1.2.

Revision questions
Question 1: How can consonants be defined? What criteria are applicable for the
classification of English consonants?
- Consonants are speech sounds. When we pronounce them, the organs of speech
always form the obstructions, the airstream is stopped before going out and the
pronunciation is with or without the vibration of the vocal cords.
- 4 criteria are applicable for the classification of E consonants:
+ Place of articulation: refers to how obstructions are made
+ manner of articulation: refers to how the airstream is blocked and released
+ Voicing: refers to the state of the vocal cords
+ State of the soft palate (nasal/oral):

Question 2: What is the difference between place of articulation and manner of

articulation?
 Place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract the airflow is constricted or
obstructed to produce a particular consonant sound.
 Manner of articulation describes how the airflow is modified or restricted at the
place of articulation to create different consonant sounds.

1. Place of articulation: refers to how obstructions are made

- Bilabial: upper lip + lower lip: 4: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
- Labiodental: lower lip + upper teeth: : /f/, /v/
- Dental: tongue + teeth: 2 / θ/ ; /ð/
- Alveolar: alveolar ridge + tongue /t/, /d/,/s/, /z/, /l/, /n/
- Post-alveolar: tip of the tongue approaches the alveolar in approximately
the way it would for /t/ and /d/ but never actually makes contact with any
part of the roof of the mouth.: /r/
- Palato-alveolar: alveolar ridge + hard palate + tongue: /ʃ/ ; /ʒ/; /tʃ/; /dʒ/
- Palatal: the middle part of the tongue + hard palate /j/
- Velar (soft palate /velum + back part of the tongue): /k/; /g/; /ŋ/
- Glottal (vocal cords): /h/
2. Manner of articulation: refers to how the airstream is blocked and released
1. Stop/plosive: the airstream is COMPLETELY STOPPED & SUDDENLY
RELEASED.
/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/
2. Fricative: the airstream is PARTIALLY STOPPED & GRADUALLY
RELEASED.
/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/,
/ θ/; /ð/, / ʃ/; /ʒ/; /h/
3. Affricate: the airstream is COMPLETELY STOPPED & GRADUALLY
RELEASED. (2)
/ tʃ/; /dʒ/
4. Nasal : the airstream goes through the nose (3)
/m/, /n/ , /ŋ/
5. Lateral: the airstream goes out by both sides of the tongue (1)
/l/
6. Approximant:
Articulation in which articulators approach each other but do not get sufficiently
close to each other to produce a “complete” consonant such as a plosive or
fricative
/w/; /j/; /r/

Question 3: How is a voiced consonant different from an unvoiced consonant?

Voiced consonants are produced when the vocal cords (also known as vocal folds) come
together and vibrate during their articulation.
/p/, /t/, /k/, /θ/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /h/
Voiceless consonants are produced when the vocal cords are held apart and do not vibrate
during their articulation.

Question 4: Can you give a possible explanation why /w/ and /j/ are labelled
approximants or semi-vowels?
/w/ and /j/ are labeled as approximants or semi-vowels because they share characteristics
with both consonants and vowels but do not fit neatly into either category. EX: /w/ is
often called the "voiced labio-velar approximant." In its articulation, the lips
come together, creating a partial closure (similar to a consonant), but the airflow is not
significantly restricted. The back part of the tongue approaches the velum (soft palate)

 Articulatory Characteristics:

 Approximants: Both /w/ and /j/ are produced with a relatively open vocal tract compared
to consonants like stops or fricatives. The articulators come close to each other but do not
create a tight constriction, allowing airflow to pass through without much turbulence.
This is why they are classified as approximants.
 Semi-vowels: The term "semi-vowel" reflects their similarity to vowels in terms of sound
quality. Both /w/ and /j/ have vowel-like qualities and can function as the nucleus of a
syllable in certain contexts.

 Syllable Structure:

 /w/ and /j/ often appear in syllable-initial positions (as in "we" or "yes") and can glide
into a vowel sound, making them transition smoothly between consonantal and vocalic
sounds. This gliding nature is characteristic of semi-vowels.

 Phonetic Behavior:

 They can occur in similar phonetic environments as vowels, often preceding or following
a vowel in diphthongs or vowel combinations (e.g., /waɪ/ in "why" or /jəʊ/ in "yo").

Question 5: Can you list the English nasals? On what criterion English consonants
are divided into oral and nasal ones?
In English, the nasal consonants are those produced with airflow passing through the
nasal cavity while the oral cavity is blocked or restricted in some way. English has three
nasal consonants: m, n, ŋ
The English nasals are:
1. /m/: as in "man"
2. /n/: as in "no"
3. /ŋ/: as in "sing"
Criterion for Division into Oral and Nasal Consonants
English consonants are divided into oral and nasal based on the path of airflow during
their production:
 Nasal Consonants: In nasal consonants, the airflow is directed through the nasal
cavity. This occurs when the velum (the soft part of the roof of the mouth) is
 lowered, allowing air to escape through the nose while the mouth is obstructed.
This is characteristic of the nasals listed above.
 Oral Consonants: In oral consonants, the airflow is directed solely through the
mouth. The velum is raised, blocking airflow to the nasal cavity. Most consonants
in English fall into this category, including stops, fricatives, and approximants.

Question 6: Complete the following sentence:

Affricates are rather ………………… consonants which begin as ……………… and
end as ………………………… .
Affricates are rather complex consonants which begin as plosive and end as fricatives.
Question 7: Discuss whether the following statement is True or False:
Obstruents are the only English consonants that can be either voiced or voiceless.
Question 8: This is the description of how the consonant /k/ is actually made. Find
and correct the mistake(s) if there is any:
Stop the air with the back part of your tongue against the hard palate. Then move the
back part of your tongue down to release the air. If you hold a piece of paper in front
of your mouth, the paper will move as soon as the air is released.
Question 9: Can you identify which English consonant is described below?
Stop the air with the tip of your tongue touching the upper alveolar ridge. Then move
the tongue down to release the air with vibration of the vocal cords.
Question 10: List and give the description of all English voiceless fricatives.
No. Soun Description
d
1
2
3
4
5
Question 11: Look at the following picture and explain the story from the phonetic
point of view. Write your explanation in the spaces provided.

Source of image: Cartoon Stock

* FUN OR FOOD FOR THOUGHT?
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Question 12: On phonetic ground, explain the trick in the following tongue twisters.

Tongue Twisters: Source of image: Dream Time

 “I saw Susie sitting in a shoe shine shop. Where she sits she shines, and where she
shines she sits.”
“Sheena leads, Sheila needs.”
“The thirty-three thieves thought that they thrilled the throne throughout Thursday”
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1.2. Revision questions
Question 1: Can you, on phonetic ground, explain the differences between
consonants and vowels? Clarify your explanation with examples.
Question 2: On what basis are vowels divided into monophthongs and diphthongs?
Question 3: Give the classification of monophthongs on the basis of the highest part
of the tongue.
Question 4: Why are /i:/; /ɪ/; / e/; /æ/ classified as spread vowels?
Question 5: How are high vowels different from low vowels. Give examples to prove
your point of view.
Question 6: List all the short vowels in English. Give three examples for each sound.
Question 7: On what basis are vowels divided into front, central and back vowels.
Give examples to clarify your answer.
Question 8: Which vowel of English is referred to as the schwa. Can you give the
phonetic description of the sound and explain why it is called a weak vowel?
Question 9: What are centring diphthongs in English? Why are they labeled
centring diphthongs?
Question 10: Give three examples of closing diphthongs in English. For what
reason(s) are they referred to as closing diphthongs?

1.3. Exercises for further practice

Exercise 1: Choose the word(s) that begin(s) with a high vowel:
1 Expensiv 3 apple 5 entrepreneu
e r
 2 Excellent 4 isolat 6 uncle
e
Exercise 2: Choose the word(s) that contain(s) a closing diphthong:
1 child 3 development 5 tour
2 buffet 4 entertainmen 6 determin
t e
Exercise 3: Choose the word(s) that contain(s) a back vowel:
1 floo 3 char 5 chocolat
d m e
2 tom 4 famil 6 afraid
b y

Exercise 4: Choose the word(s) that contain(s) a centring diphthong:

1 eithe 3 pour 5 musketee
r r
2 tear 4 shoulde 6 potato
r
Exercise 5: Choose the word(s) that DO NOT contain a closing diphthong
1 slave 3 advantageou 5 Temperatur
s e
2 braver 4 stationary 6 Cheer
y
Exercise 6: Choose the words that DO NOT contain a high, front, long vowel
1 phoeni 3 Oedipu 5 Metr
x s e
2 feature 4 steak 6 Pizza
Exercise 7: Fill in the following transcriptions with the missing vowels:
quay /k / leopard /l p d/
flour /fl / lettuce /l t s/
 preface /pr f s/ water /w t /
courageous /k r dʒ purpose /p p s/
s/
Christ /kr st/ mosquito /m sk t
/

Exercise 8: Find two words that

a. contain a high, back, long vowel
b. begin with a low, front, short vowel
c. end with a mid, central, short vowel
d. begin with a low, back, short vowel
e. contain a centring diphthong
Exercise 9: Fill in the following table
Words The number of vowels The vowels
Secretary 3 vowels - /ˈsekrətri/ /e/, /ə/, /i/
Choir
Alumni
archive
colonel
Exercise 10: Study the following conversation and then answer the question that
follows:
What will happen when vowels are mistaken?
A: I went to a funeral this morning.
B: Whose funeral was that?
A: Mark’s dad!
B: Mark’s dead? Can’t believe it! How come?
A: He just died of old age!
B: Old age? Mark’s just 35!!!
A: ???
With your understanding of English vowels, can you explain this awkward situation?
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REVISION QUESTIONS
Question 1: Can you give a general definition of assimilation?
Question 2: Which type(s) of sounds is/are usually affected by assimilation?
Question 3: Under which circumstances does assimilation often happen? Prove your
points with relevant examples.
Question 4: Can you explain the distinction between regressive assimilation and
progressive assimilation? Prove your points with relevant examples.
Question 5: How is complete assimilation different from partial assimilation? Analyse
some examples to clarify your explanation.
Question 6: Give and analyse three examples of intermediate assimilation in English.
Question 7: Give and analyse two examples of assimilation of place of articulation in
consonants.
Question 8: Can assimilation of voicing happen to English consonants? Examples are
needed to clarify your argument.
Question 9: How can you define elision?
Question 10: Give and analyse examples of consonants disappearing in fast and casual
speech.
Question 11: Give and analyse examples in which vowels are elided in colloquial
English speech.
Question 12: What is liaison? Illustrate your understanding with relevant examples
Question 13: How many ways are there to link two vowels in an utterance when they are
next to each other? Give examples to prove your point of view.
Question 14: Compare assimilation and liaison, then give relevant examples to illustrate
your point of view.
EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Consider the following phrases and anticipate how assimilation will probably
happen. Provide transcriptions to clarify your argument.
1 meatball / /
2 good guy / /
3 green / /
grass
Exercise 2: The phrase “that picture” is often pronounced as /ðæp pɪktʃə/ in fast and
casual speech. Explain the principle for the change from /t/ into /p/ in the word “that”.
Exercise 3: The letter “s” is added to verbs in the case of third person singular or to
nouns in the case of plural form. Please clarify when it should be pronounced as /s/ and
when it should be pronounced as /z/. Give relevant examples to clarify your point. How
do you account for such different ways of pronouncing the “s” based on assimilation?
Exercise 4: Give two examples of regressive assimilation in which an alveolar nasal is
turned into a bilabial nasal.
Exercise 5: Give two examples of regressive assimilation in which a voiced alveolar stop
is turned into a voiced velar stop.
Exercise 6: Give two examples of progressive assimilation and explain the change(s) of
sound(s) in each example.
Exercise 7: Consider the pronunciation of the “-ed” ending in past tense regular verbs.
When is it pronounced as /t/, and when is it realized as /d/? Is this, in your opinion, a case
of assimilation? Why or why not?
Exercise 8: In fast and casual speech, “police” is often pronounced as /p’li:s/, and
“correct” as /k’rekt/. Can you explain the phenomenon?