discard
them; if property, he must surrender it to the superior, and take the
vow of absolute and extreme poverty; he must, in fact, render
himself insensible to every sentiment, or emotion, or feeling that
could, by possibility, exist from instinct or habits of thought in his
own mind. As it regards property, the constitution provides that "he
will accomplish a work of great perfection if he dispose of it in
benefit of the society." And continuing this subject, with reference to
paternal affections, it continues: "And that his better example may
shine before men, he must put away all strong affection for his
parents, and refrain from the unsuitable desire of a bountiful
distribution arising from such disadvantageous affection."[29] He
shall not communicate with any person by letter without its
inspection by the superior, who shall read all letters addressed to
him before their delivery; of course, permitting only such to be sent
by or to reach him as shall be approved. "He shall not leave the
house except at such times and with such companions as the
superior shall allow; nor within the house shall he converse, without
restraint, with any one at his own pleasure, but with such only as
shall be appointed by the superior."[30] He shall not be allowed to go
out of the house unless accompanied by two of the brethren as spies
upon his conduct, and the neglect of either to report faithfully what
the others have done and said is held to be sinful. And to make sure
that all the members reflect only the opinions dictated by him, they
are bound to absolute uniformity, as follows: "Let all think, let all
speak, as far as possible, the same thing, according to the apostle.
Let no contradictory doctrines, therefore, be allowed, either by word
of mouth, or public sermons, or in written books, which last shall not
be published without the approbation and consent of the general;
and, indeed, all differences of opinion regarding practical matters
shall be avoided."[31] Commenting upon these things, Nicolini most
appropriately says: "Thus no one but the general can exercise the
right of uttering a single original thought or opinion. It is almost
impossible to conceive the power, especially in former times, of a
general having at his absolute disposal such an amount of
intelligences, wills, and energies."[32]
If there were any evidences to prove that the Jesuits, as a society,
have abandoned any of the principles or policy which bear the stamp
of Loyola's approval, there would be no necessity, other than that
which incites to historic investigation, for a careful and critical
investigation of them. But there are none. On the contrary, it will be
seen that, from their very nature, they are not susceptible of change
so long as the society shall exist. The memory of Loyola is still
preserved with intense devotion. He is worshiped as a saint, and the
words uttered by him are as much reverenced as those spoken by
the Savior. It seems impossible, therefore, to escape the conviction
that this extraordinary society is unlike any other now existing, or
which has heretofore existed, in the world. That it was conceived by
the active brain of an ambitious and worldly-minded enthusiast, who
had been disappointed at not winning the military distinction he had
expected, is an irresistible inference from facts well established in his
personal history. His vanity and imperiousness suggested the
starting-point of his organization, whereby man was treated as
incapable of intelligent reflection—fit only to become the unresisting
tool of those who venture profanely to affirm, contrary to any divine
revelation, that God has endowed them alone with authority to
subject the world to obedience. His plan of operations was, from the
beginning, a direct censure of all the ancient religious orders, as it
was also of the methods the Church had adopted after the
experience of many centuries. When he conceived it, his chief
purpose undoubtedly was, as heretofore explained,[33] to make
himself and his successors independent of and superior to the pope
and the Church. His contemplated antagonism to both was
sufficiently indicated by the fact that his original constitution
centered absolute and irresponsible power in the hands of the
general of his society; and the subsequent introduction of the
simulated vow of qualified fidelity to the pope—which was brought
about by a degree of necessity amounting almost to duress—has
had no other effect than to tax the strategic ingenuity of more than
one general by the invention of subterfuges to evade it. In
furtherance of this idea, the society holds no intercourse with the
pope, nor he with it. Its members are all independent of him. They
are the creatures and instruments of the general alone. They obey
him, and no other. If he, as the head of the society, does not think
proper to execute the orders of the pope—as has often occurred—
the question is alone between the pope and him, not with the
society. The only point of unity is between the general and the
members; and of this the society boasts with its habitual vanity. In
enumerating the methods by which its duration is considered
assured, Bartoli says: "The chief is a strict union between the
members and the head, consequent upon entire dependence, which
results from perfect obedience. Ignatius established a monarchical
form of government in the society, and placed the whole
administration of the order in the hands of the general, with an
authority absolute and independent of all men, with the sole
exception of the sovereign pontiff. The general then decided
absolutely, both in the choice of the superiors, as well as in
everything which concerns the members of the company."[34] This
sufficiently shows that the pope deals alone with the general, and he
alone with the society; except through the latter, the former can not
reach the members, or communicate his will to them; and even
when the pope communicates with the general, the whole obligation
of the latter's obedience consists in sending the members of the
society to whatsoever part of the world the pope shall direct without
remuneration. And it is by these means that the society constitutes
what Bartoli calls "one solid and durable whole," nominally with two
heads, but practically paying obedience to but one.
It was scarcely necessary to say that the society existed under "a
monarchical form of government," for it is impossible for such an
organization to exist in any other form. In fact, it surpasses in that
respect any institution ever known, not excepting the most
tyrannical despotisms by which the Oriental peoples were held in
bondage for centuries. Until the time of Loyola no man ever
conceived—or if he did, the avowal of it is unknown to history—the
idea that the plain and simple teachings of Christ, which are easily
interpreted, could be distorted into an apology for reducing mankind
to a multitude of unthinking corpses or dead bodies, without
thoughts, opinions, or motives of their own, so that they should
submit implicitly to the dictation of a single man, who, to prepare
them for perfect obedience, required that the best affections of their
hearts should be extinguished, and nothing generous or kindly or
noble be permitted to exist in them. Absolutism could not possibly
be carried further, for there is no degree of humiliation lower than
that the Jesuit is required to reach. Howsoever cultivated in art, or
learned in letters, or courtly in manners, or fascinating in oratory he
may become, his conscience is dwarfed into cowardice, and he has
parted with his manhood as if it were an old garment to be cast
aside at pleasure. No picture of him could be more true than that
drawn by the friendly pen of Bartoli, who tells us, boastingly, that
"the society requires no members who are governed by human
respect."[35] It requires, according to this biographer of Loyola, only
those who hold in utter contempt the opinions of the world, those
who extinguish in their minds all sense of either praise or shame,
and who close all avenues by which men's hearts are reached by
noble or generous or patriotic impulses. They seem to think that
God, after making man "in his own image" and with capacity for
inspiring thoughts, paralyzed his best affections in mere sport, and
left him only fitted for blind obedience to an imperious master, who
requires him to sunder all the tenderest domestic relations as if they
invited to impiety, and who treats all the highest social virtues as
vices when they do not advance his ambitious ends, and any form of
vice as virtue when it does.

FOOTNOTES:
[13] Constitution. Part I, chap, i, § 3. Apud Nicolini: History of the
Jesuits, p. 32.
[14] Constitution. Part IV, chap. x, § 5. Apud Nicolini: History of
the Jesuits, p. 33.
[15] Const. Part III, chap. i, § 23. Ibid.
[16] Const. Part VI, chap. i, § 1. Ibid.
[17] The Jesuits, their Constitution and Teaching. By Cartwright.
Page 15, note.
[18] History of St. Ignatius Loyola. By Bartoli. Vol. II, p. 46.
[19] Ibid., p. 47.
[20] Ibid., p. 49.
[21] Ibid., p. 51.
[22] History of the Jesuits. By Steinmetz. Vol. I, p. 251, N. 1.
[23] Bartoli. Vol. II, p. 93.
[24] Constitution. Part VI, chap. v, § 31. Apud Nicolini, p. 34.
[25] Bartoli, Vol. II, pp. 92, 93.
[26] Ibid., p. 95.
[27] Ibid., p. 94.
[28] Nicolini, p. 34.
[29] Constitution. Part III, chap. i, § 7-9. Apud Nicolini, pp. 34,
35.
[30] Const. Part III, chap. i, § 2, 3. Apud Nicolini, p. 36.
[31] Const. Part III, chap. i, § 18. Apud Nicolini, p. 36. These
general matters are also treated of by Bartoli, Vol. II, chaps. iv
and v, pp. from 33-78.
[32] Nicolini, p. 36.
[33] Ante, chap. ii, p. 41.
[34] Bartoli, Vol. II, p. 88.
[35] Bartoli, Vol. II, p. 85.

CHAPTER IV.
 GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY.
Any reader of the last two chapters can see—without the admission
of Bartoli to that effect—that the government of the society of
Jesuits is entirely monarchical, and founded upon the paternalism
set up by imperial rulers in proof of their divine right to govern. Like
these rulers, Loyola maintained that mankind were not competent to
govern themselves, and therefore that Providence has ordained that
they can be rightfully and wisely governed only by their superiors,
no matter whether they acquire and maintain their superiority by
fraud, intrigue, or violence. He had observed society when it was
accustomed to pay but little attention, if any, to the structure and
details of government, and left all matters of public concern to drift
into channels created by those who ruled them with the view of
preserving their own power. And hence he imitated their imperial
example by making this principle of paternalism the fundamental
basis of his society; but transcended the despotism of antiquity by
enslaving both the minds and bodies of its members, and
annihilating all sense of personality among them. This society,
consequently, has never been reconciled to any other form of
government than absolute monarchy, nor can it ever be, so long as it
shall exist. Without absolutism in its most extreme form it would lose
its power of cohesion and fall to pieces, as inevitably as a ship drifts
away from its course when the rudder is broken.
Having become thus familiar with the constitution and organization
of this society, and the principles which underlie them, it is equally
important to discover how these were administered by Loyola
himself, and his immediate successors; for otherwise its real
character can not be known. It has a history of its own—created by
itself, and, in a great measure, when not subject to the inspection of
others—and unless we shall become also familiar with this it will be
hard, if not impossible, to understand the fierce and tireless
animosity with which it has resisted all who have endeavored to
block its way to universal dominion, including even popes and the
Church. If any other society ever had such a history, it has not been
written.
When Loyola obtained the approval of his society from Paul III, he
undoubtedly accomplished a great triumph—greater than any he had
previously known. It gave him the opportunity of foreseeing that,
whensoever thereafter it should be demanded by his own or the
interests of the society, he would have it in his power, with a servile
host at his command, to create a factious rivalry to the papacy itself.
It may be supposed that the pope acted with reference to what he
regarded as the welfare of the Church, and under a due sense of his
own responsibility; but Loyola experienced no such feeling. Backed
by a mere handful of zealots, who were unable to withstand his
importunities, and from whom he probably concealed his ulterior
designs, he concentrated all his energies upon the single object of
obtaining the centralization of power in his own hands, without
troubling himself to inquire at whose expense it might be
accomplished, or the means to be employed. The pope had his own
character as the head of the Church to maintain, while Loyola was a
mere "soldier of fortune," seeking adventure, and stimulated by
personal ambition to acquire both power and fame by means of an
organization with which the pope was not familiar, but which he had
constructed in secret, so as to make possible any form of disguise or
dissimulation necessary to accomplish his desired ends. It would be
unfair to assert, in the absence of explicit proof, that the pope acted
otherwise than with reference primarily to the interests of the
Church, whilst at the same time he manifestly did not desire to
weaken the papal—that is, his own—power. Although he ordered the
assembling of what afterwards became the Council of Trent, he was
not distinguished as a reforming pope, inasmuch as he was
understood to have been constrained to this act to counteract the
imperial policy of Charles V, who had threatened a National Council
in his own dominions. Yet it is possible that some reforms might
have been introduced to which he would have given his assent,
provided they had not lessened the authority of the papacy. Loyola
was not influenced by any of these motives. He attributed the
corruptions of the clergy and the disturbed condition of the Church
to the imbecility of the popes, and their inability to contend
successfully against the impending evils. And thus influenced, he
evidently hoped to put in operation, through the agency of his new
society, such instrumentalities as would counteract the existing evils
in a manner that would assure the glory of the achievement to
himself and his society. He doubtless desired in this way to obtain
such fame as would overshadow the papacy itself. Of the
contemptuous disregard and defiance of popes who have opposed
Jesuit pretensions, we shall hereafter see many and convincing
proofs.
It should not be forgotten, in this connection, that the infallibility of
the pope was not, at that time, an accepted part of the faith of the
Church. The effort to make it so would, if then made, have been
fruitless, in view of the recent pontificates of John XXIII, and Julius
II, and Alexander VI, and the decrees of the Councils of Constance
and Basel, as well as the general sentiment of the Christian world.
Although there were some in the Church who maintained this
doctrine, yet it was far from being approved by the multitude, and
never actually became part of the faith until within our own time,
when it was dictated to the Council of the Vatican at Rome by Pius
IX, and forced to a final decree without free discussion. Mr.
Gladstone has given a list of heretical popes before the time of
Loyola, none of whom could have been infallible, unless infallibility
and heresy may mingle harmoniously together in the same mind at
the same time. Gregory I regarded the claim of universality—a
necessary incident to infallibility—as "blasphemous, anti-Christian,
and devilish." Even Innocent III admitted that a pope could "sin
against the faith, and thus become subject to the judgment of the
Church." Hadrian VI declared that a pope could err in matters of
faith. Zephyrinus and Callistus both taught heresy in maintaining
"that God the Father became incarnate, and suffered with the Son."
Liberius subscribed an Arian creed, the most noted of all heresies,
and condemned the orthodox Athanasius. Felix II was an Arian, and
yet has been placed upon the calendar of saints. Zosimus indorsed
the heresy of Pelagianism. Vigilius was upon both sides of the
controversy about the Three Chapters. John XXII condemned
Nicholas III and Clement V as heretics. Honorius was condemned
and excommunicated for heresy by a General Council at
Constantinople. Consequently, Mr. Gladstone, whose great learning
and wisdom is recognized by all, felt himself warranted in affirming
that "the popes themselves, therefore, for more than three
centuries, publicly recognized, first, that an Ecumenical Council may
condemn a pope for open heresy; and, secondly, that Pope Honorius
was justly condemned for heresy."[36]
The contest in England about "Catholic Emancipation," covered a
period of more than a quarter of a century after the ill-fated union
by which Ireland gave up her independence. It terminated so near
the present time that there are some yet living who may remember
the rejoicing it occasioned among the friends of Ireland. It involved
a practical political question, although it had a semi-religious aspect.
Upon the part of Ireland it was insisted that, as the Irish were
recognized by the British Constitution as subjects of the United
Kingdom, they were entitled to hold civil office and participate in the
legislation of Parliament. This was for a long time successfully
resisted by the English Government and people upon the ground
that, by the religion which the Irish professed, the pope was held to
be infallible, and, consequently, as possessing the spiritual power to
interfere with the temporal affairs and policy of Great Britain. As it
had been always understood among European peoples that this was
the legitimate consequence of that doctrine, it became absolutely
necessary to the Irish cause to show that the religion which
prevailed in Ireland did not include it; in other words, that the Irish
people did not believe the pope to be infallible. In proof of this, it
was insisted by the Irish hierarchy, with unusual earnestness, that
the three leading universities in France, and three not less
distinguished in Spain, had condemned and repudiated that doctrine,
and that the Irish people accepted their opinions. In addition,
several Irish bishops were examined before a committee of the
House of Commons, and testified to the same effect. This turned the
scale in favor of "Irish Emancipation," and the controversy ended by
the passage of that measure by both Houses of Parliament.
There is nothing, therefore, to show, or tending to show, that Loyola
considered Paul III, or any other pope, to be infallible. On the
contrary, inasmuch as that doctrine was not a part of the faith of the
Church, and he was not required to believe it, it is a fair inference,
from all we can now learn of their intercourse, that he regarded the
pope as fallible, and, consequently, wedded to a false and erroneous
system of Church government, which had been attended with
mischievous results, and for which he desired to substitute a better
and more efficient system of his own, under his own direction. And
all the contemporary facts combine to show that he intended, by the
original Jesuit Constitution, to bring the pope, and through him the
Church, to the point of recognizing him and his successors as
infallible, because they were declared to stand in the place of Christ,
and were to be obeyed accordingly. Whatsoever benefits he
proposed to confer upon the Church, were intended by him to be
consequential alone upon those he designed for himself and his
society.
The amendment of the original constitution, so as to require fidelity
to the pope, was simply a measure of policy and expediency on the
part of Loyola, having been suggested to him, as we have seen,
after he reached Rome and discovered that it was the only method
of removing the scruples of the pope, and obtaining the approval of
his new society. Interpreted, therefore, in the light of all the facts,
this amendment amounts only and simply to a recognition of the
pope as the head of the Church, but not infallible, because that was
not then part of the faith of the Church. At the same time, however,
Loyola was sagacious enough to provide in the body of the
constitution for the infallibility of the general of his society by
declaring him as equal to God, and as occupying the place and
exercising the authority of Christ. He expected the pope to recognize
this by his act of approving the original constitution and establishing
the society as a religious order, in imitation of the ancient monastic
orders. Whether the pope so understood the constitution or not, can
not now be decided; but it is perfectly apparent that Loyola did, as is
evidenced by the fact that the vow of each member pledged him to
this belief as one of the absolutely controlling principles of the
organization. But Loyola made a more conspicuous exhibition of his
sagacity by providing, in the secret but practical working of the
society, a loophole of escape from the pledge of obedience to the
pope whensoever the general deemed this expedient, as, in the
sequel, it will appear he frequently did. It is well to repeat here, for
illustration, that the pope was not permitted to hold immediate or
direct intercourse with the individual members of the society. He was
required to regard them only as a company whose members had no
power over themselves, and were expressly prohibited from setting
up any individual claim to independent thought or action. The pope
could consequently convey his desires, or opinions, or commands to
the society only through their general; that is, in Loyola's view, as
well as in that of the society, the fallible head of the Church could
make known his wishes to the infallible head of the society! If the
latter occupied the place of God and pronounced his judgments—as
the members declared by their vows, and the constitution asserts—
then any violation of his commands upon their part was not only
heresy within the society, but punishable by the general, no matter
what the pope might do or say. The infallible head of the Jesuits
became, consequently, in the estimation of the society, superior to
the fallible head of the Church in everything that concerned the
opinions, sentiments, or action of the members. A man would almost
stultify himself who should argue that, in case of conflict between
the pope and the general—which has frequently occurred—the
society would hesitate about obeying the general and disobeying the
pope.
This point requires deliberate consideration, for it is that at which
the commanding ability and shrewdness of Loyola were exhibited
most conspicuously. The society is allowed to know its general only
upon all matters involving either duty or conduct. He, and not the
pope, or any other authority upon earth, determines what the
members shall or shall not do within the whole domain of individual
or company action. The members are required and pledged by their
solemn vows to think his thoughts, to utter his words, to execute his
commands, and to suppress every emotion not in sympathy with his.
And hence it has sometimes happened, in precise consistence with
the plan of Loyola, that the Jesuits have obeyed the pope when
commanded to do so by their general; whilst, at other times, his
wishes have been disregarded and opposed by them because their
general has so commanded. He alone is the god of the society, and
nothing but his electric touch can galvanize their dead corpses into
life and action. Until he speaks, they are like serpents coiled up in
their wintry graves, lifeless and inactive; but the moment he gives
the word of command, each member springs instantaneously to his
feet, leaving unfinished whatsoever may have engaged him, ready to
assail whomsoever he may require to be assailed, and to strike
wheresoever he shall direct a blow to be stricken. Summed up, it
amounts to this, that if the pope decides according to the will of the
general, he is obeyed, because in that case the members show
obedience to the general, according to their vow, and not to the
pope, whose wishes they know only through the general; whereas,
whensoever the pope decides contrary to the will of the general, he
is disobeyed if the general shall so require, because the members
have religiously vowed to accept his commands as expressing the
will of God infallibly. With them the highest tribunal in the world is
that presided over by him. He alone is equal to God. From all other
judgments there may be appeal; but his are irreversible.
The people of Europe were beginning to feel the influence of the
Reformation—at the period here referred to—so extensively,
especially in Germany, as to comprehend the fact that the evils
which had afflicted them, as well as the decaying condition of the
Church, were attributable to the long-continued union of Church and
State. And their increasing intelligence caused them at least to
suspect, if not absolutely to foresee, that a secret and mysterious
society like that of the Jesuits would tend to increase rather than
diminish these evils. That the Jesuits encountered this suspicion
from the beginning, is as plainly proven in history as any other fact.
Patient investigation will show how they were resisted in France,
England, Germany, Spain, and Portugal, as plainly as the rivulet may
be traced from its mountain sources to the sea. And he who does
not take the pains to make himself familiar with the current of
events to which this resistance gave rise, will fall far short of
accurate knowledge of the philosophy of history. Nor, when he has
acquired this information, will it surprise him in the least to know
that, after Loyola had succeeded in providing for himself and his
successors the means of possibly becoming superior to the pope and
the Church, he encountered also the formidable opposition of the
existing religious orders, as well as almost the entire body of the
Christian people, when he undertook to introduce his new and
strangely-constituted society into the various States of Europe. Even
then, before the Jesuits had practically exhibited their capacity for
intrigue, the public mind became convinced that the organization
contained elements of mischief, if not of positive danger, which it
was the duty of society to suppress rather than allow to be
developed. From that time up till the present, nothing has occurred
to remove this general impression, but much to strengthen and
confirm it. So steadfastly imbedded has it become in the minds of
the English-speaking race that they have invented and added to
their language the new word, "Jesuitism," to signify the extremest
degree of "cunning, deceit, hypocrisy, prevarication, deceptive
practices to effect a purpose." There was nothing in the life and
character of Loyola to remove this impression; but, on the contrary,
as all his movements were shrouded in mystery, and the public had
no sympathy for him, nor he any for the public, his whole conduct
tended to excite suspicion against him and his society. Accordingly,
even with the aid he may be supposed to have derived from the
indorsement of the pope, he had to fight his way inch by inch
among the Christian peoples of Europe—a fact of commanding
significance.
The order of Dominicans had existed, under the patronage of the
Church, for over three hundred years, and had made itself
conspicuous for the part it took in the war of extermination
prosecuted by Innocent III against the Albigenses, for having
asserted the right to free religious thought and worship. The
Dominicans were not restrained, therefore, by sympathy with any of
the heresies which Loyola expressed the desire to suppress; so far
from this, they sought after the most active and certain methods of
putting an end to all heresy. Hence, it may be accepted as certain
that they would willingly have accepted the Jesuits as coadjutors in
the work of checking the progress of the Reformation if they had not
seen in Loyola something to excite their indignation rather than their
friendship. The conduct of the Jesuits at Salamanca, in Spain, had
this effect in a high degree. Melchior Cano, one of the most
distinguished and orthodox of the Dominican monks, having seen
and conversed with Loyola at Rome, under circumstances which
enabled him to form an estimate of his character, did not hesitate to
denounce the Jesuits as impostors. What he said of Loyola
personally deserves special notice, and was in these emphatic
words:
"When I was in Rome I took it into my head to see this Ignatius. He
began at once, without preliminary, to talk of his virtue, and the
persecution he had experienced in Spain without deserving it in the
least. And a vast deal of mighty things he poured forth concerning
the revelations which he had from on high, though there was no
need of the disclosure. This induced me to look upon him as a vain
man, and not to have the least faith in his revelations." Referring
also to the Jesuits, as a society molded and governed by Loyola, he
said "he apprehended the coming of Antichrist, and believed the
Jesuits to be his forerunners," and charged them with
"licentiousness," and the practice of "abominable mysteries."[37]
This was the first experience that Loyola had in dealing with so
conspicuous an adversary as Melchior Cano, and he realized the
necessity of having him silenced in some way, so as to preserve his
own personal influence. It furnished him, therefore, an opportunity—
perhaps the first—to display his fitness for leadership, as well as to
instruct his society in the indirect and artful methods by which he
expected it, when necessary, to accomplish its objects. By means of
the pope's bull approving the society, and the authority he claimed
to have been conferred upon him by it, he succeeded in inducing the
general of the Dominicans to cause Melchior to be made a bishop
and sent to the Canaries, which removed him from Spain, and was
equivalent to exile. The success he won in this way was, however, of
short duration; for Melchior accepted his banishment for a brief
period only, and, upon returning to Spain, he renewed his attack
upon the Jesuits, which then became more violent and undisguised
than before. He continued it as long as he lived, and at his death left
this prophetic warning: "If the members of the society continue as
they have begun, God grant that the time may not come when kings
will wish to resist them, and will find no means of doing so!"[38]
Events, which deserve somewhat more particularity of detail,
occurred also in Spain, at Saragossa, because they explain how the
society was trained and disciplined from the beginning, under the
inspiration of Loyola's immediate command. "As the twig is bent, so
is the tree inclined," is an adage no less applicable to a compact
body like the Jesuits than to individuals. Loyola understood this, and
lost no time, after he put his society in working order, to teach the
members the art of circumventing their adversaries—an art which
their successors, so far from forgetting, have improved upon. In this
primary lesson he also taught them that they were justified in
disregarding any human law that stood in the way of their success;
that public opinion in conflict with their interests was entitled to no
respect whatsoever; and that by steadfastly adhering to the principle
of monarchism, upon which their society rested, they might
confidently invoke the aid of monarchs to assure them success in
any conflict with the people. And he taught them, moreover, that
they were entitled to resist the authorities of the Church when the
latter attempted to check their progress. And thus, almost in the
infancy of the society, its founder fixed indelibly in the mind of every
member the idea of their superiority over every department of
society, over all the ancient monastic orders, and over even the
Church itself, when its authority was employed to check their
progress. All this will appear in the conflict about to be detailed.
The city of Saragossa was the capital of Aragon, where the law
prohibited, by strict and explicit provisions, "the erection of a chapel
or monastery within a certain distance of an established parish
church or religious community." The Jesuits found a place they
desired to occupy, but were forbidden to do so by this law, which all
others had obeyed, and which the public desired to maintain for
satisfactory reasons. The law, however, did not restrain them in the
least; and in utter disregard of it, and in open defiance of the public
authorities, they asserted the right to take possession of and erect a
building upon it for their own uses. They proposed to encroach upon
the rights of the Augustinians, when the Franciscans—both being
ancient religious orders of monks—united with the former in
resisting this threatened violation of public law, which had been, up
to that time, universally acquiesced in by both these orders, and by
the public as a prudential measure of public policy. But the Jesuits
did not consider any law as of the least consequence when it placed
obstructions in their path, and, consequently, persisted in their
purpose despite the protests of the Augustinians and the
Franciscans, all of whom were esteemed by the citizens of Saragossa
for their sanctity. The controversy soon assumed such importance
that the vicar-general of the Church issued a formal order, in the
name and by the authority of the Church, whereby he prohibited the
Jesuits from erecting their new building within the forbidden limits.
Any other body of men, professing the least respect for the Church
and its official representatives, would at least have hesitated after
this. But the Jesuits paid no more respect to the ecclesiastical dignity
and authority of the vicar-general than they had proposed to show
to the existing public law, or to the two protesting monastic orders.
The consequence was, that the vicar-general was constrained, in
vindication of his authority as the representative of the Church, to
denounce the Jesuits as heretics for their flagrant disobedience, and
to threaten them with excommunication if they did not desist. He
declared them accursed, and hurled the thunders of anathema
against them. But the Jesuits, realizing how much strength lay in
Loyola's single arm, remained unterrified. These thunders, which had
caused even monarchs to quake, were powerless against his
commands, which were communicated to his followers by the
superior who watched over the interests of the society at Saragossa.
The latter ordered the ceremony of consecrating the forbidden
ground to proceed, in the face of both the law and the commands of
the vicar-general; and the infatuated and disloyal Jesuits obeyed
him. This was a new experience to the citizens of the capital of
Aragon, who had witnessed nothing like it before, and they became
incensed and thoroughly aroused. They took the side of the
Augustinians and the Franciscans, and the "priests and religious"
who defended them, and proceeded to display their indignation in
such public and emphatic manner that it could not be mistaken. The
historic statement is that "effigies of the Jesuits being precipitated
into hell by legions of devils, were exhibited in the streets, and it
was even inculcated among the people that the town was profaned
by the presence of the Jesuits, who, it was declared, had brought
heresy into it, and that the whole of Saragossa was under
excommunication, and would so remain until they left it." This
account is substantially given by all who have undertaken to write
the history of the Jesuits, but it is taken from Daurignac, one of their
ablest defenders, whose language is here quoted. He further
explains the estimate in which the Jesuits were held by the people of
Saragossa, while obedient to the faith of the Roman Church, in these
words: "At length the populace, whose feelings had been thus
worked upon, became more violent; and, proceeding to the house of
the Jesuits, they threw stones, breaking the panes of glass, and
threatening the inmates with their vengeance, while a procession,
similar to the one already described, paraded around the ill-fated
house, uttering cries of disapprobation, reproach, and
condemnation."[39]
In a matter which involved, as this did, the mere enforcement of a
public law universally approved, the duty of the Jesuits was plain
and simple, not admitting of any equivocation. Like all others who
enjoyed the protection of law, they were bound to obey the public
authorities, to which was superadded their obligation to obey also
the vicar-general as the official organ of the Church. But the reader
should not be so far misled as to suppose that they were influenced
by any such idea, or that they were in the least discouraged by the
severe ecclesiastical and popular rebuke they received at Saragossa.
No man understood better than Loyola what complete control can be
obtained over the sentiments, opinions, and conduct of individuals
by educational training; and he had taken the precaution so to
discipline the novices of his society, from the moment of their
initiation, as to make their blind and passive obedience the effectual
method of consolidating his influence and authority over them. It is
perfectly apparent, from the occurrences at Saragossa, that one of
the first lessons they had learned was that form of obedience which
required them to disregard and defy any law whatsoever, when
commanded by their superiors to do so, without inquiring or caring
what consequences might follow, either to the public or to
individuals. Consequently, when compelled by the combined
influence of the public authorities, those of the Church, and the
indignant population of Saragossa, to abandon the erection of their
new building upon the forbidden ground, they treated it as mere
suspension, and not abandonment, still intending, by some means or
other, to overcome this array of adversaries and defeat the execution
of the law. With this view they ceased operations, seemingly yielding
to the existing necessity. At this point in their history, however, they
learned their first lesson in duplicity and deceit—and the sequel
proves how well they learned it—by showing that, although
apparently discomfited, they did not consider themselves as
defeated. Loyola himself was not familiar with defeat, when success
depended in any measure upon strategic intrigues with imperial
rulers, all of whom fully understood that his society represented the
most absolute monarchism then existing in Europe, and on that
account, if no other, required them to extend to it every possible
degree of protection, especially where, as at Saragossa, the people
had taken active steps to require the enforcement of law. He had
also prepared for escaping defeat in any matter concerning the
Jesuits by fixing in their minds the conviction, as a religious
sentiment, that there was no degree of courage so high and
commendable as that exhibited by them when their obedience was
carried to the extent of resisting whatsoever and whosoever stood in
their way when commanded to do so for the interests of the society,
which he required them to believe was for "the greater glory of
God!" He had taught them to consider this as courage, but it was a
misuse of terms so to call it; for, in its rightful sense, courage
invokes the best and most ennobling faculties of the mind. Instead
of this, the sentiment he inculcated proceeded from that indifference
to public opinion and insensibility to shame which, as Bartoli
concedes, is a necessary feature of Jesuit education. It is rather to
be compared to the animal instinct of the tiger, which, after his
coveted victim has once escaped, prompts him to approach it
thereafter by stealthy steps, crouching in concealment until the time
shall come when the final plunge may be successfully made.
The superior of the Jesuits at Saragossa was too well instructed in
the policy dictated by Loyola not to understand wherein the main
and real strength of the society consisted. Having, undoubtedly, full
knowledge of the designs of Loyola, and molded to all his purposes,
as the human form is chiseled from the lifeless block of marble, he
proceeded at once to invoke the aid of the monarchical power of the
Government of Spain, in order to bring the vicar-general of the
Church, the Augustinian and the Franciscan monks, together with
the priests and religious who adhered to them, and the people and
local authorities of Saragossa, into absolute humiliation at his feet.
For the first time, therefore, there was then opened to the Jesuits a
new and broad field, wherein they were incited to display their
wonderful capacity for intrigue. They were to be practically taught
with what facility they could obtain the intervention of monarchical
power to trample upon the rights of the ancient religious and
monastic orders, violate the public laws, defy the ecclesiastical
representatives of the Church, and make the people realize how
powerless they were to influence the policy of the society, to modify
its principles, or to impede its progress to the ultimate dominion it
had started out to obtain.
Charles V was then emperor; but, as he was absent from Spain, his
daughter, the Princess Jane, was the acting regent, with the full
possession of imperial power. The superior of the Jesuits at
Saragossa appealed to her by arguments which, although not
preserved, may be fairly presumed to have centered in the necessity
for establishing and preserving the society as the best and most
certain method of perpetuating the monarchical principle, so
absolutely essential to kings that, if it were destroyed, they could not
exist; or, if they did exist, it would be with greatly diminished
powers, and subject, in some degree, to the control of popular
opinion. The regent was fully informed of the determination of her
imperial father to maintain this principle at every hazard, and was
aware of the fact that he was not at all choice about the methods of
doing so. She understood how well fitted he was, by his vacillating
course, for any emergency he might encounter; and that she was
not mistaken in his character, history attests by the facts that,
although a native of the Netherlands, he persecuted his own
countrymen for daring to assert freedom of conscience for
themselves; and at one time plotted with the king of France against
the pope, at another with the pope against the king of France, and
at still another succeeded in enticing the Protestants of Germany
into an offensive alliance against both. As the representative of such
a monarch—so unscrupulous about the means employed, either by
himself or by others, in his behalf—the regent became a willing and
easy convert to the appeal of the Jesuit superior. Holding both the
law and public opinion in contempt, and looking upon the people as
having no rights which kings were bound to recognize, she took the
side of the Jesuits at Saragossa, and at once inaugurated the
measures necessary to secure their triumph over all their
adversaries. The pope's nuncio in Spain was easily brought to the
same side, because it was the royal side; and, thus supported, the
Jesuits soon reached the end they had sought after so anxiously by
their triumphal re-entry into Saragossa, and the compulsory
submission of the vicar-general, the Augustinians, the Franciscans,
the priests, and the people! No combination which all these could
then form could any longer resist the power and insolence of the
Jesuits, when backed by the enormous monarchical power which
Charles V had placed in the regent's hands. Daurignac, the Jesuit
historian, tells all this in praise of his society, boastingly informing his
readers how the vicar-general was "compelled to remove the ban of
excommunication," and how the Jesuits were thereby enabled
peacefully "to take possession of their house," and occupy it without
further resistance. Of course, their adversaries were all subdued, not
because of any change of opinion with regard to the Jesuits, but
because they feared to disobey the regent, who held in her hands
the power of the merciless Charles V. And the Jesuits, with the vanity
inspired by success, marched the streets of Saragossa, through the
subdued and humiliated crowd, in such conspicuous exultation as
told emphatically with what indifference and contempt they looked
upon human institutions and laws, or the rights of the monastic
orders, or the sanction of local ecclesiastical authority, or municipal
regulations, or the interests and sentiments of the people, or all
these combined, when they undertook to place a check upon their
ambition, or subject them to any other obedience than that they had
vowed to their superior.[40]
These details, under ordinary circumstances, might seem tedious to
the general reader, but they are justified by their necessity in
showing how the Jesuits obtained their first signal triumph. There
has been a long list of similar triumphs since then to which this
contributed. The events themselves, in so far as they involve merely
the occupation and use of a piece of ground, are comparatively
insignificant; but they serve, far better than many of greater
magnitude, to display the prominent and most dangerous
characteristics of the Jesuits. They show their absolute disregard of
all rights and interests in conflict with their own, and how thoroughly
Loyola succeeded in making this the governing and cardinal principle
of the society; and their significance is increased by the fact that the
affair at Saragossa inaugurated a policy which the Jesuits have
steadily pursued throughout their history, varying their methods
according to the character of the objects they have endeavored to
attain. In this sense, they are introductory to a proper estimate of
them.
 FOOTNOTES:
[36] Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion. By Gladstone.
Pages 94 to 102. It is here stated that the "Jesuit General Linez
[Laynez], strongly advocated papal infallibility in the Council of
Trent, ... but the Council left the question undecided."
[37] History of the Jesuits. By Steinmetz. Vol. I, p. 378.
[38] History of the Jesuits. By Steinmetz. Vol. I, pp. 380-381.
[39] History of the Society of Jesus. By Daurignac. Vol. I, pp. 82-
83.
[40] Daurignac, Vol. I, pp. 84, 85.

CHAPTER V.
STRUGGLES AND OPPOSITION.
The assistance rendered to the Jesuits at Saragossa by the regent, in
the name of the Emperor Charles V, very greatly encouraged them.
It gave them assurance of royal sympathy with the monarchical
principles of their constitution, and taught them how to invoke that
sympathy successfully in future controversies with their adversaries,
although the latter might be ecclesiastics in the active service of the
Church.
At Toledo, in Spain, they also encountered formidable opposition. On
account of divers abuses and "many superstitious practices" which
prevailed among them, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Toledo was
constrained to condemn and reprove them in a public ordinance,
whereby he prohibited the Christian people from confessing to them
"under pain of excommunication," and required "all curates to
exclude them from the administration of the sacraments." It should
be understood from this, of course, that they must have been guilty
of some extraordinary and flagrant conduct, or they would not have
been so harshly dealt with by so distinguished a functionary of the
Church as a cardinal-archbishop, to whom the management of the
affairs of the Church at Toledo was confided. No other supposition
can be indulged, especially in view of the fact that, besides this
emphatic denunciation, he placed their college at Alcala under
interdict. It is impossible, therefore, to escape the conclusion that
their conduct had brought reproach upon the society and inflicted
injury upon the Church. But again, as at Saragossa, the Jesuits were
not discomfited by being placed under the ban of ecclesiastical
censure, and organized resistance against the cardinal-archbishop,
as they had done against the vicar-general at Saragossa. Their first
effort was to seek the intervention of the pope—whom they
supposed to be under the influence of Loyola—that of his nuncio in
Spain, and that of the Archbishop of Burgos. They hoped in this way
to overcome all opposition. But the effort was unavailing, for the
reason that the cardinal-archbishop was so thoroughly convinced of
their unworthiness that he could not be moved from his purpose,
and sternly persisted in condemning them. Thus failing to obtain the
desired assistance from the authorities of the Church, they invoked
aid from the temporal and monarchical power of the Government, as
they had done at Saragossa. They had become well assured, by
their success with the regent, that all who served Charles V were in
constant readiness to do whatsoever was necessary to protect their
society, even against the highest officials of the Church, because of
its tendency to preserve and perpetuate the principle of
monarchism. They felt entirely secure under royal and imperial
protection, understanding perfectly well the powers wielded by the
monarchs of that period, especially that of Charles V in Spain.
Accordingly they succeeded in having proceedings instituted against
the cardinal-archbishop, who was summoned before the royal court
of Spain to show cause why he had placed any impediments in the
way of the Jesuits—why, in other words, he had dared to deny their
absolute dominion over the regularly-constituted ecclesiastical
tribunal at Toledo. Loyola understood how to influence the court of
Spain, and felt entirely convinced, doubtless, that, with Charles V
upon his side, he could easily bring all his enemies at his feet; and,
in this instance, he was not disappointed. The royal court decided in
favor of the Jesuits, and the cardinal-archbishop was condemned
and silenced. In order to escape the prison of the Inquisition, he
yielded obedience at last, and the Jesuits achieved another triumph
over a distinguished ecclesiastic of the Church.[41]
The patronage of the king of Portugal enabled them to enter
Portugal without difficulty. This so excited their anticipations of a
brilliant and successful future, that they devoted themselves to the
acquisition of riches, and fell into such vices as, in that day, almost
invariably accompanied success among both clergy and laity. Nicolini
says that, after having obtained "immense wealth" in Portugal, they
"relaxed in the strictness of their conduct, pursued a life of pleasure
and debauchery," until the king "began to frown upon them," and
the people to withdraw their respect. They had a college at Coimbra
which, according to him, bore very little resemblance to a cloister.
Being no longer able, as in Spain, to appeal with confidence to the
royal power for protection—as the confidence of the king of Portugal
in their Christian integrity had become shaken—Loyola, yet alive,
was forced to remove the provincial and rector of the college, out of
seeming deference to public opinion. The new rector, by running and
screaming through the streets like a madman, and flagellating his
naked shoulders until they were covered with blood and dust, so
succeeded in arousing the fears and superstition of the Jesuits that
they were induced to introduce such reforms in the college as
enabled them, in some degree, but not entirely, to regain their
influence.[42]
It is not a little puzzling to those who have not investigated the
history and character of the Jesuits, to understand how the immense
wealth they acquired in Portugal and elsewhere was obtained, when
each member was required to take a vow of "extreme poverty."
There is, however, nothing easier for a Jesuit than to satisfy his own
mind upon this subject, by aid of the casuistical method of reasoning
which enables him to escape this, or any other difficulty. Bartoli, the
biographer of Loyola, explains it in a few words. "The vow of
poverty," says he, "does not deprive the person who is under trial of
the ownership of the property which he previously possessed, nor of
the possibility of acquiring more, until he has obtained a fixed and
determined position, although he is indeed deprived of the use of his
property, and can not, any more than a professed religious, dispose
of a single farthing without the consent of his superior."[43] And he
repeats the same idea at another place, by saying, "The vow of
poverty does not preclude the possession of property."[44]
Uninitiated minds may be embarrassed by this, but it is plain and
simple to a Jesuit. He understands that his vow of "extreme poverty"
does not require him to part with the property he has, or prohibit
him from obtaining more if he can. There is but a single condition
attached—that it shall be at the disposal of the superior. And thus,
by the help of the casuists, this wonderful society, composed only of
those who have solemnly vowed their absolute disdain of wealth,
has, at several periods of its history, become the richest in the world,
and would be so again if allowed to have its own way. The vow of
"extreme poverty" means, therefore, in the minds of Jesuits,
splendid palaces, marble churches, magnificent universities, and, in
fact, the absorption of as much wealth as can be acquired through
every variety of intrigue, by a body of men who boast that they have
plucked every human sympathy from their hearts, and look upon all
the tenderest relations of society with contempt. No written
language furnishes words to convey fully to ordinary minds the
Jesuit idea of "extreme poverty." One of the Jesuit fathers, quoted
by Bartoli, calls it "a rich poverty," as he also does the bondage of
the society "a free slavery."[45] By familiarizing ourselves with this
wonderfully dexterous use of words, we may soon learn to
understand what is meant by white darkness and the blackness of
sunlight.
In all the countries of Europe the first impressions with reference to
the Jesuits were extremely unfavorable to them, and the most
decided among those most conspicuous for devotion to the Church.
There was nothing in the life of Loyola to inspire confidence, either
in him or in his plan of operations. He was looked upon as an
adventurer, who had abandoned a military life only because his
person was disfigured by a wound, in order to acquire distinction in
some other pursuit. Some of the ecclesiastics—as in the case of
Melchior the Dominican—were disposed to rebuke his
presumptuousness in assuming sanctity and superiority; while others
of them, like the vicar-general at Saragossa and the Cardinal-
Archbishop of Toledo, considered his teachings as tending to
encourage heresy, not only because of their novelty, but because
they blasphemously recognized him and all subsequent superiors of
the Jesuits as equal to God in both attributes and power. They could
not persuade themselves to believe that Christianity required them
to recognize Loyola as infallible, whilst the pope, by the existing faith
of the Church, remained fallible. Loyola was thus surrounded with
embarrassments which would have subdued the courage of almost
any other man. He, however, was rather strengthened than
weakened by opposition; for he belonged to that class of men who
need the excitement of conflict and the spur of necessity to develop
their commanding qualities. He had laid his plans well and skillfully,
and, with a perfect knowledge of the condition of society, had
prepared to derive power from the only sources recognized as
possessing it; that is, from the pope as head of the Church, and
monarchs as the possessors of absolute dominion. So long as he
could avail himself of their united support, he had little or no fear of
the people, whom he could readily resist and humiliate as he had
done at Saragossa. He soon realized that he could easily brush
opposing ecclesiastics out of his way, so long as he could retain
monarchism as the leading and central principle of his society; and
hence he directed all his efforts to the suppression of the
Reformation, and to the continued union of Church and State, so as
to give additional strength to monarchism, upon which, as a
reserved force, he could fall back whensoever the interests of his
society and the exigencies of his affairs required it. Whilst the bulk of
society were unable to penetrate his secret purposes and motives,
enough transpired, even during the life of Loyola, to excite general
suspicion against his own and the integrity of his society, on which
account it was that he encountered such formidable opposition to
the introduction of his society into Spain, and its loss of influence
and reputation in Portugal, both of which States were eminently
devoted to the Roman Catholic religion. In obedience to the general
rule, that "the same causes produce the same results," the
opposition to Loyola and his society became more violent and
protracted in France than in either Spain or Portugal. The reason for
this may be found in the peculiarity of the Church organization
existing there; but from whatsoever cause it may have arisen, the
long and tedious controversy which at last secured the admission of
the Jesuits into France, is not merely historically instructive, but
throws a flood of light upon Jesuit policy and character.
The French Christians had for a long period refused to concede to
the pope the right to interfere with the temporal affairs of that
kingdom. This attitude was so persistently maintained by them that
what they considered their "liberties" came to be generally
recognized as the foundation of the French or Gallican Church, as
distinguished from the Papal Church at Rome. They regarded
themselves under the jurisdiction of the pope in spiritual matters—
that is, in so far as religious faith was concerned—but maintained
that the domestic policy of France, in the management of her own
temporal and internal affairs, could not be so mingled with Christian
faith as to confer upon the pope any right to dictate or interfere with
that policy. Upon these points there was entire unanimity among
them before the time of Loyola, or if any opposing sentiment existed
it was too inconsiderable to influence the public judgment.
When the attempt was first made to introduce the Jesuits into
France the knowledge of their operations elsewhere led to the belief
—at all events, the fear—that the society could not exist there
without conflicting with the Gallican liberties, and subjecting the
French Christians to foreign authority more odious than that of the
pope, to whom they had steadily refused the concession of any
temporal power over them. They were willing then, as they had
always been, to look to the pope for the regulation of all affairs of
the Church that concerned religious faith; but it was impossible for
them to admit the superior jurisdiction claimed by Loyola without
conferring upon him authority and distinction they had denied to the
pope, and creating a threatening antagonism to the liberties they
had long enjoyed, and which distinguished them from other Roman
Catholic populations of Europe. They could readily see that if the
Jesuits, under the guidance of an ambitious adventurer like Loyola,
were permitted to establish this jurisdiction, it would surely lead to
interference by his society with the temporal affairs and interests of
the kingdom. Consequently the Gallican Christians, backed by their
highest ecclesiastical authorities, sternly resisted the introduction of
the Jesuits into France. They could not have done otherwise without
a tame and absolute forfeiture of their boasted liberties. As neither
Loyola nor his followers had any respect whatsoever for this
Christian sentiment, notwithstanding it was maintained with
extraordinary unanimity in France, and persisted in the effort to
plant the Jesuit society in the midst of it with the view of its
extermination, an exciting and angry struggle ensued, in which the
Jesuits displayed their habitual disregard of public opinion, and
whatsoever else stood in the way of their success. Neither the
interests of the French Church, nor the sentiments and wishes of the
French people, nor the possibility of imperiling the cause of
Christianity, nor any other consideration beside that of their own
triumph, weighed the weight of a feather with them when in conflict
with their secret plans and purposes.
The Jesuits sought the aid of the pope, and through him that of the
king of France, so that by the combined influence of the spiritual and
the temporal powers, they might bring to bear upon the French
Church and people such pressure as would render them powerless
to resist encroachment upon liberties long held in religious
veneration. Their manifest object was to center this union of Church
and State upon what they considered the only "legitimate authority,"
with the special view of engrafting upon the faith of the Gallican
Christians the principle of "uninquiring obedience" to whatsoever
policy should be dictated by the interests of that combination,
whether relating to spiritual or temporal affairs. Realizing how readily
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