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PID AND PREDICTIVE
CONTROL OF
ELECTRICAL DRIVES
AND POWER
CONVERTERS USING
MATLAB®/SIMULINK®
PID AND PREDICTIVE
CONTROL OF
ELECTRICAL DRIVES
AND POWER
CONVERTERS USING
MATLAB®/SIMULINK®

Liuping Wang, Shan Chai, Dae Yoo, Lu Gan and Ki Ng

This edition first published 2015
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd.
Registered office
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for.

Hardback ISBN: 9781118339442

Typeset in 9/11pt TimesLTStd by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

1 2015
Contents

About the Authors xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgment xix

List of Symbols and Acronyms xxi

1 Modeling of AC Drives and Power Converter 1

1.1 Space Phasor Representation 1
1.1.1 Space Vector for Magnetic Motive Force 1
1.1.2 Space Vector Representation of Voltage Equation 4
1.2 Model of Surface Mounted PMSM 5
1.2.1 Representation in Stationary Reference (𝛼 − 𝛽) Frame 5
1.2.2 Representation in Synchronous Reference (d − q) Frame 7
1.2.3 Electromagnetic Torque 8
1.3 Model of Interior Magnets PMSM 10
1.3.1 Complete Model of PMSM 11
1.4 Per Unit Model and PMSM Parameters 11
1.4.1 Per Unit Model and Physical Parameters 11
1.4.2 Experimental Validation of PMSM Model 12
1.5 Modeling of Induction Motor 13
1.5.1 Space Vector Representation of Voltage Equation of Induction Motor 13
1.5.2 Representation in Stationary 𝛼 − 𝛽 Reference Frame 17
1.5.3 Representation in d − q Reference Frame 17
1.5.4 Electromagnetic Torque of Induction Motor 19
1.5.5 Model Parameters of Induction Motor and Model Validation 19
1.6 Modeling of Power Converter 21
1.6.1 Space Vector Representation of Voltage Equation for Power Converter 22
1.6.2 Representation in 𝛼 − 𝛽 Reference Frame 22
1.6.3 Representation in d − q Reference Frame 23
1.6.4 Energy Balance Equation 24
1.7 Summary 25
1.8 Further Reading 25
References 25
vi Contents

2 Control of Semiconductor Switches via PWM Technologies 27

2.1 Topology of IGBT Inverter 28
2.2 Six-step Operating Mode 30
2.3 Carrier Based PWM 31
2.3.1 Sinusoidal PWM 31
2.3.2 Carrier Based PWM with Zero-sequence Injection 32
2.4 Space Vector PWM 35
2.5 Simulation Study of the Effect of PWM 37
2.6 Summary 40
2.7 Further Reading 40
References 40

3 PID Control System Design for Electrical Drives and Power Converters 41
3.1 Overview of PID Control Systems Using Pole-assignment Design Techniques 42
3.1.1 PI Controller Design 42
3.1.2 Selecting the Desired Closed-loop Performance 43
3.1.3 Overshoot in Reference Response 45
3.1.4 PID Controller Design 46
3.1.5 Cascade PID Control Systems 48
3.2 Overview of PID Control of PMSM 49
3.2.1 Bridging the Sensor Measurements to Feedback Signals (See the lower part of
Figure 3.6) 50
3.2.2 Bridging the Control Signals to the Inputs to the PMSM (See the top part of
Figure 3.6) 51
3.3 PI Controller Design for Torque Control of PMSM 52
3.3.1 Set-point Signals to the Current Control Loops 52
3.3.2 Decoupling of the Current Control Systems 53
3.3.3 PI Current Controller Design 54
3.4 Velocity Control of PMSM 55
3.4.1 Inner-loop Proportional Control of q-axis Current 55
3.4.2 Cascade Feedback Control of Velocity:P Plus PI 57
3.4.3 Simulation Example for P Plus PI Control System 59
3.4.4 Cascade Feedback Control of Velocity:PI Plus PI 61
3.4.5 Simulation Example for PI Plus PI Control System 63
3.5 PID Controller Design for Position Control of PMSM 64
3.6 Overview of PID Control of Induction Motor 65
3.6.1 Bridging the Sensor Measurements to Feedback Signals 67
3.6.2 Bridging the Control Signals to the Inputs to the Induction Motor 67
3.7 PID Controller Design for Induction Motor 68
3.7.1 PI Control of Electromagnetic Torque of Induction Motor 68
3.7.2 Cascade Control of Velocity and Position 70
3.7.3 Slip Estimation 73
3.8 Overview of PID Control of Power Converter 74
3.8.1 Bridging Sensor Measurements to Feedback Signals 75
3.8.2 Bridging the Control Signals to the Inputs of the Power Converter 76
3.9 PI Current and Voltage Controller Design for Power Converter 76
3.9.1 P Control of d-axis Current 76
3.9.2 PI Control of q-axis Current 77
3.9.3 PI Cascade Control of Output Voltage 79
Contents vii

3.9.4 Simulation Example 80

3.9.5 Phase Locked Loop 80
3.10 Summary 82
3.11 Further Reading 83
References 83

4 PID Control System Implementation 87

4.1 P and PI Controller Implementation in Current Control Systems 87
4.1.1 Voltage Operational Limits in Current Control Systems 87
4.1.2 Discretization of Current Controllers 90
4.1.3 Anti-windup Mechanisms 92
4.2 Implementation of Current Controllers for PMSM 93
4.3 Implementation of Current Controllers for Induction Motors 95
4.3.1 Estimation of 𝜔s and 𝜃s 95
4.3.2 Estimation of 𝜓rd 96
4.3.3 The Implementation Steps 97
4.4 Current Controller Implementation for Power Converter 97
4.4.1 Constraints on the Control Variables 97
4.5 Implementation of Outer-loop PI Control System 98
4.5.1 Constraints in the Outer-loop 98
4.5.2 Over Current Protection for AC Machines 99
4.5.3 Implementation of Outer-loop PI Control of Velocity 100
4.5.4 Over Current Protection for Power Converters 100
4.6 MATLAB Tutorial on Implementation of PI Controller 100
4.7 Summary 102
4.8 Further Reading 103
References 103

5 Tuning PID Control Systems with Experimental Validations 105

5.1 Sensitivity Functions in Feedback Control Systems 105
5.1.1 Two-degrees of Freedom Control System Structure 105
5.1.2 Sensitivity Functions 109
5.1.3 Disturbance Rejection and Noise Attenuation 110
5.2 Tuning Current-loop q-axis Proportional Controller (PMSM) 111
5.2.1 Performance Factor and Proportional Gain 112
5.2.2 Complementary Sensitivity Function 112
5.2.3 Sensitivity and Input Sensitivity Functions 114
5.2.4 Effect of PWM Noise on Current Proportional Control System 114
5.2.5 Effect of Current Sensor Noise and Bias 116
5.2.6 Experimental Case Study of Current Sensor Bias Using P Control 118
5.2.7 Experimental Case Study of Current Loop Noise 119
5.3 Tuning Current-loop PI Controller (PMSM) 123
5.3.1 PI Controller Parameters in Relation to Performance Parameter 𝛾 123
5.3.2 Sensitivity in Relation to Performance Parameter 𝛾 124
5.3.3 Effect of PWM Error in Relation to 𝛾 126
5.3.4 Experimental Case Study of Current Loop Noise Using PI Control 126
5.4 Performance Robustness in Outer-loop Controllers 128
5.4.1 Sensitivity Functions for Outer-loop Control System 131
5.4.2 Input Sensitivity Functions for the Outer-loop System 135
viii Contents

5.5 Analysis of Time-delay Effects 136

5.5.1 PI Control of q-axis Current 137
5.5.2 P Control of q-axis Current 137
5.6 Tuning Cascade PI Control Systems for Induction Motor 138
5.6.1 Robustness of Cascade PI Control System 140
5.6.2 Robustness Study Using Nyquist Plot 143
5.7 Tuning PI Control Systems for Power Converter 147
5.7.1 Overview of the Designs 147
5.7.2 Tuning the Current Controllers 149
5.7.3 Tuning Voltage Controller 150
5.7.4 Experimental Evaluations 154
5.8 Tuning P Plus PI Controllers for Power Converter 157
5.8.1 Design and Sensitivity Functions 157
5.8.2 Experimental Results 158
5.9 Robustness of Power Converter Control System Using PI Current Controllers 159
5.9.1 Variation of Inductance Using PI Current Controllers 160
5.9.2 Variation of Capacitance on Closed-loop Performance 163
5.10 Summary 167
5.10.1 Current Controllers 167
5.10.2 Velocity, Position and Voltage Controllers 168
5.10.3 Choice between P Current Control and PI Current Control 169
5.11 Further Reading 169
References 169

6 FCS Predictive Control in d − q Reference Frame 171

6.1 States of IGBT Inverter and the Operational Constraints 172
6.2 FCS Predictive Control of PMSM 175
6.3 MATLAB Tutorial on Real-time Implementation of FCS-MPC 177
6.3.1 Simulation Results 179
6.3.2 Experimental Results of FCS Control 181
6.4 Analysis of FCS-MPC System 182
6.4.1 Optimal Control System 182
6.4.2 Feedback Controller Gain 184
6.4.3 Constrained Optimal Control 185
6.5 Overview of FCS-MPC with Integral Action 187
6.6 Derivation of I-FCS Predictive Control Algorithm 191
6.6.1 Optimal Control without Constraints 191
6.6.2 I-FCS Predictive Controller with Constraints 194
6.6.3 Implementation of I-FCS-MPC Algorithm 196
6.7 MATLAB Tutorial on Implementation of I-FCS Predictive Controller 197
6.7.1 Simulation Results 198
6.8 I-FCS Predictive Control of Induction Motor 201
6.8.1 The Control Algorithm for an Induction Motor 202
6.8.2 Simulation Results 204
6.8.3 Experimental Results 205
6.9 I-FCS Predictive Control of Power Converter 209
6.9.1 I-FCS Predictive Control of a Power Converter 209
6.9.2 Simulation Results 211
6.9.3 Experimental Results 214
Contents ix

6.10 Evaluation of Robustness of I-FCS-MPC via Monte-Carlo Simulations 215

6.10.1 Discussion on Mean Square Errors 216
6.11 Velocity and Position Control of PMSM Using I-FCS-MPC 218
6.11.1 Choice of Sampling Rate for the Outer-loop Control System 219
6.11.2 Velocity and Position Controller Design 223
6.12 Velocity and Position Control of Induction Motor Using I-FCS-MPC 224
6.12.1 I-FCS Cascade Velocity Control of Induction Motor 225
6.12.2 I-FCS-MPC Cascade Position Control of Induction Motor 226
6.12.3 Experimental Evaluation of Velocity Control 228
6.13 Summary 232
6.13.1 Selection of sampling interval Δt 233
6.13.2 Selection of the Integral Gain 233
6.14 Further Reading 234
References 234

7 FCS Predictive Control in 𝜶 − 𝜷 Reference Frame 237

7.1 FCS Predictive Current Control of PMSM 237
7.1.1 Predictive Control Using One-step-ahead Prediction 238
7.1.2 FCS Current Control in 𝛼 − 𝛽 Reference Frame 239
7.1.3 Generating Current Reference Signals in 𝛼 − 𝛽 Frame 240
7.2 Resonant FCS Predictive Current Control 241
7.2.1 Control System Configuration 241
7.2.2 Outer-loop Controller Design 242
7.2.3 Resonant FCS Predictive Control System 243
7.3 Resonant FCS Current Control of Induction Motor 247
7.3.1 The Original FCS Current Control of Induction Motor 247
7.3.2 Resonant FCS Predictive Current Control of Induction Motor 250
7.3.3 Experimental Evaluations of Resonant FCS Predictive Control 252
7.4 Resonant FCS Predictive Power Converter Control 255
7.4.1 FCS Predictive Current Control of Power Converter 255
7.4.2 Experimental Results of Resonant FCS Predictive Control 260
7.5 Summary 261
7.6 Further Reading 262
References 262

8 Discrete-time Model Predictive Control (DMPC) of Electrical Drives

and Power Converter 265
8.1 Linear Discrete-time Model for PMSM 266
8.1.1 Linear Model for PMSM 266
8.1.2 Discretization of the Continuous-time Model 267
8.2 Discrete-time MPC Design with Constraints 268
8.2.1 Augmented Model 269
8.2.2 Design without Constraints 270
8.2.3 Formulation of the Constraints 272
8.2.4 On-line Solution for Constrained MPC 272
8.3 Experimental Evaluation of DMPC of PMSM 274
8.3.1 The MPC Parameters 274
8.3.2 Constraints 275
x Contents

8.3.3 Response to Load Disturbances 275

8.3.4 Response to a Staircase Reference 277
8.3.5 Tuning of the MPC controller 278
8.4 Power Converter Control Using DMPC with Experimental Validation 280
8.5 Summary 281
8.6 Further Reading 282
References 283

9 Continuous-time Model Predictive Control (CMPC) of Electrical Drives and Power

Converter 285
9.1 Continuous-time MPC Design 286
9.1.1 Augmented Model 286
9.1.2 Description of the Control Trajectories Using Laguerre Functions 287
9.1.3 Continuous-time Predictive Control without Constraints 289
9.1.4 Tuning of CMPC Control System Using Exponential Data Weighting and
Prescribed Degree of Stability 292
9.2 CMPC with Nonlinear Constraints 294
9.2.1 Approximation of Nonlinear Constraint Using Four Linear Constraints 294
9.2.2 Approximation of Nonlinear Constraint Using Sixteen Linear Constraints 294
9.2.3 State Feedback Observer 297
9.3 Simulation and Experimental Evaluation of CMPC of Induction Motor 298
9.3.1 Simulation Results 298
9.3.2 Experimental Results 300
9.4 Continuous-time Model Predictive Control of Power Converter 301
9.4.1 Use of Prescribed Degree of Stability in the Design 302
9.4.2 Experimental Results for Rectification Mode 303
9.4.3 Experimental Results for Regeneration Mode 303
9.4.4 Experimental Results for Disturbance Rejection 304
9.5 Gain Scheduled Predictive Controller 305
9.5.1 The Weighting Parameters 305
9.5.2 Gain Scheduled Predictive Control Law 307
9.6 Experimental Results of Gain Scheduled Predictive Control of Induction Motor 309
9.6.1 The First Set of Experimental Results 309
9.6.2 The Second Set of Experimental Results 311
9.6.3 The Third Set of Experimental Results 312
9.7 Summary 312
9.8 Further Reading 313
References 313

10 MATLAB®/Simulink® Tutorials on Physical Modeling and Test-bed Setup 315

10.1 Building Embedded Functions for Park-Clarke Transformation 315
10.1.1 Park-Clarke Transformation for Current Measurements 316
10.1.2 Inverse Park-Clarke Transformation for Voltage Actuation 317
10.2 Building Simulation Model for PMSM 318
10.3 Building Simulation Model for Induction Motor 320
10.4 Building Simulation Model for Power Converter 325
10.4.1 Embedded MATLAB Function for Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 325
10.4.2 Physical Simulation Model for Grid Connected Voltage Source Converter 328
10.5 PMSM Experimental Setup 332
Contents xi

10.6 Induction Motor Experimental Setup 334

10.6.1 Controller 334
10.6.2 Power Supply 334
10.6.3 Inverter 335
10.6.4 Mechanical Load 335
10.6.5 Induction Motor and Sensors 335
10.7 Grid Connected Power Converter Experimental Setup 335
10.7.1 Controller 335
10.7.2 Inverter 336
10.7.3 Sensors 336
10.8 Summary 337
10.9 Further Reading 337
References 337

Index 339
About the Authors

Liuping Wang received her PhD in 1989 from the University of Sheffield, UK; subsequently, she was
an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Toronto,
Canada. From 1998 to 2002, she was a Senior Lecturer and Research Coordinator at the Center for Inte-
grated Dynamics and Control, University of Newcastle, Australia before joining RMIT University where
she has been Professor of Control Engineering since 2006. She is the author of three books, joint editor of
two books, and has published over 180 papers. Liuping Wang has successfully applied PID control and
predictive control technologies to many industrial processes. She is a Fellow of Institution of Engineers,
Australia.
Shan Chai was born in Shandong, China, in 1981. He received his B.Eng. degree in Electronics Engi-
neering from Shandong University, China in 2004 and his M.Eng. in Electrical Engineering from RMIT
University, Australia in 2007. Since 2009 he has been working toward the PhD degree at RMIT that he
was awarded in 2013. Dr Shan Chai works in the electrical drives industry.
Dae Yoo received his B.Eng, MSc, and PhD in Electrical Engineering from the RMIT University,
Melbourne, Australia in 2003, 2006 and 2013 respectively. From 2006 to 2007, he worked as an
embedded software engineer at Orbital Engine Company, WA, Australia, where he was involved
in various research oriented automotive projects for developing internal combustion engine control
software. During 2008–2009 and since 2012, he has been at the Toyota Technical Center, Melbourne,
Australia, where he is a control/software engineer developing advanced control algorithms for motor
control units in Toyota’s hybrid system.
Lu Gan, was born in Anhui Province of China, in 1987. He received his B.Eng. degree in Electrical
Engineering from RMIT University, Australia, in 2009. Since then he has been working at RMIT towards
the PhD degree that he received in 2014. Dr Lu Gan aspires to work in the electrical drives industry.
Ki Ng was born in Hong Kong, in 1986. He received his B.Eng. degree in Electrical Engineering from
RMIT University, Australia, in 2009. He is currently working toward a PhD degree at RMIT University,
Melbourne, Australia.
Preface

About This Book

Electrical drives play a critical role in electromechanical energy conversions. They are seen everywhere in
our daily life from the cooling fans, washing machines to computers. They are the fundamental building
blocks in manufacturing, transportation, mineral processing, wind energy and many other industries. For
the last several decades, the advances of electronically switched semiconductors in the form of power
electronics have made AC motor drives gain more prominence over the DC machines in industries since
they allow a direct connection to power grids via grid connected power converters and have a more
reliable physical structure. The grid connected three phase power converter has wide applications in
renewable energy generation.
This book gives an introduction to the automatic control of electrical drives and grid connected three
phase power converters, and to recent developments in design and implementation. When they are com-
bined together as one unit, it will provide a direct connection for the electrical drives to the power grid
for electromechanical energy conversions and renewable wind energy applications. In the context of
control system design, electrical drives and grid connected three phase power converters share similar
characteristics in their dynamic models and use the same type of semiconductors as actuators in the
implementation of control systems. Therefore, in this book, electrical drives and power converters will
be studied as individual components of the larger system and examined in the same framework.
As electrical drives and power converters have restricted operations imposed by electronically switched
semiconductors, their operational constraints are paramount in the design and implementation of the
control systems. In this regard, model predictive control has an established reputation in successfully
handling the operational constraints in an optimal manner. Two chapters of this book will be devoted
to seeking new predictive control technologies that address the specific needs of controlling electrical
drives and power converters, and an additional two chapters will apply the existing predictive control
technologies to these systems. Since PID control systems are used in the majority of industrial electrical
drives and power converters, understanding these control systems and having the capability to design
and implement them are important to a control engineer. There are three chapters in the book that will
systematically cover PID control system design, PID control system implementation with anti-windup
mechanisms and tuning of PID control systems. All control systems presented in this book have been
experimentally validated using self-built test-beds with industrial sized motors. To assist the reader, tuto-
rials about the real-time control system implementation and the physical model based simulators are
presented in this book.
This book is intended for readers who have completed or are about to complete four years engineering
studies with some basic knowledge in electrical and control systems. The targeted readers are students,
practitioners, instructors and researchers who wish to learn electrical motor control and power converter
control. The book is self-contained with MATLAB/Simulink tutorials and supported with simulation and
experimental results. It is worth mentioning that the material contained in the first five chapters is aimed
at readers who are working or are going to work in the relevant engineering field.
xvi Preface

Outline of This Book

The structure of the book is illustrated by the block diagram as shown in Figure 0.1. There are ten chapters
in this book, covering the topics of mathematical modeling, control of semiconductor switches, PID con-
trol system design, implementation and tuning, Finite Control Set (FCS)-predictive control in both d − q
and 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frames, traditional predictive control in both continuous-time and discrete-time. PID
controllers (see Chapters 3–5) are implemented using Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) technologies
introduced in Chapter 2. The traditional model predictive controllers (see Chapters 8–9) use this tech-
nology too. However, FCS-predictive controllers (see Chapters 6–7) are implemented without PWM
mechanisms by directly optimizing the switching patterns of semiconductors. Hence, this has signifi-
cantly simplified the implementation procedure of control systems.
This book begins by discussing the physical models of electrical drives and grid connected three phase
power converter since mathematical modeling is the first step toward the design and implementation
of control systems. In Chapter 1, the mathematical models of machine drives and power converter are
derived in a unified way that firstly uses space vector description of physical variables such as voltage,
current and flux, and secondly converts the space vector based model to various reference frames. By
adopting this unified framework, it is hoped that through the derivations in a similar process, the dynamic
models of drives and power converters can be easily understood by a reader who does not have exten-
sive background in AC machines and power converters. It must be emphasized, due to the efforts of
generations of electrical engineers (see for example Park (1929), Duesterhoeft et al. (1951), Vas (1992),
Leonhard (2001), Drury (2009), Hughes and Drury (2013), Quang and Dittrich (2008)), that the dynam-
ics models are highly structured and have incredibly high fidelity, which forms the solid basis for control
system designs introduced in the book.
From a control engineer’s perspective, the next natural question following from mathematical mod-
eling is how to realize manipulated control variables in applications. It has been well established that
control of semiconductor switches is the most efficient and convenient means to achieve control of AC

Ch.1 Modeling

Ch.2 PWM

Ch.6 FCS d − q Ch.3 PID design Ch.8 DMPC

Ch.7 FCS α − β Ch.4 PID implem. Ch.9 CMPC

Ch.5 PID tuning

Ch.10 Test-bed and Simulink tutorial

Figure 0.1 Book structure diagram

Preface xvii

machine drives and power converters. It is shown in Chapter 2 that they act as actuators in the imple-
mentation of control systems where the manipulated control inputs in the form of three phase voltage
signals are realized by turning on and off semiconductor switches. Also, the PWM implementation of
control systems dictates the operational limits termed linear modulation range, which, in later chapters,
will be translated into constraints imposed in the PID and predictive controllers using PWM mechanisms
for implementation.
The next three chapters of this book will see the developments of PID control systems for electrical
drives and power converter (see Chapters 3–5). In Chapter 3, for AC motor control systems, electrome-
chanical torque control is achieved using PI control of currents in the d − q reference frame, followed
by achieving further requirements of controlling angular velocity and position via a cascade control
system architecture. Identical control strategies are deployed to control the currents of a three phase
power converter and its DC voltage in a grid connected environment. In all PID controller designs pre-
sented in the book, the pole-assignment control method is used. The reasons for this choice of design
method is that it is perhaps among the simplest control system design methods and yet offers an effective
means of selecting desired closed-loop performance in terms of response to reference signals and to dis-
turbance rejection. In Chapter 4, PI controller implementation is discussed for both current controllers
as inner-loop controllers, and velocity and DC voltage controllers as outer-loop controllers. In partic-
ular, continuous-time controllers are discretized for digital implementation, and operational constraints
imposed by PWM operations are taken into consideration in the implementation of PI controllers. In order
to avoid integrator wind-up in the presence of control signal reaching saturation limits, anti-windup mech-
anisms are proposed together with digital implementation, which leads to the so-called velocity form that
has naturally embedded anti-windup mechanisms and is convenient for implementation. A MATLAB
tutorial is introduced in this chapter to show how an embedded function can be created for the PI con-
troller with its anti-windup mechanism, which has been directly used in the experimental validation. In
Chapter 5, sensitivity functions in feedback control systems are introduced to measure the closed-loop
control system performance against set-point following, disturbance rejection and noise attenuation in
the frequency domain. Current control systems are analyzed for the effects of current sensor errors and
harmonics caused by the voltage source inverter used in implementation of the control system. When
velocity control, position control or DC voltage control is required in a cascade control structure, perfor-
mance robustness in the outer-loop control system is considered where a weighting function is introduced
to quantify the difference between the desired closed-loop performance and the actual closed-loop per-
formance. Parameter variations are also studied using Nyquist plots. A large number of experiments are
conducted in this chapter to demonstrate tuning procedures of the PI cascade control systems.
There are two approaches used in this book to generate the gate signal for the semiconductor switches.
The first approach uses Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) based on which PID controllers (see Chapters
3–5) and traditional model predictive controllers are implemented (see Chapters 8–9). In control appli-
cations, the control signals calculated are the three phase voltage signals that are obtained from one of
the controller designs using the model either in the d − q reference frame or 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame. The
role of the voltage source inverter with power electronics devices is to realize three phase voltage control
signals as closely as possible. Namely, the sinusoidal phase voltage signals created by turning on-off
each power switch with PWM technologies are aimed to be closely matched with three phase voltage
control signals. The second methodology features a much simpler approach in the implementation of
control systems that generates such a gate signal by direct optimization of an error function between the
desired control signals and those that can be achieved by semiconductor switches (see Chapters 6–7). In
the second approach, there is no need to use the PWM technology; therefore it significantly reduces the
complexity of controlling semiconductor switches.
In Chapter 6, in the d − q reference frame, finite control set (FCS) predictive controllers are used to
directly optimize inverter states; as a result, PWMs are not required in the implementation of control sys-
tems, which simplifies the implementation procedure. The original FCS predictive control systems did
not include integrators in their design and implementation. Consequently, there are steady-state errors
xviii Preface

within control systems. The existence of steady-state errors affects closed-loop performance, particu-
larly when there are parameter uncertainties in the system, which is the main reason why the majority
of practical control systems have integrator in the controller structure. By analyzing the original FCS
predictive control system without constraints, the discrete-time feedback controller gain and locations of
closed-loop eigenvalues are revealed. To embed integrators in the FCS predictive controller, a cascade
control system structure is proposed where the inner-loop system is controlled with the original FCS pre-
dictive controller and the outer-loop is by an integrated feedback control. There are perhaps many ways
to include integrators in the FCS predictive control system; however, the proposed approach has kept
the spirit of the original FCS predictive control system and maintained its simplicity both conceptually
and computationally. Because the FCS predictive control systems are designed for current control, this
chapter will also show how to design velocity and position control for AC drives when current controllers
are FCS predictive controllers.
In Chapter 7, under investigation is the finite control set (FCS) predictive current control in the 𝛼 − 𝛽
reference frame (or stationary frame). In the 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame, the currents i𝛼 (t) and i𝛽 (t) are linear
combinations of three phase currents ia (t), ib (t) and ic (t). Thus, they are sinusoidal functions. So are
the voltage variables 𝑣𝛼 (t) and 𝑣𝛽 (t). The current reference signals to FCS predictive control systems
are sinusoidal signals, which differentiates current control systems in the 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame from
those in the d − q reference frame. It will be shown in this chapter that the original FCS predictive
controllers are single-input and single-output controllers in exceptionally simple forms. However, in
order to track sinusoidal current reference signals without steady-state errors, a controller with resonant
characteristic is required in the 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame. Extensive simulation and experimental results
have been presented in these two chapters to show the outstanding closed-loop control performance of
FCS predictive control systems.
The next two chapters of this book (see Chapters 8–9) apply the traditional model predictive con-
trol algorithms to AC machine drives and power converters. These predictive control algorithms were
derived for general applications without those restrictions imposed on system dynamics. The MATLAB
programs used in applications were given in Wang (2009). Although the traditional predictive control
algorithms could be applied to current control, their advantages are perhaps lost to the simpler and more
effective FCS predictive control approaches, also to simpler PI controllers. Therefore, in Chapters 8 and
9, velocity control in AC drives and DC voltage control in power converters are considered, and for these
cases, traditional model predictive controllers offer the advantages of designing the control systems using
multi-input and multi-output approaches in the presence of constraints.
The final chapter of this book will discuss the test beds used in the experimental evaluations of control
systems. For those who wish to know how to perform real-time simulations using the physical models
of drives and power converter, Simulink tutorials are given to show the model building process in a
step-by-step manner.

References
Drury B 2009 The Control Techniques Drives and Controls Handbook 2nd edn. IET.
Duesterhoeft W, Schulz MW and Clarke E 1951 Determination of instantaneous currents and voltages by means of
alpha, beta, and zero components. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 70(2), 1248–1255.
Hughes A and Drury B 2013 Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types and Applications 4th edn. Elsevier.
Leonhard W 2001 Control of Electrical Drives 3rd edn. Springer.
Park RH 1929 Two-reaction theory of synchronous machines – part I. AIEE Transations 48(2), 716–739.
Quang NP and Dittrich JA 2008 Vector Control of Three-Phase AC Machines 1st edn. Springer.
Vas P 1992 Electrical Machines and Drives – A Space-Vector Theory Approach. Oxford University Press, New York,
USA.
Wang L 2009 Model Predictive Control System Design and Implementation Using MATLAB 1st edn. Springer,
London.
Acknowledgment

We wish to thank the Australian Manufacturing Cooperative Research Center (AMCRC) for financial
support over the projects of Control Systems and Regenerative Machine Stop. We gratefully acknowledge
the help and support of Mr Pat Borland, the owner of ANCA Pty, who gave us the first opportunity to
work in the field of AC drive control and shared with us many of his valuable experiences in the industry.
We wish to thank Professor Mike Johnson from the University of Strathclyde, UK for carefully reading
the manuscript and giving us feedback.
On suggestions and feedback, our thanks go to Professor Stephen Boyd and Dr Nicholas Moehle at
Stanford University, USA, Professor Jose Rodriguez and Ms Margarita Norambuena at Santa Maria,
Chile, Dr Craig Buhr at MathWorks, USA, and Mr Gerardo Medrano who works in the Australian wind
energy industry.

Asking for Feedback

We would like to ask our readers to contact us about any errors or suggestions for future improvement
of our book.

Liuping Wang, Shan Chai, Dae Yoo, Lu Gan, Ki Ng

Melbourne, Australia
List of Symbols and Acronyms

Symbols
arg min Minimizing argument
A State matrix of state-space model
B Input-to-state matrix of state-space model
C State-to-output matrix of state-space model
D Direct feed-through matrix of state-space model
(A, B, C, D) State-space realization
ΔU Parameter vector for the control sequence in discrete time MPC
Δu(k) Incremental control at sample k
Fx , Φ Pair of matrices used in the prediction equation X = Fx x(ki ) + ΦΔU
B𝑣 Viscous friction coefficient in PMSM
fd Viscous friction coefficient in induction motor model
G(s) Transfer function model
𝛾 Tuning parameter for PI controllers
i𝛼 , i𝛽 Currents of PMSM and power converter in 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame
i d , iq Currents of PMSM and power converter in d − q reference frame
isd , isq Stator currents of induction motor in d − q reference frame
is𝛼 , is𝛽 Stator currents of induction motor in 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame
Iq×q Identity matrix with appropriate dimensions
J Performance index for optimization
Jm Moment of inertia (kg ⋅ m2 )
Kc Proportional control gain
Klqr Feedback control gain using LQR
Kmpc Feedback control gain using MPC
Kfcs Feedback control gain using FCS predictive control in d − q reference frame
𝛼 𝛽
kfcs , kfcs Feedback control gain using FCS predictive control in 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame
Kob Observer gain vector
li (t) The ith continuous-time Laguerre function
L(t) Continuous-time Laguerre functions in vector form
Ls Inductance of power converter and PMSM
Lr , L s Inductance of stator / rotor winding of induction motor
Lh Machine mutual inductance of induction motor
𝜆 Lagrange multiplier
𝜆i (A) The ith eigenvalue of matrix A
xxii List of Symbols and Acronyms

𝜆l , 𝜆m , 𝜆h Scheduling parameters
𝜇 Disturbance vector
N Number of terms used in Laguerre function expansion in continuous time
Nc Control horizon
Np Prediction horizon
Ωmpc , Ψmpc Pair of matrices in the cost of predictive control in either the continuous-time or
discrete-time design, J = 𝜂 T Ωmpc 𝜂 + 2𝜂 T Ψmpc x(t) + cons
𝜂 Parameter vector in the Laguerre expansion
p Scaling factor for continuous-time Laguerre functions
Q, R Pair of weight matrices in the cost function of predictive control
Rs Resistance of stator in PMSM and induction motor, also grid resistance in power
converter
Rr Resistance of rotor winding.
r(⋅) Set-point signal
q−i Backward shift operator, q−i [f (k)] = f (k − i)
S(s) Sensitivity function
Si (s) Input sensitivity function
Si Switching state of inverter
Sd , Sq Normalized voltage variables of converter’s d-axis voltage 𝑣d and q-axis voltage 𝑣q
T(s) Complementary sensitivity function
Te Electromagnetic torque (N ⋅ m)
TL Load torque (N ⋅ m)
Tp Prediction horizon in continuous-time
𝜏D Derivative control time constant
𝜏f Derivative control filter time constant
𝜏I Integral control time constant
𝜃r Mechanical position of motor shaft (radian)
𝜃e Electrical position of motor shaft (radian)
𝜃s Position of synchronous flux (radian)
𝜓s Stator flux of induction motor (Wb)
𝜓rd , 𝜓rq Rotor flux of induction motor (Wb)
u(⋅) Control signal
us𝛼 , us𝛽 Stator voltages of induction motor (V) in 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame
usd , usq Stator voltages of induction motor (V) in d − q reference frame
𝑣𝛼 , 𝑣𝛽 Voltages of PMSM and power converter (V) in 𝛼 − 𝛽 reference frame
𝑣 d , 𝑣q Voltages of PMSM and power converter (V) in d − q reference frame
𝜔e Electrical motor speed (rad/s) (or RPM)
𝜔m (or 𝜔r ) Mechanical motor speed (rad/s) (or RPM)
𝜔s Speed of synchronous flux (rad/s) (or RPM)
𝜔g Grid frequency (rad/s).
𝜔slip Slip in induction motor
umin , umax Minimum and maximum limits for u
𝑤n Bandwidth or natural frequency in PI controller design (rad/s)
x(⋅) State vector
x(ti + 𝜏|ti ) Predicted state vector at time 𝜏 given current state vector x(ti )
x̂ (t) Estimated state vector in continuous-time
𝜉 Damping coefficient in PI controller design
Y Predicted output data vector
Zp Number of pole pairs
List of Symbols and Acronyms xxiii

Acronyms
CMPC Continuous-time model predictive control
DMPC Discrete-time model predictive control
MMF Magnetic motive force
PMSM Permanent magnetic synchronous machine
PLL Phase-locked loop
PID Proportional, integral and derivative
FCS Finite control set
FCS-MPC Finite control set predictive control
I-FCS-MPC Integral finite control set predictive control
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 CHAPTER IX.
HUNTING THE ASIATIC ELEPHANT.

The lion and tiger share the time-honored term of king of beasts; their
courage, intrepid natures, majestic bearing, and record for ferocity, having
earned them the title, in the estimation of many. But, when compared to the
elephant, these noble animals are mere pretenders. The elephant is the true
king, the monarch of the land in size and strength, and capable, when
thoroughly enraged, of toying with the tiger or lion. Rarely does an elephant
fall a victim to either of these animals, and then only in their extreme youth.
An instance is recorded by Sanderson which was considered so remarkable
that he made a long trip to the place to verify it.
The elephant was a mere baby,—a calf four and a half feet at the shoulder,
and weighing, perhaps, six hundred pounds. It had wandered off into the
jungle, where it was pounced upon by the man-eater; falling an easy victim,
as its legs were tied to each other. The tiger had sprung upon it, seizing it by
the throat as it would a bullock, and dragged it twenty or thirty feet, there
feasting upon its quarters.
Another instance is recorded of a hobbled, or tied, elephant being attacked
by a man-eater; but the animal’s cries attracted the attention of the keeper,
and it was saved.
An animal so powerful as the elephant would naturally afford the grandest
sport to the hunter; and, in following the great game, more dangers are
incurred, and risks run, than in any known chase.
We have seen, that, in trapping elephants, every attempt is made to
preserve them from injury: but, in hunting them for mere sport, this is
reversed; and the animal is followed, either on foot or horseback, and shot as
quickly as possible. This is often a most dangerous operation, and
accompanied by the death of hunter and attendants. In trapping elephants,
the men have the fences to retreat to, and tame elephants to hide behind;
but the true sportsman follows the game into its own haunts, the deepest
jungle, and boldly faces it, giving the noble creature an even chance for its
life.
 Sir Samuel Baker and Sanderson both say that elephant-shooting is the
most dangerous of all sports if fairly followed for a length of time. Many
elephants may be killed without the sportsman being in any peril; but, if an
infuriated beast does make an attack, its charge is one of supreme danger.
The risk has this charm, that, though so great unless steadily and skilfully
met, it is within the sportsman’s power, by coolness and good shooting, to
end it and the assailant’s career by one well-planted ball.
The wild elephant’s attack is one of the noblest sights of the chase, and a
grander animated object than a wild elephant in full charge can hardly be
imagined. The cocked ears and broad forehead present an immense frontage.
The head is held high, with the trunk coiled between the tusks, to be uncoiled
in the moment of attack. The massive fore-legs come down with the force and
regularity of ponderous machinery; and the whole figure is rapidly
foreshortened, and appears to double in size with each advancing stride. The
trunk being doubled, and unable to emit any sound, the attack is made in
silence, and after the usual premonitory shriek, which adds to its
impressiveness. (See Plate XXIII.) [Transcriber’s Note: There is no Plate XXIII.
Possibly Plate XVI. is meant, from the description in this paragraph.]
In former times the natives hunted the elephant with what are called
jinjalls,—nothing more nor less than small cannon weighing about forty-five
pounds, and mounted on a tripod-stand or carriage. The bullet used was of
lead, weight about half a pound, and propelled by half a pound of native
powder. Each hunting-party was fitted out with one of these, which was borne
on a pole by four men,—two men carrying the gun itself, one the stand, while
the fourth was the captain, who did the aiming and firing.
When the game was discovered by these pot-hunters, the gun was placed
about three feet from the ground, aimed at any portion of the body, and fired.
A fuze was generally used; and, igniting this, the valiant sportsmen ran away
as fast as possible,—indeed, for their lives, as the cannon usually kicked
completely over: and often limbs were broken, and other accidents occurred,
the result of tardiness in retreating.
These guns were usually fatal at ninety or one hundred feet; and the
unfortunate brutes rarely escaped if hit, often being desperately wounded. As
many as five or six have been taken in this way, during the time that the
Madras Government offered thirty dollars a head for them, to reduce their
numbers; and elephant-hunting became a lucrative business, adopted by
every one who could buy a jinjall.
 The weapons now used in elephant-hunting are rifles; and the heaviest
bore that can be carried with convenience is generally none too large, though
Sir Samuel Baker usually used a light gun; this being, however, because he
could not shoot with a heavy one.
The larger the gun, the less opportunity there is of game escaping, to die a
lingering death; and this generally decides the true sportsman. During the last
decade, twelve-bore rifles were greatly used (1½ oz. ball), but these are
rarely seen now. Sanderson, one of the best living authorities on the subject
of hunting the Asiatic elephant, killed several of his first elephants with a No.
12 spherical-ball rifle with hard bullets and six drachms of powder. But this he
discarded for a No. 4 double smooth bore, C. F., weighing nineteen and a half
pounds, built by W. W. Greener. With this he fires twelve drachms of powder.
Another gun, a No. 8 double rifle, firing twelve drachms, and weighing
seventeen pounds, same make, he recommends, having stopped several
charging elephants with it. No game in America requires such heavy arms, but
the huge elephant demands weapons in proportion to its size.
In the majority of animals, a shot in any vital part is sufficient to disable
them to some extent: but, in Asiatic-elephant shooting, there are only three
shots that can be depended upon; and the sportsman must be somewhat well
acquainted with the anatomy of the animal to successfully make them. The
three vulnerable spots are the front, the bullet striking the forehead; the side,
or temple; and the rear, or behind the ear. The brain of the animal is the
mark; and it is so small in proportion to the rest of the skull, that a slight
change of position, either raising or depressing the head, will render the shot
futile. This can be seen by examining a section of an elephant’s skull. (See
Plate I.)
 PLATE X.

HUNTING THE ELEPHANT WITH SWORDS.

Page 171.

The elephant sportsman usually makes elaborate preparations for the sport,
taking a sufficient number of natives, servants, and trackers, with provisions
to stay in the field some time; and only after some practice can he approach a
herd, and pick out his shot, with any feeling of confidence.
The true hunter disregards the females, seeking the old tuskers; and to
approach a herd without giving the alarm requires great caution, and not a
little experience. The great game is generally found moving gradually in a
given direction, feeding as they go. If they are approached from the wind,
they scent danger from afar: but the experienced hunter creeps up against
the wind, and ordinary caution enables him to approach within thirty or forty
feet,—quite near enough, my readers would think, when one knows, that,
upon the first shot, the entire herd will charge madly in any and every
direction. The old tuskers, the heads of the family, rarely cover the retreat of a
herd when an attack is made, usually starting off on their own account,
leaving the others to look out for themselves.
 When the presence of the hunter is realized, the one who makes the
discovery informs the rest by a “peculiar short, shrill trumpet,” understood by
old hunters as well. The herd immediately cease feeding, all standing perfectly
still, probably using their ears and scent, or perhaps making up their minds
which way to go. The next movement differs in different cases. Sometimes
the herd charge wildly in any direction; sometimes in a body; or, again, they
move with such remarkable celerity and silence, that even old hunters have
been deceived.
This peculiarity of the elephant, the largest of living land animals, is
extremely remarkable. How such a huge body can make its way through
bamboo and jungle so gently, is hard to imagine; but often, after the first
rapid rush, there is absolute silence; and the novice comes to a stand-still,
thinking that the game has followed suit. On the contrary, the headlong
charge of the herd has been changed to a rapid walk, so silent, that persons
in very close proximity to a band making off in this way, have failed to hear
even the boughs and bushes scraping against the thick hide.
A charging herd will soon overtake a man, especially if he runs up-hill; and
the appearance of a mass of bobbing heads and elevated ears moving
forward through the jungle, is quite sufficient to unnerve the majority of men.
When a charge is made, the natives rush for trees or clumps of bamboos, or
often escape by standing still, so small an object being passed by in the fury
of the rush.
Exactly what a herd will do when attacked, it is impossible to say. If they
have never heard a shot before, they often huddle together in the greatest
alarm, and do not break and charge until the continued firing and appearance
of smoke thoroughly alarms them. They perhaps think the noise is thunder
until the continued repetition disabuses them of the idea.
Elephants, when standing in this undecided manner, are liable to outbursts
of fury if not treated in a certain way. Sanderson says, “At such times no one
should shout to turn them, as a charge by one or more is sure to be made if
startled in this peculiar way. I have seen and experienced several instances of
the danger of this. In Chittagong, whilst driving elephants into a stockade on
one occasion, they approached the guiding line of beaters too closely, when a
man who was behind a small bush shouted at them within thirty yards. A
female at once charged him. The man fell; and with the pressure of her foot
she split him open, and killed him on the spot. This elephant had a very
young calf, from solicitude of which she became a perfect fury.”
 Contrary to general belief, the single, or solitary, tuskers afford the greatest
sport. They are generally found away from the herd before nine o’clock in the
morning, and at this time the hunter endeavors to find them. When a great
distance from a herd, the solitary elephant ceases feeding at about ten, then
stands listlessly a while under cover, and finally lies down and goes to sleep.
As a rule, it snores quite loudly; the sound, which has a metallic ring to it,
coming from the trunk. Besides this, they often, perhaps involuntarily, raise
their upper ear, and let it fall with a resounding slap upon the neck. All these
sounds are well known to the trackers; and, by them, they can tell just what
to expect, and how far away the game which is concealed in the jungle is.
If a bed recently used is found by the trackers, they immediately look for
tusk-holes, or the impressions of the tusks in the soil, made when the animal
is lying down. If they can put five fingers in the hole, they consider that the
tusks will weigh thirty pounds apiece, and are well worth following.
Sanderson thus describes a hunt organized for his benefit in the Billiga-
rungun hills, not far from Mysore: “I kept my eye on the tusker, who was in
the middle of the line, and was wondering how I could get a shot at his brain,
when, as luck would have it, some vegetable attraction overhead tempted
him, and he raised his head to reach it with his trunk. I had beforehand fixed
the fatal spot in my mind’s eye; and, catching sight of his temple, I fired. For
a moment I could see nothing, for the smoke, but heard a tremendous
commotion amongst the elephants that were in company with the tusker.
Stepping a little aside, I saw their huge heads all turning towards me, their
ears outspread, and their trunks coiled up in terrified astonishment. Being a
novice in the sport, I felt for the moment that I was in real danger. I stood my
ground however, determined, that, if any of them charged, to fire at the
foremost, and to run to Jaffer for the second rifle: that failing, the case would
have been rather bad. However, charging was far from their thoughts: right
about! quick march! was more to their fancy; and with shrieks and trumpets,
away they went, some to the right, some to the left, joined by the whole herd
in one headlong race, up or down the nullah. But my tusker remained stone
dead upon his knees. The triumph of such a success, utterly unassisted, and
in my first inexperienced attempt, quite transported me. My bullet had
reached the tusker’s brain: and, in sinking down, he must have been
supported by the bodies and legs of the elephants between which he was
wedged in; thus he still remained on his knees, though quite dead. He
retained this kneeling position for some minutes, when, by a gradual
subsidence of the carcass, he heeled over, and fell heavily on his side. I
narrowly escaped being crushed between him and the bank as he sank, just
springing out of the way in time. It would have been a fine thing indeed, if,
after bagging my first elephant, I had fallen a victim to the collapse of his
carcass.”
The largest elephant shot by this sportsman measured as follows:—

FT. IN.
Vertical height at shoulder 9 7
Length from tip of trunk to tip of tail 26 2½
Tusks, each showing out of gum 2 4
When taken out, right 5 0
” ” ” left 4 11
Circumference at gum 1 4½
Weight (right, 37½, left, 37). 74½ lbs.

At the end of a successful trip, when such an elephant has been shot, the
sportsman is disposed to be liberal to the trackers; and the following is what
Sanderson gave his men:—

RS.[5]
Present to nine Kurrabas 36
Blankets to ditto 15
Present to gun-bearers 30
Hologas for cleaning skull 3
Warm clothes for servant 20
Two carts to Kákankoté 20
Tobacco, arrack, and rice 20
Sundries 6
Total 150 rupees, or $75

On one occasion, this hunter was following a herd, when two Kurrabas
ahead of him began to gesticulate furiously; and, running ahead, he almost
lost his life. He says, “Not knowing what to make of this, except that there
was an elephant somewhere in the grass, I ran on, and almost fell into an old
and disused pitfall, which now contained an elephant. His head was a little
above the level of the ground. As I stepped back quickly, he threw his fore-
feet on to the bank, and tried to reach me with his tusks. The whole
occurrence was so sudden and unexpected, and his rush so startling, that I
instinctively pulled the trigger of my four-bore rifle from my hip as I stepped
back: there was no time to bring it to my shoulder. The shot went through the
base of his right tusk, and buried itself deeply in his neck. He fell backwards;
but, recovering himself, he commenced dashing his head with great violence
against the sides of the pit in his stupefaction. I therefore took a light gun
from Jaffer, and killed him.” The elephant had fallen into the pit some time
before, and the herd had immediately deserted it, as, says Sanderson, they
always do.
In following wild elephants, sportsmen often have favorable opportunities to
observe the habits and customs of the great game in their native wilds; and
on such an occasion a fight between two tuskers was witnessed. Such an
instance is recorded in the following: “We ran towards the place where the
sounds of contest were increasing every moment: a deep ravine at last only
separated us from the combatants, and we could see the tops of the bamboos
bowing as the monsters bore each other backwards and forwards with a
crashing noise in their tremendous struggles. As we ran along the bank of the
nullah to find a crossing, one elephant uttered a deep roar of pain, and
crossed the nullah some forty yards in advance of us to our side. Here he
commenced to destroy a bamboo clump (the bamboos in these hills have a
very large hollow, and are weak and comparatively worthless) in sheer fury,
grumbling deeply the while with rage and pain. Blood was streaming the while
from a deep stab in his left side high up. He was a very large elephant, with
long and fairly thick tusks, and with much white above the forehead: the left
tusk was some inches shorter than the right. The opponent of this Goliath
must have been a monster indeed, to have worsted him.
“An elephant-fight, if the combatants are well matched, frequently lasts for
a day or more, a round being fought every now and then. The beaten
elephant retreats temporarily, followed leisurely by the other, until, by mutual
consent, they meet again. The more powerful elephant occasionally keeps his
foe in view till he perhaps kills him: otherwise the beaten elephant takes
himself off for good on finding he has the worst of it. Tails are frequently
bitten off in these encounters. This mutilation is common amongst rogue
elephants, and amongst the females in a herd. In the latter case, it is
generally the result of rivalry amongst themselves.
“The wounded tusker was evidently the temporarily beaten combatant of
the occasion; and I have seldom seen such a picture of power and rage as he
presented, mowing the bamboos down with trunk and tusks, and bending the
thickest part over with his fore-feet. Suddenly his whole demeanor changed:
he backed from the clump, and stood like a statue. Not a sound broke the
stillness for an instant. His antagonist was silent, wherever he was. Now the
tip of his trunk came slowly round in our direction, and I saw that we were
discovered to his fine sense of smell. We had been standing silently behind a
thin bamboo clump, watching him; and, when I first saw that he had winded
us, I imagined that he might take himself off. But his frenzy quite overcame
all fear for the moment. Forward went his ears, and up went his tail, in a way
which no one who has once seen the signal in a wild elephant can mistake the
significance of; and in the same instant he wheeled about with astonishing
swiftness, getting at once into full speed, and bore down upon us. The
bamboos, by which we were partly hidden, were useless as a cover, and
would have prevented a clear shot: so I slipped out into open ground. The
instant the elephant commenced his charge, I gave a shout, hoping to stop
him, which failed. I had my No. 4 double smooth bore, loaded with ten
drachms, in hand. I fired when the elephant was about nine paces off, aiming
into his coiled trunk about one foot above the fatal bump between the eyes;
as his head was held very high, and this allowance had to be made for its
elevation. I felt confident of the shot, but made a grand mistake in not giving
him both barrels. It was useless to reserve the left, as I did, at such close
quarters; and I deserved more than what followed for doing so. The smoke
from the ten drachms obscured the elephant, and I stepped quickly to see
where he lay. Good Heavens! he had not been even checked, and was upon
me. There was no time to step to right or left. His tusks came through the
smoke (his head being now held low) like the cow-catcher of a locomotive,
and I had just time to fall flat to avoid being hurled in front of him. I fell a
little to the right. The next instant down came his ponderous foot within a few
inches of my left thigh; and I should have been trodden upon had I not been
quick enough, when I saw the fore-foot coming, to draw my leg from the
sprawling position in which I fell. As the elephant rushed over me, he shrieked
shrilly, which showed his trunk was uncoiled; and his head also being held
low, instead of in a charging position, I rightly inferred that he was in full
flight. Had he stopped, I should have been caught; but the heavy bullet had
taken all the fight out of him. Jaffer had been disposed of by a recoiling
bamboo, and was now lying almost in the elephant’s line. Fortunately,
however, the brute held on. I was covered with blood from the wound inflicted
by his late antagonist in his left side: even my hair was matted together when
the blood became dry. How it was that I did not bag the elephant, I can’t tell.”
A good idea of the excitement and sport of elephant-hunting is obtained
from the following account, from the pen of Sir Victor Brooke, of a hunt
participated in by him and Col. Douglas Hamilton in the Billiga-rungun hills.
The adventure is particularly interesting, as the tusks were the largest ever
taken in India:—
 “In July, 1863, Col. Douglas Hamilton and I were shooting in the Hássanoor
hills, Southern India. We had had excellent sport, but, until the date of the
death of the big tusker, had not come across any elephants. Upon the
morning of that day, in the jungles to the east of the Hássanoor bungalow, we
had tracked up a fine tusker, which, partly from over-anxiety, and partly, I
must confess, from the effect on my nervous system of the presence of the
first wild bull elephant I had ever seen, I failed to bag. About mid-day I was
lying on my bed, chewing the cud of vexation, and inwardly vowing terrible
vengeance on the next tusker I might meet, when two natives came in to
report a herd of elephants in a valley some three or four miles to the north of
our camp. To prepare ourselves was the work of a few seconds. As we arrived
on the ridge overlooking the valley where the elephants were, we heard the
crackling of bamboos, and occasionally caught sight of the track of an
elephant as it crossed a break amongst the confused mass of tree-tops upon
which we were gazing. Presently one of the elephants trumpeted loudly,
which attracted the attention of some people herding cattle on the opposite
side of the valley, who, seeing us, and divining our intentions, yelled out,
‘Ánay! ánay!’ (elephants) at the top of their voices, in the hope, no doubt, of
receiving reward for their untimely information. The effect of these discordant
human cries was magical. Every matted clump seemed to heave and shake,
and vomit forth an elephant. With marvellous silence and quickness the huge
beasts marshalled themselves together; and, by the time they appeared on
the more open ground of the open valley, a mighty cavalcade was formed,
which, once seen, can never be forgotten. There were about eighty elephants
in the herd. Towards the head of the procession was a noble bull with a pair
of tusks such as are seldom seen in India nowadays. Following him in a direct
line came a medley of elephants of lower degree,—bulls, cows, and calves of
every size, some of the latter frolicking with comic glee, and running in among
the legs of their elders with the utmost confidence. It was truly a splendid
sight; and I really believe, that, while it lasted, neither Col. Hamilton nor I
entertained any feeling but that of intense admiration and wonder. At length
this great exhibition was, we believed, over; and we were commencing to
arrange our mode of attack when that hove in sight which called forth an
ejaculation of astonishment from each one of us. Striding along thoughtfully
in the rear of the herd, many of the members of which were doubtless his
children and his children’s children, came a mighty bull, the like of which
neither of my companions after many years of jungle experience, nor the
natives who were with us, had ever seen before. But it was not merely the
stature of the noble beast that astonished us; for that, though great, could
not be considered unrivalled. It was the sight of his enormous tusks, which
projected like a gleam of light through the grass, through which he was slowly
wending his way, that held us rooted to the spot. With an almost solemn
expression of countenance, Col. Hamilton turned to me, and said, ‘There’s the
largest tusker in India, old boy; and, come what may, you must get him, and
take his tusk to Ireland with you.’ It was in vain that I expostulated with my
dear old friend, recalling my morning’s mishap, and reminding him, that, in
jungle laws, it stands written, ‘Shot turn and turn about at elephants.’ It was
of no avail. ‘You must bag that tusker,’ was all the answer I could get.
“It took us but a short time to run down the slope, and to find the track
which swept like a broad avenue along the bed of the valley. Cautiously we
followed it up, and, after about a quarter of a mile, came upon the elephants.
They were standing in perfect silence around the borders of a small glade, in
the middle of which stood the great tusker, quite alone, and broadside to us.
He was about fifty yards from us, and therefore out of all elephant-shooting
range; but the difficulty was to shorten the distance. The approach direct was
impossible, owing to the absolute want of cover: so, after some deliberation,
we decided on working to the right, and endeavoring to creep up behind a
solitary tree, which stood about twenty yards behind the elephant. When
within ten yards of this tree, we found to our annoyance a watchful old cow,
who was not farther than fifteen yards from us, and to our right, and had
decided suspicions of our proximity. To attempt to gain another foot would
have been to run the risk of disturbing the elephants. Seeing this, and
knowing the improbability of our ever getting the bull outside the herd again,
Col. Hamilton recommended me to creep a little to the left, so as to get the
shot behind his ear, and to try the effect of my big Purdy rifle, while he kept
his eye on the old cow in case her curiosity should induce her to become
unpleasant. I should mention that we now, for the first time, perceived that
the old bull had only one perfect tusk, the left one being a mere stump,
projecting but little beyond the upper lip. I accordingly followed Col.
Hamilton’s instructions. At the shot, the old bull, with a shrill trumpet of pain
and rage, swung around on his hind-legs as on a pivot, receiving my second
barrel, and two from Col. Hamilton. This staggered the old fellow dreadfully;
and, as he stood facing us, Col. Hamilton ran up within twelve yards of him
with a very large single-bore rifle, and placed a bullet between his eyes. Had
the rifle been as good as it was big, I believe this would have ended the fray;
but, though its shock produced a severe momentary effect, the bullet had, as
we afterwards ascertained, only penetrated three or four inches into the
cancellous tissue of the frontal bone. After swaying backwards and forwards
for a moment or two, during which I gave him both barrels of my second rifle,
the grand old beast seemed to rally all his forces, and, rolling up his trunk,
and sticking his tail in the air, rushed off trumpeting, and whistling like a
steam-engine.
“Col. Hamilton followed, and fired two more barrel-shots, while I remained
behind to reload the empty rifles. This completed, I joined my friend, whom I
found standing in despair at the edge of a small ravine overgrown with
tangled underwood, into which the tusker had disappeared. For some little
time I found it difficult to persuade Col. Hamilton to continue the chase. Long
experience had taught him how rarely elephants once alarmed are met with a
second time the same day. At length, however, finding that I was determined
to follow the tracks of the noble beast until I lost them, even should it involve
sleeping upon them, my gallant old friend gave way, and entered eagerly into
a pursuit which at the time he considered almost, if not absolutely, useless. It
would be tedious, even if it were possible, to describe all the details of the
long, stern chase which followed. After emerging from the thorny ravine into
which the elephant had disappeared, the tracks led over a series of extensive
open grassy glades, crossed the Mysore-Hássanoor road beyond the seventh
milestone, and then followed the deep, sandy bed of a dry river for a
considerable distance. At length, when about nine weary miles had been left
behind us, we began to remark signs of the elephant having relaxed a little in
its direct onward flight. His tracks commenced to zigzag backwards and
forwards in an undecided manner, and finally led down a steep, grassy slope
into a densely matted, thorny jungle bordering a small stream at its foot. I
was the first to arrive at the edge of the thicket, and without waiting for my
companions, who were out of sight, followed the tracks cautiously into it. I
soon found that it was almost impossible to track the elephant any farther.
The entire thicket was traversed by a perfect labyrinth of elephant-paths, and
on each path were more or less recent footprints of elephants. Giving up the
idea of tracking for a moment, I was on the point of commencing a further
exploration of the thicket, when a low hiss attracted my attention; and,
looking around, I saw a native who had accompanied us, beckoning to me,
and gesticulating to me in the most frantic manner. Upon going to him, he
pointed eagerly in front of him; and, following the direction of his finger, my
eyes alighted, not on the elephant as I expected, but upon Col. Hamilton,
who, from behind the trunk of a small tree, was gazing intently towards the
little stream, which ran not more than thirty yards from where he was
standing. With the greatest care I stole to his side. ‘There he is, in front of
you, standing in the stream. You had better take him at once, or he will be off
again,’ were the welcome words which greeted my ears. At the same moment
my eyes were gratified by the indistinct outline of the mighty bull, who,
already suspicious of danger, was standing perfectly motionless in the middle
of the stream, which was so narrow that the branches of the low bamboos on
its banks nearly met across it. The distance, twenty-seven yards, was too
great for certainty: but there was no choice; as, even if the elephant had been
utterly unaware of our vicinity, the tangled, thorny nature of the dense jungle
surrounding him would have rendered it impossible to approach nearer
without discovery. As it was, the perfect immobility of all save his eye, and
every now and then the quickly altered position of his tattered ears, showed
undeniably that the chances of flight and battle were being weighed in the
massive head, and that there was no time to lose. Covering the orifice of the
ear with as much ease as if the shot had been at an egg at a hundred yards, I
fired. A heavy crash, and the sudden expulsion of the stream from its bed ten
or twelve feet into the air, followed the report; and I have a dim recollection
of my old friend hugging me the next minute in his delight while he
exclaimed, ‘Splendid, old boy! he’s dead, and the biggest tusker ever killed in
India.’ But our work was not over yet. With one or two tremendous lurches
from side to side, the old bull regained his feet, but only to be again felled by
my second barrel, and this time to rise no more. The shades of evening were
closing in fast, and a long journey lay between us and home, so we had but a
few moments to admire the grandest trophy it has ever fallen to the lot of a
sportsman to secure.”
This hunt not only shows the endurance required, but the remarkable
faculty of the elephant in travelling great distances when so desperately
wounded, and the necessity of the heaviest ammunition to prevent prolonged
suffering in the noble animals. When an elephant has been shot in the
manner described by Sir Victor, the tusks are secured as trophies, and
sometimes the head and other parts. They are either cut out with an axe, or
left for ten or twelve days, when they can be easily drawn out of the alveole.
The lowest Mysore inhabitants will not eat elephant flesh, though they have
no objection to carrion; but the Chittagong hill people eat it with avidity. The
tail is also used as a trophy; while the feet are taken and upholstered as
footstools, and presented to the sportsman’s lady friends. The feet of calves
are converted into cigar-boxes, for the fortunate hunter’s gentleman
acquaintances; while tobacco-boxes, inkstands, and various articles are also
made as mementoes of the hunt.
As the elephant shot by Sir Victor Brooke had the largest tusk ever
observed in an Asiatic elephant, I give the measurements:—

RIGHT TUSK.
FT. IN.
Total length, outside curve 8 0
Length of part outside socket or nasal bones (outside curve) 5 9
Length of part inside socket (outside curve) 2 3
Greatest circumference 1 4.9
Weight 90 lbs.
LEFT TUSK.
FT. IN.
Total length, outside curve 3 3
Outside socket, outside curve 1 2
Inside socket, outside curve 2 1
Greatest circumference 1 8
Weight 49 lbs.
 CHAPTER X.
THE WHITE ELEPHANT.

Mention of the white elephant is found in the very early histories of Oriental
countries. In a work called the “Mahaw Anso,” the animal is described as
forming a part of the retinue attached to the Temple of the Tooth at
Anarájapoora in the fifth century after Christ; but it commanded no religious
veneration, being merely considered as an emblem of royalty.
White elephants were so valued in the sixteenth century, that the nations of
Pegu and Siam waged a war for many years about one; and, before it was
settled, five successive kings were killed, and thousands of men.
Horace mentions the white elephant in his “Epistles.” Democritus would
laugh at the populace,—

“Whether a beast of mixed and monstrous birth

Bids them with gaping admiration gaze,
Or a white elephant their wonder raise.”

Ælian refers to a white elephant whose mother was black. In the eleventh
century Mahmood possessed one, and when mounted upon it in battle he felt
assured of victory.
The question whether the white elephant was worshipped, or is at the
present time, in Burmah or Siam, is of considerable interest; and authorities
vary so, that the seeker after information is often puzzled. I think that the
status of the animal may be fairly expressed in the following.
By the most intelligent and refined Burmese and Siamese, it is merely
considered as an invaluable adjunct to royalty. It is an important part of the
retinue of a court; and its presence is considered a lucky omen, this
superstition having an extremely strong hold upon the princes and kings. The
lower classes in some cases may have worshipped the white elephant, and
the attention paid to it by royalty may have easily been misunderstood by the
uneducated as reverence.
The fact that the white elephant is mentioned in the mythology of the
countries, and associated with Buddha, shows that it was undoubtedly
reverenced if not worshipped by some; and, if the veneration had not its
source in religious feeling, it was so nearly akin to it that it amounted to the
same thing.
The Siamese are extremely superstitious; but, before we condemn them,
we must remember how many of our sailors refuse to sail on Friday. How a
broken mirror or spilled salt alarms many otherwise intelligent Americans! so
that, when we learn from Major Snodgrass that in his time in Burmah a mere
grunt from the white elephant was supposed to have some important
significance, we need not be surprised. Any extraordinary movement or noise
made by the animal was quite enough at this time to interrupt the most
important affairs, and to cause the most solemn engagement to be broken.
Crawford thinks this was merely superstition, and says, “I had here an
opportunity, as well as in Siam, of ascertaining that the veneration paid to the
white elephant had been in some respects greatly exaggerated. The white
elephant is not an object of worship, but it is considered an indispensable part
of the regalia of sovereignty. Royalty is incomplete without it; and, the more
there are, the more perfect is the state of the kingly office considered. Both
the court and the people would consider it as peculiarly inauspicious to want a
white elephant, and hence the repute in which they are held. The lower
orders, however, it must be observed, perform the “shiko, or obedience of
submission,” to the white elephant; but the chiefs view this as a vulgar
superstition, and do not follow it.”
On the other hand, Vincent states that the white elephant has been happily
termed the Apis of the Buddhists. “It is held to be sacred by all the Indo-
Chinese nations except the Annamese. It is revered as a god while living, and
its death is regarded as a national calamity.... Even at the present day the
white elephant is worshipped by the lower classes; but by the king and nobles
it is revered and valued not so much for its divine character, being the abode
of a transmigrating Buddha, as because it is believed to bring prosperity to
the court in peace, and good fortune in war. The more there are of them, the
more grand and powerful the state is supposed to be.”
From this somewhat conflicting statement, we may infer that the white
elephant was formerly worshipped; but, at the present day, the estimate that
I have given may be applied.
The association of the white elephant with the religious sects of India is
well known; but how much it was reverenced from the association, it is
impossible to tell. Sir John Bowring gives the following reasons for believing
that the animal was held sacred, principally, “because it is believed that
Buddha, the divine emanation from the Deity, must necessarily, in his
multitudinous metamorphoses, or transmissions through all existences, and
through millions of æons, delight to abide for some time in that grand
incarnation of purity which is represented by the white elephant.” While the
bonzes teach that there is no spot in the heavens above, or the earth below,
or the waters under the earth, which is not visited in the peregrinations of the
divinity,—whose every stage or step is towards purification,—they hold that
his tarrying may be longer in the white elephant than in any other abode, and
that, in the possession of the sacred creatures, they may possess the
presence of Buddha himself. It is known that the Singhalese have been kept
in subjection by the belief that their rulers have a tooth of Buddha in the
Temple of Kandy and that, on various tracts of the East, impressions of the
foot of Buddha are reverenced, and are the objects of weary pilgrimages to
places which can only be reached with difficulty: but with the white elephant
some vague notions of a vital Buddha are associated, and there can be no
doubt that the marvellous sagacity of the creature has served to strengthen
their religious prejudices. Siamese are known to whisper their secrets into an
elephant’s ear, and to ask a solution of their perplexities by some sign or
movement. And most assuredly there is more sense and reason in the worship
of an intelligent beast than in that of stocks and stones, the work of men’s
hands.

PLATE XI.
 THE WHITE ELEPHANT, TOUNG TALOUNG.

Property of Barnum, Bailey & Hutchinson.

Page 117.
Kircher says that “the veneration which, in the Burman Empire, is paid to
the white elephant, is in some degree connected with the doctrine of
metempsychosis. Xaca sustained seventy thousand transmigrations through
various animals, and rested in the white elephant.” Hindoo mythology teaches
that the earth is supported by eight elephants; and that this was believed, is
shown by Bernier, who witnessed a dialogue between an aga at the court of
Delhi, and a Pundit Brahmin. The harangue concluded with these words:
“When, my lord, you place your foot in the stirrup, marching at the head of
your cavalry, the earth trembles under your footsteps; the eight elephants, on
whose heads it is borne, finding it impossible to support the extraordinary
pressure.”
In the Rámáyana, one of the most celebrated sacred books of the
Brahmins, is a very curious account of the journey of a party of men who
penetrated to the interior of the earth, and had an audience with the famous
elephants. It will be seen from the following, that the white elephant is an
important member of this subterranean band:—
“The sixty thousand descended to Patala, and there renewed their digging.
There, O chief of men! they saw the elephant of that quarter of the globe, in
size resembling a mountain, with distorted eyes, supporting with his head this
earth, with its mountains and forests, covered with various countries, and
adorned with numerous cities. When, for the sake of rest, O Kakootstha! the
great elephant, through distress, refreshes himself by moving his head, an
earthquake is produced. Having respectfully circumambulated this mighty
elephant, guardian of the quarter, they, O Rama! fearing him, penetrated into
Patala. After they had thus penetrated the east quarter, they opened their way
to the south. Here they saw that great elephant Muhapudma, equal to a huge
mountain, sustaining the earth with his head. Beholding him, they were filled
with surprise; and, after the usual circumambulation, the sixty thousand sons
of the great Sugura perforated the west quarter. In this, these mighty ones
saw the elephant Soumanuca, of equal size. Having respectfully saluted him,
and inquired respecting his health, these valiant men, digging, arrived at the
north. In this quarter, O chief of Ruzhoo! they saw the snow-white elephant
Bhudra, supporting this earth with his beautiful body.”
The Persians have, according to Chardin, a festival in honor of the
inspiration of an elephant, when Abraha, a prince of Yemen, marched an army
to destroy the Kaaba of Mecca, the sacred oratory which Abraham built in that
city. Prior to the birth of Mohammed, the Arabians reckoned from this epoch,
which they called the year of the coming of the elephants. The tradition is
thus told in Sale’s Koran: “The Meccans, at the approach of so considerable a
host, retired to the neighboring mountains, being unable to defend their city
or temple. But God himself undertook the defence of both. For when Abraha
drew near to Mecca, and would have entered it, the elephant on which he
rode, which was a very large one, and named Mahmud, refused to advance
any nigher to the town, but knelt down whenever they endeavored to force
him that way, though he would rise and march briskly enough if they turned
him towards any other quarter: and while matters were in this posture, on a
sudden, a large flock of birds, like swallows, came flying from the sea-coast,
every one of which carried three stones, one in each foot, and one in its bill;
and these stones they threw down upon the heads of Abraha’s men, certainly
killing every one they struck.”
In many old works, reference is made to the fact that the elephant was a
religious animal. Kircher, in his description of China, gives a plate showing a
white elephant worshipping the sun and moon, which was copied from the
Chinese. It was supposed that all elephants worshipped the sun. Pliny says,
“We find in him qualities which are rare enough amongst men,—honesty,
prudence, equity, religion also, in his worship of the sun and moon. Authors
say, that, in the forests of Mauritania, the elephants, at the sight of the new
moon, descend in troops to a certain river called Anelo, where they solemnly
wash themselves, and, having rendered their homage to the star, return to
the woods, supporting the young ones that are fatigued.”
According to Vincent, in Pali Scriptures it is duly set forth “that the form
under which Buddha will descend to the earth for the last time, will be that of
a beautiful young white elephant, open-jawed, with a head the color of
cochineal, with tusks shining like silver sparkling with gems, covered with a
splendid netting of gold, perfect in organs and limbs, and majestic in
appearance.”
It would seem from the above, that there was at least little doubt that
among some classes in ancient times the white elephant was worshipped. The
term white is deceptive. The pure white elephant figured on the arms and flag
of Siam has conveyed the impression that the Siamese and Burmese
possessed pure white proboscidians; but this is a gross error. A pure white
elephant probably never existed, at least was never captured. All the so-called
sacred elephants of the present and former days possessed very few
characteristics to distinguish them from ordinary elephants to be met with any
day in Bombay. Mr. Barnum’s white elephant is an exceptionally fine example,
being whiter than many owned in Siam, and much more so than the late
white elephant of Theebaw. In fact, the white elephant is not white at all, the
term being applied to any elephant who shows the slightest evidence of
albinism. There are two terms applied to abnormally white or black animals,—
albinism and melanism. The former is given to animals, including men, who
have a deficient supply of coloring matter; while the latter is associated with
those who have an excess of pigment. Men and women with white hair and
pink eyes, the white rabbit, etc., represent the albino phase; and the white
elephant belongs to this category, being simply an ordinary elephant, who, to
a greater or less extent, lacks coloring matter; and, as a result, it is often a
dark mouse color, a little lighter than the ordinary elephant, and has
numerous pinkish splashes about the head, or on various parts of the body.
The eyes in some are pink; and the toe-nails, when scraped, are perhaps
some lighter, and in some cases a yellowish white. The blotches of the white
elephant are not hereditary. It is the offspring of black parents, and the
condition does not affect the health of the animal in any way.
In India, the white elephant is not appreciated; but the Singhalese are fond
of elephants having the pink blotches which constitute a white elephant in
Siam or Burmah; and they are liable to be found in any elephant country.
While we assume that the white elephant is not worshipped or revered by
the nobles of Siam and Burmah of the present day, the honor that is paid it is
somewhat astonishing. Thus, the King of Cambodia, who claims that his
ancestors owned seventy thousand elephants, is called the “first cousin of the
white elephant;” the prime minister of Siam, “general of the elephants;” the
foreign minister of Cochin China, “mandarin of elephants;” while the late
Theebaw and the King of Siam enjoyed the distinction of being called “lord of
the celestial elephant,” and “master of many white elephants.”
The animal appears upon various objects, as the national emblem, the coat
of arms, medals, the buttons of officials, etc. The late white elephant of
Theebaw held a high rank and position at court, taking precedence of the
heir-apparent; or, assuming it to have been connected with the British court, it
would have been given precedence before the Prince of Wales.
The Order of the White Elephant is one of the most honorable conferred,
and few have received it. Among them is Edward Arnold, author of “The Light
of Asia;” and it was reported some time before the Burmese war, that the
King of Siam was about to visit England for the sole purpose of conferring it
upon Queen Victoria.
 The following is a copy of the parchment which accompanied the one
conferred upon Mr. Arnold. It is beautifully executed in gold, red, and black,
and is a curiosity in itself:—

Somlech Phra Paramindr Maha Chulaloukoru, Chula Chom Klao, King of

Siam, fifth sovereign of the present dynasty, which founded and
established its rule, Katana Kosindr Mahindr Ayuddhya, Bangkok,
the capital city of Siam, both northern and southern, and its
dependencies, Suzerain of the Laos and Malays and Koreans, etc.,
etc.
To all and singular, to whom these presents come.
Know ye, we deem it right and fitting, that Edwin Arnold, Esq.,
author of “The Light of Asia,” should be appointed an officer of the
most exalted Order of the White Elephant, to his honor henceforth.
May the Power which is most highest in the universe keep and guard
him, and grant him happiness and prosperity!
Given at our palace, Parania Raja Sthit Maholarm, on Tuesday, the
11th waning of the lunar month Migusira, the first month from the
cold season of the year Toh Ekasole, 1241 of the Siamese era,
corresponding to the European date 9th of December, 1879, of the
Christian era, being the 4046th day, or 12th year of our reign.
(MANU REGIÂ) CHULALOUKORU, R.S.

Queen Victoria has, I believe, not yet received the order; but she is not
unacquainted with the veneration entertained by the Siamese for the animal,
as the following will show. Some years ago she sent an embassy to the
kingdom of Siam, consisting of several noblemen and officers of rank, to
conduct some diplomatic business; and, according to custom, they carried
some valuable presents to the king. Upon their return, the latter, not wishing
to be outdone by the Queen, delivered to Sir John Bowring a gold box locked
with a gold key, containing the most valuable gift he could devise. Sir John,
naturally thinking it a gem, perhaps of great price, bore it carefully from Siam
to England, and personally presented it to her Majesty. Doubtless there was
some curiosity in the royal mind to know what was so precious as to require a
solid gold box and key; but it was not a gem,—though it may have been in
the eyes of the Siamese monarch,—and was simply a few hairs taken from
the king’s white elephant!
 A Siamese ambassador, during a visit to London, thus referred to Queen
Victoria in language intended to be highly flattering: “One cannot but be
struck with the aspect of the august Queen of England, or fail to observe that
she must be of pure descent from a race of goodly and warlike kings and
rulers of the earth, in that her eyes, complexion, and, above all, her bearing,
are those of a beautiful and majestic white elephant.”
As these pink-splashed elephants are so esteemed, it is not to be wondered
at that there is constant search for them in the jungle; and the fortune of him
is made who discovers one. They are, however, comparatively rare; and in
thirteen hundred and fifty-two years, between A.D. 515 and 1867, only
twenty-four were captured, making about one in every fifty-six years. The last
one was captured in 1885, and was conducted to the court of the King of
Siam by His Royal Highness Somdetch Chowf Mahamalah Bamrahp Parapako,
amid much parade. His Majesty accepted it, and made the fortunate finder, a
poor native, a present of a sum of money, as well as his mother and son. The
Siamese officials who brought the elephant to Bangkok, were honored with an
audience by His Majesty, and also given valuable presents.
In former days the ceremonies attending the capture of a white elephant
were very impressive. The discoverer, were he the humblest man in the
kingdom, was immediately made a mandarin: he was exempted from taxation
for the remainder of his life, and presented with large sums of money, the
king himself giving him one thousand dollars. As soon as the capture was
made, a special courier was despatched to the king, and a posse of nobles
with gifts and robes started immediately for the scene of action. The ropes
which the captors used in binding the royal victim were replaced by stout
cords of scarlet silk. Mandarins attended to the slightest wants of the animal.
Rich feather-fans with gilt handles were used to keep the insects from it
during the day, while a silk embroidered mosquito-net was provided at night.
To remove it to the capital, a boat was built especially for the purpose, and a
magnificent canopy erected over it, ornamented and bedecked as were the
king’s palaces. Silk draperies, heavy with gold and silver, enclosed the royal
prisoner; and in this state he floated down the river, receiving the
acclamations of the people. When near the city, it was landed, the king and
his court going out to meet and escort it to the city, where a place had been
built for it within the royal palace-grounds. A large tract of land was set apart
for his country-place, chosen from the best the kingdom afforded. A cabinet
of ministers was appointed, and a large retinue of other nobles, to attend to
its wants. The priest of the king was ordered to administer to its spiritual
needs, and it had physicians to see to its physical requirements. Gold and
silver dishes were supplied to feed it from, and every want was attended to as
became one of the royal family. The city devoted three days to festivities, and
the rich mandarins made it rare presents.
When a white elephant died, the ceremonies were the same as those of a
king or queen. The body lay in state for several days; and then it was placed
upon a funeral pyre, and cremated. This pyre often cost thousands of dollars,
being made of the choicest sandal, sassafras, and other valuable woods. After
the body had been thoroughly cremated, it was allowed to remain three days
more; then the ashes were collected, and placed in costly urns, and buried in
the royal cemetery, a magnificent mausoleum being erected over the spot.
A friend of the author, who visited the land of the white elephant a few
years ago, states that, when he observed a white elephant, about twenty
natives were standing around, whom he was informed by the guide were
mandarins and nobles of the highest class, who formed the cabinet of the
elephant: in fact, they were a body selected for their dignity and rank. One
was chief minister of the cabinet, and the others held different offices. Other
nobles were attached directly to the person of his celestial highness. One fed
him with bananas and rare fruits difficult to obtain: another gently brushed
away the flies from its head, and created a breeze. About the room were
various objects which bespoke its royal nature. The ropes, umbrellas, and
blankets were of the finest description, many being ornamented with seeming
gems. Later he witnessed the ceremony of the bath; and no spectacle, he
said, that he had ever observed in America, began to compare with it. The
entire city seemed to turn out and make a holiday of the occasion. When the
march was taken up, the elephant stepped out heavily caparisoned. Elegant
silks, trimmed with scarlet, silver, white, and gold, depended from its back:
over its head was held the royal umbrella, a gorgeous affair, supported by
gilded rods held in the hands of eight mandarins, four of whom marched on
each side. On the animal’s tusks were bands of solid gold; and as he moved
solemnly along, surrounded by other nobles, his ministers, and attendants, all
in rich garbs, with a shouting but respectful crowd all about it, it was certainly
an impressive and wonderful sight. At the river the trappings were taken off,
and the elephant plunged in and enjoyed himself after the manner of plebeian
elephants. When the bath was finished, its feet were re-washed, and dried on
a silken towel: the silks and rich stuffs were then replaced, a band of music
struck up, and the procession took up the return march. Once at court, the
newly captured white elephant is honored by titles which are conferred upon
him by the king, some of which are “Gem of the Sky,” “Glory of the Land,”
“Radiance of the World,” “Leveller of the Earth,” etc.
 The king often took advantage of the capture of an elephant, to replenish
the royal treasury; and, when the animal was housed in the palace, an
invitation was sent out to the rich merchants to come and pay their respects.
This meant literally to make presents to the white elephant, which, of course,
were used by the king. People who wished to obtain favors from His Majesty,
took this occasion to offer valuable gifts. In some cases, it was money; in
others, objects of art; and one present was a vase of solid gold weighing four
hundred and eighty ounces.
Zachard, an old traveller, saw a white elephant in Siam which was said to be
over two hundred years old, over which there had been much blood shed. It
lived in a magnificent pavilion, and had one hundred attendants, who fed it
from vessels of gold. When Mr. Crawford was in Siam, the king had six white
elephants; and the King of Ava possessed only one, which was fastened
directly in front of the palace. While Mr. Crawford was in Ava, a report was
sent to the king that a white elephant had been captured, but it could not be
forwarded without the destruction of ten thousand baskets of rice. To which
the king replied, “What signifies the destruction of ten thousand baskets of
rice in comparison with the possession of a white elephant!” and the order for
the beast was immediately given.
The white elephant now in the possession of the King of Ava, who styles
himself “Lord of the White Elephant,” is, according to Vincent, a vicious brute
of medium size, with white eyes, and the forehead and ears spotted white
(pink), appearing as if they had been rubbed with pumice stone or sand-
paper; but the remainder of the body is as black as coal. The animal is kept
chained in the centre of a pavilion, surrounded by the adjuncts of royalty,
which consist of gold and white cloth umbrellas, an embroidered canopy, a
bundle of spears, dishes, etc. Mr. Vincent was informed that a young white
elephant had recently been captured in the north-eastern part of British
Burmah, near Tounghoo; but it died, and the king had been “out of sorts”
ever since.
Mr. Vincent also inspected the white elephants at Bangkok, and found them
fastened to posts in large sheds, covered with gilt canopies very much as
were those at Mandalay. The keeper fed the animals with bananas in his
presence, and caused the Apis of Buddha, as they call the animal, to salute an
American, probably for the first time. The salaam, or salutation, consisted in
raising the proboscis to the forehead, and then lowering it slowly and
gracefully to the ground.
With these white elephants were several white monkeys, which were kept
to ward off evil spirits. White animals of all kinds are considered abodes of
transmigrating souls by Buddhists. Sir John Bowring saw the white monkey
honored with special attention. The veneration received by white elephants
may perhaps be explained by the fact that all white animals are believed to be
the abiding-place of some mighty Buddha; and by possessing such an animal,
having the deity in the family, as it were, they may receive any advantages
that may accrue from the association.
Curiously enough, with the downfall of the infamous Theebaw came that of
his white elephant. The king left Mandalay, Nov. 29, 1885, accompanied by his
queen, Soopyalot. The day the city fell, the white elephant died; and its body
was dragged out of the palace-yard by the British troops on the following day.
It was reported that the king ordered its destruction rather than have such a
prize fall into the hands of the British.
This elephant, which was no whiter than the Barnum specimen, lived in
great pomp in the palace enclosure, eating and drinking out of huge silver
buckets.
The finest white elephant caught in late years is described by Mr. Carl Bock,
who states that it was brought into Bangkok with all the pomp and ceremony
of an emperor. According to Mr. Bock, it was quite an albino, the whole body
being of a pale reddish-brown color, with a few white hairs on the back. The
iris of the eye, the color of which is held to be a good test of an albino, was a
pale Naples yellow. The animal was blessed and baptized in presence of the
king and the nobility. One of the high priests presented it with a piece of
sugar-cane, on which was written the elephant’s name in full, and which it
very readily ate. The following is a translation of its description painted on a
red tablet, hung over one of the pillars of its stall: “An elephant of beautiful
color; hair, nails, and eyes are white. Perfection in form, with all signs of
regularity of the high family. The color of the skin is that of lotos. A
descendant of the angels of the Brahmins. Acquired as property by the power
and glory of the king for his service. Is equal to the crystal of the highest
value. Is of the highest family of all in existence. A source of power of
attraction of rain. It is as pure as the purest crystal of the highest value in the
world.”
As the white elephant is so highly esteemed in the Oriental countries, it
would be surprising if obstacles were not laid in the way of their being taken
to foreign lands. Hence a white elephant was never seen in a Western country
before the advent of Mr. Barnum’s now famous Toung Taloung, whose
passage from its native country to America was highly exciting and dramatic.
 The first white elephant ever seen out of its native land was one that was
exhibited in Holland in 1633. The second was the Barnum elephant, which
was brought to England in 1884, and from there shipped to America.[6]
Sir John Bowring states that it is almost impossible to put a price upon a
white elephant; and he mentions fifty thousand dollars as a sum that might
buy one; adding that a single hair from the tail of a white elephant was worth
a Jew’s ransom. The Barnum white elephant, it is said, cost two hundred
thousand dollars by the time it was landed in America,—probably the most
expensive pachyderm that ever lived. The agents sent to Siam and Burmah by
Mr. Barnum had instructions to obtain the finest white elephant that money
could buy. They crossed the Pacific, sailed down the coast of China, and
finally reached Siam, where they endeavored to gain an interview with the
first king. By him they were referred to the second, who indignantly refused
their offer to purchase one of the white elephants. Some of the people,
hearing of it, became enraged; and the men narrowly escaped injury. For
months they followed up various clews, but at last found an elephant owned
by the estate of a nobleman, whose widow agreed to part with the animal,
which to her was an expensive luxury. Finally all arrangements were made;
and the elephant was placed in a boat, and floated down the Irrawaddy to
Rangoon. At almost every village they had difficulty, the people seeming to
have a strong objection to the creature leaving the country: finally some
fanatical natives secreted themselves in the steamer, and, it is believed,
poisoned the noble animal, for it died suddenly before reaching Singapore. I
have seen photographs of it, and the tusks are now in the possession of Mr. J.
H. Hutchinson of New York. The elephant was, if any thing, a finer specimen
than Toung Taloung.
The white-elephant hunters became so discouraged, that they returned
home, but were, however, sent out again, and went through almost a
repetition of their former experience. Through the influence of some English
residents, they finally secured a typical white elephant. The permission of King
Theebaw was essential before it could leave the country, and this was
obtained with the condition that the white elephant should always receive the
same attention that it did in Burmah. This was readily consented to, as it was
to Mr. Barnum’s interest to exhibit the animal with the same surroundings that
characterized its life in Siam. The following is the bill of sale sworn to by H.
Porter, Esq., notary public at Rangoon:—

NINTH DECREE OF TA SUNG MONG 1245 (BURMESE ERA). AT KAREN

VILLAGE, DOANG DAMEE.
 We who have signed below, Moung Tsaw, Kyah Yoe, Shoay Att
Hpaw, these three having heard the statement of the American
master, a rich man’s agent from a distant country who wishes to have
and possess the Nyan Zone [sacred elephant] Toung Taloung, which
we now own, from the estate of Htan Yoe Ban, who is dead. We
having sworn him [the agent] before God, and under the holy tree on
the hill, he promises he will take him [elephant] straight to his master,
to love and protect him from all misery. If not, he knows he cannot
escape the evil abode. We have got from American master 30,000
gold rupees [about $200,000] to repair our gods, images, and
monasteries.
We write and give this document under our own free will and to
sign.
MOUNG TSAW.
KYAH YOE.
SHOAY ATT HPAW.
Moung H. Pay, District Elder.
A CERTIFICATE OF IDENTITY.
In the year 1245, month of Ta Sung Mong, fifth increase at
Mandalay, I, Moung Thee, minister of royal elephants, hereby certify
that the elephant named Toung Taloung is the species of white sacred
elephant, and possesses the qualifications and attributes of such.
By order of
HPOUNGDAW GYEE HPAYAH,
King and Lord of all White Elephants, Moung Thee.
(Signed)
W. MALLING,
Translator.

Other papers and testimonials from prominent people accompanied these

documents, testifying to its identity; and, every thing being in readiness, the
march was commenced from Mandalay overland to Rangoon, a distance of
seven hundred miles. This trip was one of no little danger. They were
continually stopped in native towns; and rumors followed them to the effect
that King Theebaw had changed his mind, fearing that ill luck would follow
the loss of one of the animals. But finally the little band, which consisted of
several white men and natives, Toung Taloung, and four black elephants,
upon which were three white monkeys, the images of the Buddhist god
Gautama, the golden umbrellas, etc., reached the Irrawaddy River, four
hundred miles from Mandalay. In one village they were nearly mobbed; in
another imprisoned, and a lawsuit commenced. But finally they were released;
and the white elephant was placed on the steamer “Tenasserim,” and,
guarded day and night, crossed the Bay of Bengal, and safely reached
Liverpool, from where it was shipped to the United States. I was invited to go
down the bay on the special steamer to be among the first to see a white
elephant on American shores; and I well remember the smile of satisfaction
that illumined the face of the genial Barnum, when an ex-United-States
minister to one of the Eastern countries, who was of the party, spoke up, and
said, as we all stood around the sacred beast in the hold of the “Lydian
Monarch,” “I have seen all the white elephants of the kings of Burmah and
Siam, and consider this an exceptionally fine example of what is known as the
sacred white elephant.”
The general public, however, expected to see a pure white elephant, and
naturally much criticism was provoked. I believe that Mr. Barnum now claims
as much credit in educating the American public as to what constitutes a
white elephant, as he did in bringing the historic animal from its native
country.
Toung Taloung is a finely formed elephant, about eight feet in height, with
perfect and finely developed tusks three feet in length. Its nails are ivory-
lined, and its general color a light gray, which presents some contrast to
ordinary elephants. Upon the head, trunk, and ears are several pink blotches,
white by courtesy, or, rather, because King Theebaw chose to consider them
so.
Toung Taloung has a mild and peaceful disposition, and does not object in
the slightest to being fed upon delicacies, and waited upon by native
attendants. He is now about sixteen years old.
A second so-called white elephant, the “Light of Asia,” was imported into
this country by Adam Forepaugh of Philadelphia soon after the advent of
Toung Taloung. It is a male, about seven years old, and a little over five feet
in height, its tusks just appearing.
 CHAPTER XI.
ELEPHANTS IN CEYLON.[7]

While the elephant of Ceylon does not differ specifically from its cousins of
Continental India, there are certain facts of interest about it that would seem
to warrant special attention. In 1847, according to Tennent, they were found
over nearly the entire island, with the exception of a narrow but densely
inhabited belt of cultivated land that extends along the seaboard from Chilaw
on the Western coast to Tangalle on the south-east: this is, to some extent,
true to-day, their great tracks being found in forests and plains where the
surroundings are adapted to their requirements. There has, however, been a
noticeable diminution of their numbers in certain localities.
Thus, Le Brun, who visited Ceylon in 1705, says that then they were very
abundant in the country about Colombo, and that he had seen one hundred
and sixty at a time in a corral. It is also known, that, in olden times, it was
necessary in some localities to keep fires burning at night, in order to keep
them away from the rice-fields. The opening up of the country, and the
clearing off of the mountain forests of Kandy by coffee-planters, has also
restricted their range; while sportsmen and others have greatly reduced their
numbers.
From the date of the first Punic war, the natives have been aware of their
value, and have captured them to send to India for various purposes,—
formerly for use in war, and to-day as laborers in the great lumber-yards, and
in other positions where great strength is required.
The number of elephants exported from Ceylon between the years 1863
and 1876 was sixteen hundred and fifty-seven, a showing that has no
comparison with Africa. The Ceylon elephants are remarkable for the absence
of tusks. So marked is this, a Ceylon elephant with these sexual weapons is
something of a curiosity, not one in a hundred having them, and then only the
males being the fortunate possessors. They are not totally unarmed; as nearly
all have stunted tusks, generally about a foot in length, and two inches in
diameter. With these they loosen earth, strip the bark from trees, and tear
down climbing-plants. That the tusks are in general use, is shown by the fact
that nearly all have a groove worn in the extremities.
 Many ingenious theories have been advanced to explain this lack of
development. The most feasible explanation would seem to be, that, in
Ceylon, the elephants had less use for weapons of defence than on the main-
land.
The Ceylon elephant leads a quiet, pastoral life compared to its ally of
Africa, who, if not attacked, is menaced by rhinoceros and lion; while the
tiger, though not the master of the Asiatic elephant, infuses it with a
wholesome dread, and will attack it if the true king of beasts is at a
disadvantage.
In the chapter on Continental Asiatic Elephants, the distinguishing points of
elephants are given. In Ceylon, they differ again; and in a Singhalese work,
the “Hastisilpe,” which treats of the management of these animals, the author
says an inferior elephant (one that corresponds probably to the Meerga caste)
has “eyes restless like those of a crow, the hair of the head mixed shades, the
nails short and green, the ears small, the neck thin, the skin freckled, the tail
without a tuft, and the fore-quarters lean and low.” The perfect type,
corresponding to the Koomeriah grade of India, is characterized by “softness
of the skin, the red color of the mouth and tongue, the forehead expanded
and hollow, the ears broad and rectangular, the trunk broad at the root, and
blotched with pink in front, the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks large, the
neck full, the back level, the chest square, the fore-legs short, and convex in
front, the hindquarter plump, and five nails on each foot, all smooth, polished,
and round.” An elephant with these perfections, says the same author, “will
impart glory and magnificence to the king: but he cannot be discovered
among thousands; yea, there shall never be found an elephant clothed at
once with all the excellences here described.”
The noises which Ceylon elephants utter, while undoubtedly identical with
those of India and Bengal, seem to have a rather different meaning imputed
to them. The shrill cry uttered through the trunk is indicative of rage, and is
generally given when the animal is rushing upon its adversary. When the
attention of an individual elephant of a herd is attracted by any unusual
object, the intelligence is conveyed to the others by a low, suppressed sound,
uttered by the lips, and compared by hunters to the word “prut,” or the
twittering of a bird. Major Macready, military secretary of Ceylon, describes a
sound that he heard made by a wild elephant as “a sort of a banging noise,
like a cooper hammering a cask,” produced, he believes, by the animal striking
its sides rapidly with its trunk. It may have been made, as has been previously
described, by striking the tip of the trunk against the ground.
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