ICSE 10

2024-25

SAVIOUR OF
CHEMISTRY

A Complete Saviour of ICSE Class 10

Chemistry. It Includes -:

High Graphic Theory Notes

Chapter wise Multiple Choice Questions
Boards Centric Short Answer Questions
 Contents
CLASS 10TH CHEMISTRY
THEORY NOTES
Comprehensive Coverage: Provides detailed
explanations of all ICSE Class 10 Chemistry topics
According to the latest ICSE Boards Syllabus
Structured Learning: Organized in a systematic
manner for easy understanding and quick revision.
Clarity and Conciseness: Presents complex
concepts in a clear and concise manner, aiding
retention.
Illustrative Examples: Includes relevant examples
to reinforce theoretical concepts.

MCQS
Chapter wise Mcqs : Mcqs after Each
Chapter for quick revision and to
grasp the concepts
Based On Latest Techniques : Mcqs
Based on Latest Techniques
Released By the ICSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Chapter wise Short Answer Questions :

20 Short Answer Questions at the end
of each Chapter to Retain all the
concepts.
Boards Centric : Based On Latest
Techniques Of ICSE and According to
the Questions Asked in ICSE
Examination
 Periodic Properties and
variations of Properties
THE MODERN
PERIODIC TABLE
Basis of Modern Periodic Table:
Elements are arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic
numbers.
Vertical columns are called
Groups (18 groups in total).
Horizontal rows are called
Periods (7 periods in total).

Focus on Periods 1 to 3:
Period 1: H, He
Period 2: Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
Period 3: Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl,
Ar

Periodicity in Properties
Definition: The repetition of physical and chemical properties of elements at regular intervals
to their similar electronic configuration.

. Basis of Periodicity
Nuclear Charge: The total positive charge due to protons in the nucleus.
Number of Shells: Determines the element’s position in a period and its properties.

Atomic size (atomic radii)

Electron Affinity
Non-metallic Character The amount of energy released
It is the distance between the
centre of the nucleus of an atom while converting a neutral
and its outermost shell Those elements which have a gaseous isolated atom into a
tendency to gain electrons in negatively charged gaseous ion by
The atomic radii of elements order to attain an octet in their the addition of electrons is called
increase in a group on moving outermost orbit are considered electron affinity.
from top to bottom. as non-metals.
On going down a group, electron
The atomic radii of elements The non-metallic character
affinity decreases.
decrease in a period from left decreases down the group.
to right with an increase in The electron affinity increases
The non-metallic character
atomic number. in going from left to right in a
increases across a period.
period.

Ionisation Energy Metallic Character

Electronegativity
The energy required to remove Those elements which have a
an electron from a neutral The tendency of an atom in a
tendency to lose their valence
isolated gaseous atom and molecule to attract the shared
electrons and form a positive ion
convert it into a positively pair of electrons towards itself is
charged gaseous ion is called are considered as metals.
called its electronegativity.
ionisation energy (IE) Na − e− → Na+
The metallic character of
Electronegativity of elements
The ionisation potential elements increases down a gradually decreases from top
decreases in a group on group. to bottom.
going from top to bottom.
The metallic character of Electronegativity of elements
The ionisation potential elements gradually decreases increases in going from left to
increases in a period on on moving from left to right. right across the period
going from left to right.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
Which of the following trends is correct for atomic size across a period?
a) Increases from left to right
b) Decreases from left to right
c) Remains constant
d) Increases, then decreases
Answer: b) Decreases from left to right

Understanding
In the periodic table, what causes the metallic character to increase down a group?
a) Increase in nuclear charge
b) Decrease in the number of shells
c) Increase in atomic size
d) Increase in ionization potential
Answer: c) Increase in atomic size

Application
Sodium (Na) and Magnesium (Mg) belong to the same period. Why is the ionization
potential of magnesium higher than that of sodium?
a) Magnesium has a smaller atomic radius.
b) Sodium has a higher electronegativity.
c) Sodium has more electron affinity.
d) Magnesium has fewer protons.
Answer: a) Magnesium has a smaller atomic radius.

Application
Which property best explains why chlorine is more reactive than argon?
a) Atomic size
b) Metallic character
c) Electron affinity
d) Ionization potential
Answer: c) Electron affinity

Analysis
Arrange the following elements in order of increasing electronegativity: Na, Cl, Mg.
a) Cl < Na < Mg
b) Na < Mg < Cl
c) Mg < Na < Cl
d) Cl < Mg < Na
Answer: b) Na < Mg < Cl

Analysis
Why does atomic size increase down a group despite the increase in nuclear charge?
a) Shielding effect increases.
b) Electron affinity increases.
c) Ionization potential decreases.
d) Electronegativity decreases.
Answer: a) Shielding effect increases.
Recall and Understanding
What is the trend of electron affinity across a period in the periodic table?
a) Increases from left to right
b) Decreases from left to right
c) Remains constant
d) Increases down the group
Answer: a) Increases from left to right

Recall and Understanding

Which of the following elements has the smallest atomic radius in Period 2?
a) Lithium (Li)
b) Fluorine (F)
c) Carbon (C)
d) Oxygen (O)
Answer: b) Fluorine (F)

Recall
What is the basis of the modern periodic table?
a) Atomic mass
b) Atomic number
c) Number of shells
d) Metallic character
Answer: b) Atomic number

Recall
Which group in the periodic table contains elements with the highest metallic
character?
a) Group 1
b) Group 2
c) Group 17
d) Group 18
Answer: a) Group 1

Understanding and Application

Why is ionization potential higher for noble gases than alkali metals?
a) Larger atomic size
b) Smaller number of protons
c) Stable electronic configuration
d) Higher metallic character
Answer: c) Stable electronic configuration

Understanding and Application

The non-metallic character decreases down a group because:
a) Nuclear charge decreases
b) Atomic size increases
c) Ionization potential increases
d) Electron affinity increases
Answer: b) Atomic size increases
Application and Analysis
Arrange the following elements in decreasing order of metallic character: Li, Na, K.
a) K > Na > Li
b) Li > Na > K
c) Na > K > Li
d) K > Li > Na
Answer: a) K > Na > Li

Application and Analysis

Why is the electron affinity of fluorine lower than chlorine despite being higher in the
group?
a) Greater nuclear charge in fluorine
b) Larger atomic radius of chlorine
c) Smaller size of fluorine causing electron repulsion
d) Fluorine has a higher metallic character
Answer: c) Smaller size of fluorine causing electron repulsion
Recall and Application
Which element in Period 3 has the highest electronegativity?
a) Sodium
b) Sulfur
c) Chlorine
d) Argon
Answer: c) Chlorine
Recall and Application
The periodic trend of atomic size is best explained by:
a) Number of protons in the nucleus
b) Shielding effect by inner electrons
c) Energy levels occupied by electrons
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

Analysis and Application

Which of the following explains why sodium forms an ionic bond with chlorine?
a) High electronegativity of sodium
b) Low ionization potential of sodium and high electron affinity of chlorine
c) High ionization potential of chlorine
d) High metallic character of chlorine
Answer: b) Low ionization potential of sodium and high electron affinity of chlorine
Analysis and Application
What is the main reason behind periodicity in the properties of elements?
a) Increase in atomic number
b) Increase in metallic character
c) Regular change in nuclear charge and number of shells
d) Increase in density
Answer: c) Regular change in nuclear charge and number of shells
Recall and Understanding
In which group of the periodic table are halogens located?
a) Group 1
b) Group 17
c) Group 16
d) Group 18
Answer: b) Group 17

Recall and Understanding

Why does electronegativity decrease down a group?
a) Increase in shielding effect
b) Decrease in nuclear charge
c) Increase in metallic character
d) Both a and c
Answer: d) Both a and c

Short Answer Type Questions

Recall and Understanding
1. Question: Define atomic size and explain its trend across a period.
Solution: Atomic size is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell of an atom. It
decreases across a period due to an increase in nuclear charge, which pulls electrons closer to
the nucleus.
2. Question: What is metallic character? How does it vary down a group?
Solution: Metallic character refers to the ability of an atom to lose electrons and form positive
ions. It increases down a group because atomic size increases, making it easier to lose electrons.
3. Question: Why does electronegativity increase across a period?
Solution: Electronegativity increases across a period due to a higher nuclear charge and smaller
atomic size, which allows the nucleus to attract bonding electrons more effectively.
4. Question: Define ionization potential and describe its trend in the periodic table.
Solution: Ionization potential is the energy required to remove the outermost electron from a
gaseous atom. It increases across a period and decreases down a group due to changes in
nuclear charge and atomic size.
5. Question: What is periodicity? How is it related to atomic number?
Solution: Periodicity refers to the repeating patterns of chemical and physical properties of
elements in the periodic table. It is directly related to the atomic number as properties depend
on the arrangement of electrons in energy levels.

Application
6.Question: Sodium is more reactive than magnesium. Justify this statement.
Solution: Sodium has a lower ionization potential than magnesium due to its larger atomic size and
single valence electron, making it more reactive.

7.Question: Why does chlorine have a higher electron affinity than fluorine?
Solution: Fluorine's small atomic size leads to greater electron-electron repulsion in its compact
outer shell, reducing its electron affinity compared to chlorine.
8.Question: Explain why noble gases do not gain or lose electrons easily.
Solution: Noble gases have a stable electronic configuration with a complete outer shell, making
them inert and unlikely to gain or lose electrons.

9.Question: How does an increase in nuclear charge across a period affect element properties?
Solution: Increased nuclear charge leads to a stronger attraction between the nucleus and
electrons, decreasing atomic size and increasing ionization potential and electronegativity.

10.Question: Magnesium reacts more readily with acids compared to beryllium. Why?
Solution: Magnesium has a larger atomic size and lower ionization potential than beryllium, making
it more reactive with acids.

Analysis

11.Question: Compare the atomic sizes of lithium and fluorine. Explain the trend.
Solution: Lithium has a larger atomic size than fluorine. Across the period, nuclear charge increases,
pulling electrons closer and reducing atomic size.

12.Question: Why do elements in Group 1 have higher metallic character than Group 17?
Solution: Group 1 elements have lower ionization potentials and larger atomic sizes, making it easier
for them to lose electrons, whereas Group 17 elements tend to gain electrons.

13.Question: How does the shielding effect influence ionization potential down a group?
Solution: The shielding effect increases as inner electron shells block the attraction of the nucleus to
outer electrons, reducing ionization potential down a group.

14.Question: Which element has a higher electronegativity, oxygen or nitrogen? Why?

Solution: Oxygen has a higher electronegativity because it has a smaller atomic size and higher
nuclear charge compared to nitrogen.

15.Question: Argon does not react with other elements. Why?

Solution: Argon has a complete octet (stable electronic configuration), making it chemically inert
and non-reactive.

Recall and Understanding

16.Question: State the trend of electron affinity across a period and down a group.
Solution: Electron affinity increases across a period due to higher nuclear charge and decreases
down a group due to increased atomic size and shielding effect.

17.Question: Identify the group and period of an element with atomic number 12.
Solution: The element is magnesium, which belongs to Group 2 and Period 3.

18.Question: Why is the ionization potential of helium higher than hydrogen?

Solution: Helium has a smaller atomic size and a higher nuclear charge than hydrogen, making it
harder to remove an electron.
19.Question: Explain the trend of non-metallic character across a period.
Solution: Non-metallic character increases across a period due to higher electronegativity and
ionization potential, as atoms tend to gain electrons.

20.Question: Why is potassium more reactive than lithium?

Solution: Potassium has a larger atomic size and lower ionization potential than lithium, making it
easier to lose its outermost electron.
 CHEMICAL BONDING
WHAT IS A CHEMICAL BOND? Reasons for Chemical Bonding

A chemical bond is defined as The driving force for atoms to combine is related to the
the force of attraction tendency of each atom to attain stable electronic
configuration of the nearest inert noble gas.
between any two atoms in a
molecule to maintain For an atom to achieve stable electronic
stability. configuration, it must have Two electrons in the
outermost shell (nearest noble gas He) – Duplet rule
Eight electrons in the outermost shell (all noble gases
other than He) – Octet rule

Methods for achieving

Chemical Bonding
Electron Dot Structure
There are three methods in which
atoms can achieve a stable
NaCl:
configuration:
Electrovalent bond Na (1 electron) → Na⁺ + e⁻
Covalent bond Cl (7 electrons) + e⁻ → Cl⁻
Coordinate bond Formula: NaCl (1:1 ratio

Electrovalent (or Ionic)

Bonding

Electrovalent Bonds: Bond

formed by the transfer of MgCl₂ :
electrons between a metal Mg (2 electrons) → Mg²⁺ + 2e⁻
and a non-metal. Cl (7 electrons) + e⁻ → Cl⁻
Ions: Positive ion (cation) from Formula: MgCl₂ (1:2 ratio)
metals and negative ion
(anion) from non-metals.
Example: NaCl, MgCl₂, CaO.

CaO:
Ca (2 electrons) → Ca²⁺ + 2e⁻
O (6 electrons) + 2e⁻ → O²⁻
Formula: CaO (1:1 ratio)
Properties of Electrovalent Bonds
State: Solid at room temperature.
Melting/Boiling Points: High due to strong ionic bonds.

Electrical Conductivity:
Solid: Does not conduct electricity.
Molten/Aqueous: Conducts electricity due to free-moving ions.
Solubility: Most are soluble in water.
Dissociation: In water or molten state, electrovalent compounds dissociate into ions
(e.g., NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻)

Electrolysis of Electrovalent Compounds

Process: Ions move towards opposite electrodes and undergo reduction/oxidation.
Example: Electrolysis of NaCl:

Cathode (Reduction): Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na

Anode (Oxidation): 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻

Covalent Bonding

Covalent Bonding: A type of chemical bonding where atoms share electrons to achieve a
stable electron configuration (duplet or octet).

Electron dot structure

Hydrogen : The valency of hydrogen Chlorine : The valency of chlorine element is
element is 1. It needs one electron to 1. It needs one electron to attain stable octet
attain stable duplet structure of structure of nearest noble gas - Ar [2, 8, 8].
nearest noble gas - He [2].

Each of the 'H' atoms contribute one Each of the 'Cl' atoms contribute one
electron so as to have one shared electron so as to have one shared pair of
pair of electrons between them. electrons between them. Both atoms attain
Both atoms attain stable duplet stable octet structure resulting in the
structure resulting in the formation formation of a single covalent bond [Cl-Cl]
of a single covalent bond [H-H] between them.
between them

Nitrogen : The valency of nitrogen element is 3.

Nitrogen needs three electrons to attain stable
octet structure of nearest noble gas - Ne [2,8].

Each of the two N atoms contributes three

electron so as to have three shared pair of
electrons between them. Both atoms attain
stable octet structure, resulting in the formation
of a triple covalent bond [N≡N] between them.
Ammonia : The valency of hydrogen element is 1 and
that of nitrogen is 3. Hydrogen needs one electrons
to attain stable duplet structure of nearest noble
gas - He [2] and nitrogen needs three electrons to
attain stable octet structure of nearest noble gas -
Ne [2,8]

One nitrogen atom shares three electron pairs one

with each of the three atoms of hydrogen such that
hydrogen acquires a duplet configuration and carbon
attain a stable octet configuration resulting in the
formation of three single covalent bonds .

Carbon TetraChloride : The valency of carbon

element is 4 and that of chlorine is 1. Chlorine needs
one electron to attain stable octet structure of
nearest noble gas - Ar [2,8,8] and Carbon needs four
electrons to attain stable octet structure of
nearest noble gas - Ne [2,8]

One carbon atom shares four electron pairs one with

each of the four atoms of chlorine such that chlorine
and carbon attain a stable octet configuration
resulting in the formation of four single covalent
bonds.

Methane : The valency of hydrogen element is 1 and

that of carbon is 4. Hydrogen needs one electron to
attain stable duplet structure of nearest noble gas
- He [2] and carbon needs four electrons to attain
stable octet structure of nearest noble gas - Ne
[2,8]

One carbon atom shares four electron pairs one with

each of the four atoms of hydrogen such that
hydrogen acquires a duplet configuration and carbon
an octet configuration resulting in the formation of
four single covalent bonds.

Polar Covalent Compounds

Polar Covalent Bond: A covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons is more
attracted to one atom due to a difference in electronegativity.

Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons. The greater the
difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond.

Examples:
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl):
H (electronegativity 2.1) and Cl (electronegativity
3.0) → Cl attracts electrons more strongly, creating
a dipole with a partially negative Cl and partially
positive H. Structure: H-Cl (polar covalent bond).
Water (H₂O):
O (electronegativity 3.5) and H (electronegativity 2.1) → O attracts
electrons more strongly, creating a dipole with a partially negative
O and partially positive H.
Structure: H-O-H (bent shape, polar).

Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds

State of Existence: Melting and Boiling Points: Generally low

Can exist as gases, liquids, or solids at compared to electrovalent compounds.
room temperature.
Due to weak intermolecular forces (Van der
Examples: Water (liquid), methane (gas), Waals forces or hydrogen bonding).
iodine (solid).
Example: Water has a high boiling point due
to hydrogen bonding, but methane has a low
Electrical and Heat Conductivity:
boiling point due to weak forces.
Non-conductors of electricity in any
state (solid, liquid, or solution) because
Ionization in Solution:
they do not have free ions or electrons.
Non-electrolytes in their molecular form
(do not dissociate into ions in solution).
Heat conductivity: Generally poor, as
the molecules are not as tightly packed
Some covalent compounds like acids (e.g.,
as in ionic compounds.
HCl in water) ionize into ions, but they do so
by breaking into molecules, not free ions.

Comparison of Electrovalent and Covalent Compounds

Electrovalent (Ionic) Covalent

Bond Formation : Electron transfer Bond Formation : Electron sharing (non-

(metal to non-metal) metals)
Structure : Molecules (individual units)
Structure : Crystal lattice of ions
State at Room Temperature : Solid,
State at Room Temperature : Solid
liquid, or gas
Melting/Boiling Points : High Melting/Boiling Points : Low to moderate
Electrical Conductivity : Conducts in Electrical Conductivity : Does not
molten/aqueous state conduct
Solubility in Water : Generally Solubility in Water : Solubility varies
soluble (polar compounds soluble)
Ionization in Solution : Forms ions Ionization in Solution : Usually does not
(electrolytes) form ions
Example : H₂O, CO₂, CH₄, HCl, NH₃
Example : NaCl, MgCl₂, CaO
Coordinate Bond
The bond formed between two atoms by sharing a pair of electrons
provided entirely by one of the combining atoms but shared by both is
called a coordinate bond or dative bond. Examples: Ammonium ion (NH4 + ),
hydronium ion (H3O + ) A coordinate bond has properties of both covalent
and ionic bonds. So, it is also called a co-ionic bond.

Lone pair of electrons: A pair of electrons which is not shared with any
other atom is known as a lone pair of electrons. It is provided to the other
atom for the formation of a coordinate bond.

Conditions for the formation of coordinate bond :

1. One of the two atoms must have at least one lone pair of electrons.
Examples: Ammonia (NH3), water (H2O)
2. Another atom should be short of at least one lone pair of electrons.
Example: Hydrogen ion (H+ )

Formation OF Hydronium Ion Formation OF Ammonium Ion

The hydronium ion is formed when a The ammonium ion is formed when an
water molecule (H₂O) accepts a ammonia molecule (NH₃) accepts a
proton (H⁺) from an acid. proton (H⁺).
Step 1: A water molecule (H₂O) Step 1: Ammonia (NH₃) consists
consists of one oxygen atom of one nitrogen (N) atom bonded
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. to three hydrogen atoms.
The oxygen atom has 6 valence Nitrogen has 5 valence
electrons, and each hydrogen electrons, and each hydrogen has
atom has 1 valence electron. 1 valence electron.

Step 2: A proton (H⁺), which is Step 2: A proton (H⁺) is donated

essentially a hydrogen atom by an acid (like HCl) and is
without an electron, is donated accepted by the lone pair of
by an acid (for example, HCl). electrons on the nitrogen atom of
the ammonia molecule.
Step 3: The proton (H⁺) bonds
with the lone pair of electrons on Step 3: The proton binds to the
the oxygen atom of the water nitrogen, forming the ammonium
molecule, forming the hydronium ion (NH₄⁺).
ion (H₃O⁺).
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
Which of the following compounds is an example of an electrovalent bond?
(a) HCl
(b) NaCl
(c) NH3
(d) CH4
Answer: (b) NaCl

Covalent bonding is based on:

(a) Transfer of electrons
(b) Sharing of electrons
(c) Loss of electrons
(d) Gain of electrons
Answer: (b) Sharing of electrons

What is a polar covalent bond?

(a) A bond with equal sharing of electrons
(b) A bond with unequal sharing of electrons
(c) A bond formed by transfer of electrons
(d) A bond involving coordinate bonding
Answer: (b) A bond with unequal sharing of electrons

Application
Identify the compound that exhibits a polar covalent bond:
(a) NaCl
(b) CH4
(c) H2O
(d) MgO
Answer: (c) H2O

Which property is common in electrovalent compounds?

(a) High melting and boiling points
(b) Poor conductivity in molten state
(c) Low dissociation in water
(d) Forming molecules, not ions
Answer: (a) High melting and boiling points

Explain why NH3 is a covalent compound:

(a) It involves transfer of electrons.
(b) Electrons are shared between nitrogen and hydrogen.
(c) It dissociates into ions in solution.
(d) It has ionic character.
Answer: (b) Electrons are shared between nitrogen and hydrogen.
Analysis
Which compound is more likely to have a higher melting point?
(a) CH4
(b) MgCl2
(c) HCl
(d) NH3
Answer: (b) MgCl2

The structure of H3O+ ion in water is an example of:

(a) Covalent bonding
(b) Electrovalent bonding
(c) Coordinate bonding
(d) Metallic bonding
Answer: (c) Coordinate bonding

Why does NaCl conduct electricity in molten state?

(a) Free ions are available to conduct electricity.
(b) It has delocalized electrons.
(c) Covalent bonds are broken.
(d) It forms polar molecules.
Answer: (a) Free ions are available to conduct electricity.
Understanding and Application
The electron dot structure of CH4 shows:
(a) Single bonds between carbon and hydrogen.
(b) Double bonds between carbon and hydrogen.
(c) Triple bonds between carbon and hydrogen.
(d) No bonds, only lone pairs.
Answer: (a) Single bonds between carbon and hydrogen.

Which of the following is true for covalent compounds?

(a) Conduct electricity in aqueous solutions.
(b) Have high melting and boiling points.
(c) Dissociate into ions in molten state.
(d) Are generally poor conductors of electricity.
Answer: (d) Are generally poor conductors of electricity.

Recall
What type of bond is present in CaO?
(a) Covalent
(b) Electrovalent
(c) Polar covalent
(d) Metallic
Answer: (b) Electrovalent
Identify the compound that is not covalent:
(a) CH4
(b) NaCl
(c) HCl
(d) NH3
Answer: (b) NaCl

Electron dot structure for ammonia (NH3) contains:

(a) Three lone pairs on nitrogen.
(b) Two lone pairs on nitrogen.
(c) One lone pair on nitrogen.
(d) No lone pairs.
Answer: (c) One lone pair on nitrogen.
Recall and Understanding
Which characteristic is incorrect for covalent compounds?
(a) Form molecules.
(b) Conduct electricity in molten state.
(c) Low melting and boiling points.
(d) Poor conductivity in aqueous solutions.
Answer: (b) Conduct electricity in molten state.

Why is NaCl soluble in water but CH4 is not?

(a) NaCl forms hydrogen bonds.
(b) Water dissolves ionic compounds easily.
(c) CH4 is polar, and water is non-polar.
(d) NaCl has a covalent bond.
Answer: (b) Water dissolves ionic compounds easily.

Application and Analysis

Compare the solubility of covalent and ionic compounds in water, using NaCl and
CH4 as examples.
(a) Both dissolve equally.
(b) Covalent compounds dissolve better.
(c) Ionic compounds dissolve better.
(d) Neither dissolves in water.
Answer: (c) Ionic compounds dissolve better.

In HCl, the bond is:

(a) Pure covalent.
(b) Polar covalent.
(c) Ionic.
(d) Coordinate.
Answer: (b) Polar covalent
Analysis and Application
Why does MgCl2 conduct electricity in water but CH4 does not?
(a) MgCl2 dissociates into ions in water.
(b) CH4 forms ions in solution.
(c) Both are covalent compounds.
(d) CH4 is polar and MgCl2 is non-polar.
Answer: (a) MgCl2 dissociates into ions in water.

The bond between oxygen and hydrogen in a water molecule is:

(a) Pure covalent.
(b) Polar covalent.
(c) Ionic.
(d) Coordinate.
Answer: (b) Polar covalent

Short Answer Type Quesions

Recall and Understanding
Define electrovalent bonding.
Solution: Electrovalent bonding is the chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of electrons
from one atom to another, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions.

Draw the electron dot structure of NaCl.

Solution:

What is a covalent bond?

Solution: A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by the mutual sharing of electron pairs between
two atoms to attain stability.

Give an example of a polar covalent bond and explain why it is polar.

Solution: Example: HCl. It is polar because chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen, causing an
uneven distribution of electrons.

Write the electron dot structure of a methane (CH₄) molecule.

Solution:
Understanding and Application
Why do electrovalent compounds conduct electricity in molten states but not in solid states?
Solution: In molten states, ions are free to move and carry electric current. In solid states, ions
are fixed in the lattice and cannot move.

How does the difference in electronegativity affect the polarity of covalent bonds?
Solution: Greater the difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms, higher the
polarity of the bond due to unequal electron sharing.

Compare the melting points of electrovalent and covalent compounds.

Solution: Electrovalent compounds have higher melting points due to strong ionic bonds,
whereas covalent compounds have lower melting points due to weaker intermolecular
forces.

Explain the formation of H₃O⁺ using the concept of coordinate bonding.

Solution: A water molecule donates a lone pair of electrons from its oxygen atom to bond with
an H⁺ ion, forming the hydronium ion (H₃O⁺).

Why does water (H₂O) have a higher boiling point than methane (CH₄)?
Solution: Water molecules exhibit strong hydrogen bonding, requiring more energy to break,
whereas methane has weak van der Waals forces.

Application
Predict whether MgCl₂ or CH₄ will conduct electricity in molten form. Justify your answer.
Solution: MgCl₂ will conduct electricity in molten form because it is an ionic compound and
dissociates into free ions, unlike CH₄.

Identify the type of bond present in NH₃ and explain its properties based on bonding.
Solution: NH₃ has covalent bonds. It has a low melting and boiling point and does not conduct
electricity as it does not dissociate into ions.

Why does HCl dissolve in water to form an acidic solution?

Solution: HCl is a polar covalent compound that ionizes in water to release H⁺ ions, making the
solution acidic.

Describe how CaO is formed from calcium and oxygen.

Solution: Calcium (Ca) loses two electrons to form Ca²⁺, while oxygen (O) gains two electrons to
form O²⁻. They combine to form CaO through ionic bonding.

Determine whether NH₄⁺ is an example of coordinate bonding. Explain.

Solution: Yes, NH₄⁺ is formed when NH₃ donates its lone pair of electrons to H⁺, forming a coordinate
bond.
Analysis
Why do covalent compounds have poor conductivity?
Solution: Covalent compounds do not produce free ions in solution or molten state, which are
necessary for conductivity.

Analyze the difference in structure between a polar and nonpolar covalent molecule.
Solution: Polar covalent molecules (e.g., H₂O) have uneven electron distribution due to
differences in electronegativity, while nonpolar molecules (e.g., CH₄) have symmetrical
electron distribution.

How does the structure of H₂O explain its high surface tension?
Solution: H₂O molecules form hydrogen bonds, creating a cohesive force at the surface that
results in high surface tension.

Compare the electrical conductivity of molten NaCl and aqueous NaCl solution.
Solution: Both molten and aqueous NaCl conduct electricity due to free ions; however, the
aqueous solution may have better ion mobility due to water as a solvent.

If the electronegativity difference between two atoms is 0.4, will the bond be polar or
nonpolar? Explain.
Solution: The bond will be nonpolar as the electronegativity difference is small, resulting in
nearly equal sharing of electrons.
 Acid, Bases and Salts
Definitions and Characteristics

Acids: Substances that release hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) in water. They turn blue
litmus red and have a pH < 7. Example: HCl (Hydrochloric acid) → HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻.

Bases: Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. They turn red
litmus blue and have a pH > 7. Example: NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) → NaOH →
Na⁺ + OH⁻.

Salts: Compounds formed by the replacement of hydrogen ions from an acid

with a metal or ammonium ion. Example: NaCl (Sodium chloride) → formed by
HCl + NaOH.

Ions present in mineral acids, alkalis and salts and their solutions
Mineral acids are inorganic acids that Alkalis are water-soluble bases that
release hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) when dissolved release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when
in water. These acids dissociate or ionize to dissolved in water.
form ions.
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Dissociation: NaOH→Na⁺+OH⁻ Sodium
Ionization: HCl→H⁺+Cl⁻ hydroxide dissociates to form sodium
In solution, H⁺ ions combine with water ions (Na⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
molecules to form hydronium ions
(H₃O⁺): H⁺+H₂O→H₃O⁺ Potassium Hydroxide (KOH):
Dissociation: KOH→K⁺+OH⁻
Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): Potassium hydroxide dissociates to
Ionization: H₂SO₄→2H⁺+SO₄²⁻ form potassium ions (K⁺) and
Sulfuric acid dissociates into two H⁺ ions hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
and one sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻).
Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂):
Nitric Acid (HNO₃): Dissociation: Ca(OH)₂→Ca²⁺+2OH⁻
Ionization: HNO₃→H⁺+NO₃⁻ Calcium hydroxide dissociates to
Nitric acid dissociates into H⁺ ions and form calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and
nitrate ions (NO₃⁻). hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

Salts are ionic compounds formed by the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base.
When dissolved in water, salts dissociate into their respective cations (positively charged ions)
and anions (negatively charged ions).
Sodium Chloride (NaCl):
Dissociation: NaCl→Na⁺+Cl⁻
Sodium chloride dissociates into sodium ions (Na⁺) and chloride ions (Cl⁻).

Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃):

Dissociation: KNO₃→K⁺+NO₃⁻
Potassium nitrate dissociates into potassium ions (K⁺) and nitrate ions (NO₃⁻).

Copper Sulfate (CuSO₄):

Dissociation: CuSO₄→Cu²⁺+SO₄²⁻
Copper sulfate dissociates into copper ions (Cu²⁺) and sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻).

Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO₄):

Dissociation: MgSO₄→Mg²⁺+SO₄²⁻
Magnesium sulfate dissociates into magnesium ions (Mg²⁺) and sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻).
Use of Litmus and pH Paper to Test for
Acidity and Alkalinity
Acids: Form hydronium ions
Litmus Paper Test: Litmus paper is a simple chemical
(H₃O⁺), which are positive ions.
indicator used to test whether a substance is acidic or
Turn blue litmus red.
alkaline.

Blue Litmus Paper: Alkalis: Form hydroxide ions

(OH⁻), which are negative ions.
Turns Red when exposed to an acid (pH < 7). Turn red litmus blue.
No Change in color when exposed to a neutral or
alkaline substance (pH ≥ 7).

Red Litmus Paper:

Turns Blue when exposed to an alkali (pH > 7).

No Change in color when exposed to a neutral or acidic
substance (pH ≤ 7).

pH Paper Test: pH paper is a more precise method to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Range: pH paper changes color depending on the pH value of the substance.

Acidic Solutions: pH < 7 (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar).
Neutral Solutions: pH = 7 (e.g., pure water).
Alkaline Solutions: pH > 7 (e.g., soap, sodium hydroxide).

Types Of Salts
Normal Salts:
Formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metal or
ammonium ions.
Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄).

Acid Salts:
Formed when only some of the replaceable hydrogen ions of the acid are replaced
by metal ions.
Example: Sodium bisulfate (NaHSO₄), Potassium hydrogen carbonate (KHCO₃).
Basic Salts:
Formed when some hydroxide ions (OH⁻) of the base are left unneutralized.
Example: Basic lead(II) acetate [Pb(OAc)₂(OH)].

Action of Dilute Acids on Salts

Acids react with salts to form a new salt and release gases, if applicable.

Action on Carbonates & Hydrogen Carbonates:

Carbonates react with dilute acids to produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas (CO₂).
Example: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Action on Sulphites:
Sulphites react with dilute acids to release sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas.
Example: Na2SO3 + 2HCl → NaCl + SO2 + H2O​

Action on Sulphides:
Sulphides react with acids to produce hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) gas.
Example: FeS + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2S
Methods of Preparation of Normal Salts
Direct Combination:
When an acid reacts directly with a base to form a salt.
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O.

Displacement:
A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt.
Example: CuSO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + Cu

Precipitation (Double Decomposition):

When two soluble salts react to form an insoluble salt (precipitate).
Example: BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl

Neutralization of Insoluble Base:

Insoluble base reacts with an acid to form a salt and water.
Example: CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

Neutralization of an Alkali (Titration):

A known concentration of acid is neutralized by a known concentration of alkali (base).
Example: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

Action of Dilute Acids on Carbonates and Bicarbonates:

Carbonates react with acids to produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide.
Bicarbonates also react with acids to release carbon dioxide.
Example (Carbonate): Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Example (Bicarbonate): NaHCO3 + HCl→ NaCl + H2O + CO2
Multiple Choice Questions
Recall and Understanding
Which ions are responsible for the acidic property of a solution?
(a) Hydroxide ions
(b) Hydronium ions
(c) Sodium ions
(d) Carbonate ions
Answer: (b) Hydronium ions

What color does blue litmus paper turn in an acidic solution?

(a) Blue
(b) Red
(c) Green
(d) Yellow
Answer: (b) Red

What is the pH range of acidic substances?

(a) 0-7
(b) 7-14
(c) 7
(d) None of these
Answer: (a) 0-7

Which salt is formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide?
(a) Sodium chloride
(b) Sodium carbonate
(c) Sodium sulphate
(d) Ammonium chloride
Answer: (a) Sodium chloride

Understanding
A neutral solution has a pH of:
(a) 0
(b) 7
(c) 14
(d) 5
Answer: (b) 7

Identify the correct reaction that represents the formation of a normal salt:
(a) Acid + Acid → Salt
(b) Base + Base → Salt
(c) Acid + Base → Salt + Water
(d) Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
Answer: (c) Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Which acid reacts with calcium carbonate to release carbon dioxide gas?
(a) Sulphuric acid
(b) Nitric acid
(c) Hydrochloric acid
(d) Phosphoric acid
Answer: (c) Hydrochloric acid

Application
If red litmus remains red and blue litmus turns red, the solution is:
(a) Neutral
(b) Basic
(c) Acidic
(d) None of these
Answer: (c) Acidic

When sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid, which gas is evolved?
(a) Hydrogen
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Oxygen
(d) Nitrogen
Answer: (b) Carbon dioxide

Which method of preparation is used to form a precipitate as a salt?

(a) Neutralization
(b) Precipitation
(c) Direct combination
(d) Displacement
Answer: (b) Precipitation

Analysis
Which of the following would not change the pH of pure water?
(a) Adding sodium hydroxide
(b) Adding hydrochloric acid
(c) Adding neutral salt
(d) Adding sulphuric acid
Answer: (c) Adding neutral salt

Which observation confirms the presence of sulphur dioxide gas during a reaction?
(a) Turns limewater milky
(b) Gives a pungent odor and turns potassium dichromate green
(c) Extinguishes a glowing splint
(d) Burns with a blue flame
Answer: (b) Gives a pungent odor and turns potassium dichromate green
Understanding and Application
Which type of salt is formed when the hydrogen of an acid is only partially replaced
by a metal?
(a) Normal salt
(b) Acid salt
(c) Basic salt
(d) Double salt
Answer: (b) Acid salt

How can the pH of a solution be increased?

(a) By adding an acid
(b) By adding a base
(c) By diluting with water
(d) By evaporating the solution
Answer: (b) By adding a base

Application and Analysis

Which of the following reactions demonstrates displacement?
(a) Cu + 2AgNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2Ag
(b) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O
(c) Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO₂ + H₂O
(d) 2KCl + H₂SO₄ → K₂SO₄ + 2HCl
Answer: (a) Cu + 2AgNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2Ag

Why do acids conduct electricity in aqueous solutions?

(a) They release free electrons.
(b) They release hydrogen gas.
(c) They dissociate into ions.
(d) They have low boiling points.
Answer: (c) They dissociate into ions.

Recall and Understanding

The pH of a strong acid will be:
(a) Close to 14
(b) Close to 0
(c) Close to 7
(d) Greater than 7
Answer: (b) Close to 0

A salt formed by neutralization of a strong acid and weak base will be:
(a) Acidic
(b) Basic
(c) Neutral
(d) Amphoteric
Answer: (a) Acidic
Understanding and Application
If a solution has a pH of 5, how can it be made neutral?
(a) By adding more of the solution
(b) By adding a base
(c) By adding water
(d) By adding an acid
Answer: (b) By adding a base

Which salt is formed when magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid?
(a) Magnesium chloride
(b) Magnesium sulphate
(c) Magnesium carbonate
(d) Magnesium nitrate
Answer: (b) Magnesium sulphate

Short Answer Type Quesions

Recall and Understanding
Define an acid and base according to the Arrhenius concept.
Solution: Acid: A substance that dissociates in water to produce hydronium ions
(H₃O⁺). Base: A substance that dissociates in water to produce hydroxyl ions (OH⁻).

What are the ions present in an aqueous solution of HCl? Write the equation for its
ionization.
Solution: In aqueous HCl, the ions present are H₃O⁺ (hydronium ion) and Cl⁻ (chloride
ion). Equation: HCl → H₃O⁺ + Cl⁻

What color does red litmus turn in an alkali?

Solution: Red litmus paper turns blue in the presence of an alkali (base).

Define salts and name the types of salts with one example each.
Solution: Salt: A compound formed when an acid reacts with a base and replaces the
hydrogen ion of the acid with a metal or another cation.
Types of salts:
Normal salt: NaCl (sodium chloride)
Acid salt: NaHSO₄ (sodium bisulfate)
Basic salt: Na₂CO₃ (sodium carbonate)

Write the reaction for the neutralization of NaOH with HCl.

Solution: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O

Understanding
Explain why acids are good conductors of electricity in aqueous solutions.
Solution: Acids dissociate in water to produce ions (H₃O⁺ and anions), and ions are
responsible for conducting electricity.
Describe how pH paper can be used to identify the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Solution: pH paper changes color depending on the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The color is
compared to a pH scale, where a pH less than 7 indicates acidity (red to yellow color), and a pH
greater than 7 indicates alkalinity (blue to purple color).

How does a hydronium ion (H₃O⁺) form in an aqueous acid solution?

Solution: In an aqueous solution, acids release H⁺ ions, which immediately combine with water
molecules to form hydronium ions (H₃O⁺). H⁺ + H₂O → H₃O⁺

What happens when blue litmus is dipped into a solution with a pH of 5? Explain.
Solution: A solution with a pH of 5 is acidic. Blue litmus paper turns red when dipped into an acidic
solution due to the presence of H₃O⁺ ions.

Why do alkalis turn red litmus blue?

Solution:Alkalis (bases) release hydroxyl ions (OH⁻) in solution, which react with the hydronium
ions (H₃O⁺) to decrease acidity, turning red litmus paper blue.

Application
Calculate the products formed when dilute HCl reacts with sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).
Solution: The reaction of HCl with Na₂CO₃ produces NaCl, H₂O, and CO₂ (carbon dioxide).
Equation: Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H₂O + CO₂↑

A salt solution turns blue litmus red. Identify the type of salt and explain your reasoning.
Solution: The salt is likely an acidic salt (e.g., ammonium chloride, NH₄Cl), which releases H₃O⁺
ions in solution, turning blue litmus paper red.

Predict the pH range of a solution formed when a strong acid is neutralized by a strong alkali.
Solution: The pH of the resulting solution will be 7, as the strong acid and strong alkali neutralize
each other completely to form water and salt.

If you dissolve NaOH in water, what will be the resulting ions? Write the dissociation equation.
Solution: When NaOH dissolves in water, it dissociates to form Na⁺ and OH⁻ ions.
Equation: NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻

A student adds hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate. Write the balanced chemical equation
and the products formed.
Solution: The reaction produces calcium chloride, water, and carbon dioxide.
Equation: CaCO₃ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂↑

Analysis
Compare the conductivity of acids and bases in water and explain the difference.
Solution: Acids and bases both conduct electricity due to the presence of ions. However, strong
acids and strong bases conduct better than weak ones because they ionize more completely in
water.
Differentiate between normal salts, acid salts, and basic salts with suitable examples.
Solution:
Normal salt: Formed from complete neutralization of an acid by a base (e.g., NaCl).
Acid salt: Formed from partial neutralization of a diprotic acid (e.g., NaHSO₄).
Basic salt: Formed when a base reacts with an acid, but not all hydrogen ions are replaced
(e.g., Na₂CO₃).

Why does the addition of a universal indicator to distilled water show a green color?
Solution: Distilled water is neutral (pH = 7), and the universal indicator shows green color at this
pH.

Analyze why certain salts, like ammonium chloride, make a solution acidic when dissolved in
water.
Solution: Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) dissociates to form NH₄⁺ ions, which hydrolyze to produce
H₃O⁺ ions, lowering the pH and making the solution acidic.

Explain why an acid reacts with a carbonate to release carbon dioxide but does not release it
when reacted with a chloride.
Solution: Acids react with carbonates (e.g., Na₂CO₃) to release CO₂ because of the decomposition
reaction. Chlorides (e.g., NaCl) do not undergo this reaction because they do not release CO₂
when combined with an acid.
 Analytical Chemistry
Action of Ammonium Hydroxide and Sodium Hydroxide on Solutions of Salts

Colour of Salt and Its Solution:

The colour of a salt solution depends on the metal ion present.

Ca²⁺: Colourless solution (Calcium salts).

Fe²⁺: Light green solution (Iron(II) salts).
Fe³⁺: Yellow or brown solution (Iron(III) salts).
Cu²⁺: Blue solution (Copper(II) salts).
Zn²⁺: Colourless solution (Zinc salts).
Pb²⁺: Colourless solution (Lead(II) salts).

Action of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):

Calcium (Ca²⁺):
Add NaOH → White precipitate of Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), which is sparingly
soluble and forms a milky solution.
Ca2+ + 2OH −→ Ca(OH)2 (white precipitate)

Iron(III) (Fe³⁺):
Add NaOH → Brown precipitate of Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)₃).
Fe3+ +3OH −→ Fe(OH)3 (brown precipitate)

Copper(II) (Cu²⁺):
Add NaOH → Blue precipitate of Copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)₂).
Cu2+ + 2OH −→ Cu(OH)2 (blue precipitate)

Zinc (Zn²⁺):
Add NaOH → White precipitate of Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)₂), which dissolves in
excess NaOH to form a colourless solution.
Zn2+ + 2OH−→ Zn(OH)2 (white precipitate)
In excess NaOH: Zn(OH)2 + 2OH −→ [Zn(OH)4] 2− (colourless solution)

Lead (Pb²⁺):
Add NaOH → White precipitate of Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)₂), which dissolves in
excess NaOH to form a colourless solution.
Pb2+ + 2OH−→ Pb (OH)2 (white precipitate)
In excess NaOH: Pb(OH)2 + 2OH −→ [Pb(OH)4]2 − (colourless solution)
Action of Ammonium Hydroxide on Solutions of Salts
Calcium (Ca²⁺):
Calcium salts (e.g., CaCl₂, Ca(NO₃)₂) do not form a precipitate with ammonium
hydroxide because calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) is slightly soluble in water, and
the solution remains colourless.
Reaction: Ca2+ + 2NH4OH→Ca(OH)2 (colourless solution)

Iron(II) (Fe²⁺):
Iron(II) salts (e.g., FeSO₄) react with ammonium hydroxide to form green
precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)₂).
Reaction: Fe2+ + 2NH4OH→ Fe(OH)2 (green precipitate)
Excess NH₄OH: No further reaction, as Fe(OH)₂ is not soluble in excess NH₄OH.

Iron(III) (Fe³⁺):
Iron(III) salts (e.g., FeCl₃) react with ammonium hydroxide to form brown
precipitate of Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)₃).
Reaction: Fe3+ + 3NH4OH→ Fe(OH)3 (brown precipitate)

Copper(II) (Cu²⁺):
Copper(II) salts (e.g., CuSO₄) react with ammonium hydroxide to form blue
precipitate of Copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)₂).
Reaction: Cu2+ + 2NH4OH→Cu(OH)2 (blue precipitate)
Excess NH₄OH: The blue precipitate dissolves in excess NH₄OH to form a deep
blue solution due to the formation of tetraammine copper(II) complex:
Cu(OH)2 + 4NH4OH→ [Cu(NH₄)₄]2+ (deep blue solution)

Zinc (Zn²⁺):
Zinc salts (e.g., ZnSO₄) react with ammonium hydroxide to form white
precipitate of Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)₂).
Reaction: Zn2+ + 2NH4OH→Zn(OH)2 (white precipitate)
Excess NH₄OH: The white precipitate dissolves in excess ammonium hydroxide
to form a colourless solution:
Zn(OH)2 + 2NH4OH→ [Zn(NH₄)₂]2+ (colourless solution)

Lead (Pb²⁺):
Lead salts (e.g., Pb(NO₃)₂) react with ammonium hydroxide to form white
precipitate of Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)₂).
Reaction: Pb2+ + 2NH4OH → Pb(OH)2 (white precipitate)
Excess NH₄OH: The white precipitate dissolves in excess ammonium hydroxide
to form a colourless solution due to the formation of the tetraammine lead(II)
complex: Pb(OH)2 + 2NH4OH→ [Pb(NH₄)₄]2+ (colourless solution)
Special Actions of Ammonium Hydroxide on Copper Salts:
Copper(II) salts (e.g., CuSO₄) form a blue precipitate of Copper(II) hydroxide
(Cu(OH)₂) when ammonium hydroxide is added.
On adding excess ammonium hydroxide, the blue precipitate dissolves, forming
a deep blue solution due to the formation of the tetraammine copper(II)
complex.
Reaction with excess NH₄OH: Cu(OH)2 + 4NH4OH → [Cu(NH₄)₄]2+ (deep
blue solution)

Special Actions of Sodium Hydroxide on Ammonium Salts:

Ammonium salts (e.g., NH₄Cl) react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form
ammonia gas (NH₃), water, and a salt (e.g., NaCl).
Reaction: NH4Cl + NaOH→ NaCl+ NH3(g). + H2O
Ammonia gas produced can be tested by its distinct odor and by its ability to
turn red litmus paper blue.

Action of alkalis (NaOH, KOH) on certain metals, their oxides and hydroxides.
Amphoteric substances are those that can react both as acids and bases. In the
case of Aluminium (Al), Zinc (Zn), and Lead (Pb), their oxides and hydroxides are
amphoteric, meaning they can react with both acids and bases to form soluble
salts.

Aluminium (Al): Reaction with KOH:

Reaction with NaOH 2Al + 2KOH + 6H2O →2K [Al(OH)4] +
2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O→ 2Na 3H2
[Al(OH)4] 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O Result: Aluminium reacts with KOH
Result: Aluminium reacts with strong and water to form potassium
alkalis to form sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (K[Al(OH)₄])
tetrahydroxoaluminate (Na[Al(OH)₄]), and hydrogen gas.
releasing hydrogen gas.

Zinc (Zn):
Reaction with KOH:
Reaction with NaOH:
Zn + 2KOH + 2H2O → K2 [Zn(OH)4] + H2
Zn + 2NaOH + 2H2O → Na2[Zn(OH)4]
Result: Zinc reacts with KOH to form
Result: Zinc reacts with alkalis to form
potassium zincate (K₂[Zn(OH)₄]) and
sodium zincate (Na₂[Zn(OH)₄]), releasing
hydrogen gas.
hydrogen gas.

Lead (Pb):
Reaction with KOH:
Reaction with NaOH:
Pb + 2KOH + 2H2O →K2 [Pb(OH)4] +H2
Pb + 2NaOH + 2H2O → Na2[Pb(OH)4]
Result: Lead reacts with KOH to form
Result: Lead reacts with alkalis to
potassium plumbate (K₂[Pb(OH)₄]) and
form sodium plumbate (Na₂[Pb(OH)₄]),
hydrogen gas.
releasing hydrogen gas
Action of Alkalis on Metal Oxides
Aluminium Oxide (Al₂O₃): Reaction with KOH:
Reaction with NaOH: Al2O3 + 2KOH + 3H2O → 2K[Al(OH)4]
Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O Result: Aluminium oxide reacts with KOH to
→ 2Na [Al(OH)4] form potassium tetrahydroxoaluminate,
Result: Aluminium oxide dissolves in
sodium hydroxide to form sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate,

Zinc Oxide (ZnO): Reaction with KOH:

Reaction with NaOH: ZnO + 2KOH + H2O →K2[Zn(OH)4]
ZnO + 2NaOH + H2O Result: Zinc oxide reacts with KOH to
→Na2[Zn(OH)4] form potassium zincate,
Result: Zinc oxide reacts with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium zincate.
Reaction with KOH:
Lead Oxide (PbO):
PbO + 2KOH + H2O →K2[Pb(OH)4]
Reaction with NaOH:
Result: Lead oxide reacts with KOH to form
PbO + 2NaOH + H2O →
potassium plumbate,
Na2[Pb(OH)4]
Result: Lead oxide reacts with
sodium hydroxide to form sodium
plumbate, showing its amphoteric
nature.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
What is the color of the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added drop by drop to a
solution of iron(III) chloride?
a) Green
b) Brown
c) Blue
d) White
Answer: b) Brown

Which of the following ions is responsible for the formation of a blue precipitate when ammonium
hydroxide is added to copper(II) sulfate solution?
a) Cu²⁺
b) Fe²⁺
c) Pb²⁺
d) Zn²⁺
Answer: a) Cu²⁺

What is the color of the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of zinc
sulfate in excess?
a) White
b) Yellow
c) Blue
d) Green
Answer: a) White

What is the effect of ammonium hydroxide on a solution of lead(II) nitrate?

a) No precipitate forms
b) A white precipitate forms
c) A yellow precipitate forms
d) A red precipitate forms
Answer: b) A white precipitate forms

Which of the following metal hydroxides is amphoteric?

a) Magnesium hydroxide
b) Zinc hydroxide
c) Calcium hydroxide
d) Iron(III) hydroxide
Answer: b) Zinc hydroxide
Application
What color is the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added drop by drop to a solution of
calcium chloride?
a) White
b) Brown
c) Blue
d) Green
Answer: a) White

What is formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with lead(II) oxide?

a) Lead(II) hydroxide
b) Lead(IV) hydroxide
c) Lead(II) oxide precipitate
d) Lead(IV) oxide
Answer: a) Lead(II) hydroxide

What is the result when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of copper(II) sulfate?
a) Green precipitate forms
b) Blue precipitate forms
c) White precipitate forms
d) No precipitate forms
Answer: d) No precipitate forms

When sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of aluminum chloride, what is the color of the
precipitate formed?
a) White
b) Green
c) Blue
d) Brown
Answer: a) White

What happens when sodium hydroxide reacts with lead(II) acetate?

a) White precipitate of lead(II) acetate forms
b) No precipitate forms
c) Yellow precipitate of lead(II) acetate forms
d) White precipitate of lead(II) hydroxide forms
Answer: d) White precipitate of lead(II) hydroxide forms

Analysis
What is the product formed when sodium hydroxide is added to zinc oxide in excess?
a) Zinc hydroxide
b) Zinc oxide
c) Zinc nitrate
d) Zinc acetate
Answer: a) Zinc hydroxide
What is the effect of ammonium hydroxide on a solution of ferric chloride?
a) Yellow precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide forms
b) Brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide forms
c) No precipitate forms
d) Blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide forms
Answer: b) Brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide forms

Which of the following salts does not form a precipitate when treated with ammonium hydroxide?
a) Zinc sulfate
b) Copper sulfate
c) Calcium chloride
d) Lead nitrate
Answer: c) Calcium chloride

What is the result when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate?
a) Brown precipitate forms
b) Blue precipitate forms
c) White precipitate forms
d) Green precipitate forms
Answer: a) Brown precipitate forms

When sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of aluminum chloride, what is the result?
a) White precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
b) Blue precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
c) No precipitate forms
d) Yellow precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
Answer: a) White precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms

Understanding and Application

What is formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with zinc oxide?
a) Zinc hydroxide
b) Zinc oxide
c) Zinc nitrate
d) Zinc acetate
Answer: a) Zinc hydroxide

What happens when sodium hydroxide reacts with a solution of aluminum chloride?
a) White precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
b) No precipitate forms
c) Blue precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
d) Yellow precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
Answer: a) White precipitate of aluminum hydroxide forms
Application and Analysis
What is the color of the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of
copper(II) chloride?
a) Blue
b) Green
c) White
d) Yellow
Answer: a) Blue

When ammonium hydroxide is added to a solution of copper sulfate, what is the color of the
precipitate formed?
a) Yellow
b) Blue
c) Brown
d) White
Answer: b) Blue

Recall and Understanding

What is the effect of ammonium hydroxide on a solution of zinc chloride?
a) Yellow precipitate of zinc hydroxide forms
b) White precipitate of zinc hydroxide forms
c) Blue precipitate of zinc hydroxide forms
d) No precipitate forms
Answer: b) White precipitate of zinc hydroxide forms

Short Answer Type Quesions

Recall
Q1: What is the colour of a copper salt solution?
A1: Blue.

Q2: Which metal hydroxides dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide, indicating amphoteric nature?
A2: Aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, and lead hydroxide.

Understanding
Q3: Explain why calcium hydroxide does not dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide.
A3: Calcium hydroxide is not amphoteric and is only sparingly soluble in water, forming a
precipitate in excess sodium hydroxide.

Q4: What is observed when ammonium hydroxide is added dropwise to a zinc salt solution?
A4: A white precipitate of zinc hydroxide forms, which dissolves in excess ammonium hydroxide to
form a colorless solution.
Application
Q5: Write a balanced equation for the reaction of lead oxide with sodium hydroxide.
A5: PbO+2NaOH→Na2PbO2+H2O
(Lead oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium plumbite and water.)

Q6: How would you distinguish between a solution of iron(II) chloride and copper(II) sulphate using
sodium hydroxide?
A6: Iron(II) chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide to form a green precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide.
Copper(II) sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form a blue precipitate of copper(II)
hydroxide.

Analysis
Q7: A solution forms a blue precipitate when treated with ammonium hydroxide. Identify the cation
and explain the reaction.
A7: The cation is Cu2+ (Copper(II)).
Reaction: Cu2++2OH−→Cu(OH)2 (blue precipitate)

Q8: Why do amphoteric oxides react with both acids and bases? Explain using aluminium oxide as
an example.
A8: Amphoteric oxides like aluminium oxide have dual characteristics and can act as both acidic
and basic oxides.
With acids: Al2O3+6HCl→2AlCl3+3H2O
With bases: Al2O3+2NaOH+3H2O→2NaAl(OH)4

Understanding and Application

Q9: What is the special reaction observed when ammonium hydroxide is added to a copper salt
solution in excess? Write the equation.
A9: A deep blue solution of tetraammine copper(II) complex forms.
Equation: Cu(OH)2+4NH3→[Cu(NH3)4]2++2OH−

Q10: A salt solution gives a white precipitate with sodium hydroxide but no precipitate with
ammonium hydroxide. Identify the metal ion and justify your answer.
A10: The metal ion is Ca2+
Justification: Calcium hydroxide precipitates with sodium hydroxide but does not react with
ammonium hydroxide.

Application and Analysis

Q11: Write the ionic equation for the reaction of zinc hydroxide with excess sodium hydroxide.
A11: Zn(OH)2+2OH− →[Zn(OH)4]2−

Q12: Why does sodium hydroxide react with ammonium salts to release ammonia gas?
A12: Sodium hydroxide reacts with ammonium salts to form ammonia gas because it liberates NH3​
during neutralization:
NH4Cl+NaOH→NH3+NaCl+H2O
Recall and Understanding
Q13: Define an amphoteric substance and give two examples.
A13: An amphoteric substance can react with both acids and bases. Examples: Aluminium oxide
(Al2O3​) band zinc oxide (ZnO).

Q14: What is the colour of the precipitate formed when iron(III) chloride reacts with ammonium
hydroxide?
A14: Reddish-brown.

Recall
Q15: List the hydroxides that remain insoluble in excess ammonium hydroxide.
A15: Calcium hydroxide, iron(II) hydroxide, iron(III) hydroxide, and lead hydroxide.

Q16: Which hydroxide gives a green precipitate when treated with sodium hydroxide?
A16: Iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)2​).

Analysis and Application

Q17: Explain the reaction between lead hydroxide and excess sodium hydroxide. Write the balanced
equation.
A17: Lead hydroxide dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form sodium plumbite:
Pb(OH)2+2NaOH→Na2PbO2+2H2O

Q18: How can you identify the presence of copper ions in a solution using ammonium hydroxide?
A18: Add ammonium hydroxide. A blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide forms initially, which
dissolves in excess ammonium hydroxide to give a deep blue solution of tetraammine copper(II)
complex.

Recall and Understanding

Q19: Why does zinc oxide dissolve in both sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid?
A19: Zinc oxide is amphoteric, so it reacts with acids and bases.
With acids: ZnO+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2O
With bases: ZnO+2NaOH+H2O→[Zn(OH)4]2−

Q20: Name a metal hydroxide that dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide but remains insoluble in
ammonium hydroxide.
A20: Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2​).
 Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
Gay Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes and Avogadro’s Law

Mathematical Expression: V∝n(at constant

Avogadro's Law : Avogadro’s T and P)
Law states that equal Where:
volumes of all gases at the V = Volume of the gas
same temperature and n = Number of moles of gas
pressure contain an equal T = Temperature
number of molecules. P = Pressure

This means that, at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of gas is
directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present. The number of
molecules in a gas is related to its volume.

Mole:
A mole is a unit used to express the amount of substance.
1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules (Avogadro’s number).
This is similar to a dozen (12 items), but instead of 12, there are 6.022 × 10²³
entities in a mole (molecules, atoms, ions, etc.).

Gay Lussac’s Law of Mathematical Expression: V1/V2 = n1/ n2

Combining Volumes Where:
V₁ and V₂ are the volumes of the
Gay Lussac’s Law of Combining
reacting gases.
Volumes states that when gases
n₁ and n₂ are the number of moles of the
react together at constant
gases.
temperature and pressure, the
volumes of the reacting gases and the
volumes of the products (if gaseous)
are in simple whole number ratios.

Explanation:
If two or more gases react, the ratio of their volumes is a simple whole number.
Example: For the reaction between hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) to form water
(H₂O): 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
2 volumes of H₂ react with 1 volume of O₂ to give 2 volumes of H₂O (if water is
in gaseous state).
The volumes of gases involved in chemical reactions are often in simple ratios,
like 1:2, 2:3, 3:1, etc.
Molar Volume
Molar Volume is the volume occupied by Example:
1 mole of any gas at Standard For any gas like oxygen (O₂), nitrogen
Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P.). (N₂), or carbon dioxide (CO₂), if you
S.T.P. is defined as : Temperature = have 1 mole of gas at S.T.P., it will
0°C (273 K) occupy 22.4 liters of volume.
Pressure = 1 atm This can be used to calculate the
mass of the gas if the molar mass is
Molar Volume at S.T.P.: known.
The molar volume of any ideal gas at Mass of 22.4 L of a gas at S.T.P. =
S.T.P. is 22.4 liters. Molar Mass of the Gas
This means that 1 mole of any gas at
S.T.P. will occupy a volume of 22.4
liters.
Atomicity of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Chlorine

Atomicity refers to the number of atoms present in a molecule of an element.

Atomicity of Hydrogen (H₂): Atomicity of Oxygen (O₂):

Hydrogen exists as a diatomic Oxygen is diatomic (O₂) in nature.
molecule (H₂), meaning it has two Formation of NO (Nitric oxide):
atoms per molecule. O2+2N→2NO
Formation of HCl (Hydrochloric acid): Oxygen reacts with nitrogen to form
H2+Cl2→2HCl NO (Nitric oxide). Therefore, oxygen
Each H₂ molecule combines with Cl₂ exists as O₂.
to form HCl. Hence, hydrogen is
diatomic in nature.

Atomicity of Nitrogen (N₂): Atomicity of Chlorine (Cl₂):

Nitrogen exists as a diatomic Chlorine exists as a diatomic
molecule (N₂). molecule (Cl₂).
Formation of NH₃ (Ammonia): Formation of HCl: H2+Cl2→2HCl
N2+3H2→2NH3 Chlorine is diatomic, combining with
Two N₂ molecules react with H₂ to hydrogen to form HCl.
form NH₃. Thus, nitrogen is diatomic.

Vapour Density and Its Relation to Relative Molecular Mass

Vapour density is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of a gas to the mass
of the same volume of hydrogen (at the same temperature and pressure).
Vapour Density (VD) is directly related to the molecular mass (M) of the
substance.
Molecular mass (M) = 2 × Vapour density : Formula: M=2×VD
If the vapour density of a gas is 32, then: Molecular mass=2×32=64
Deduction of Empirical and Molecular Formula
Empirical Formula : The empirical formula represents the simplest whole-number
ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.

Steps to Calculate the Empirical Formula

(a) From Percentage Composition

1.Write the given percentage composition of elements as their respective masses
(assume 100 g sample).
Example: 40% Carbon → 40 g Carbon.

2.Divide the mass of each element by its molar mass to find moles.
Example: Moles of Carbon=40/12

3.Divide all mole values by the smallest number of moles to find the simplest
ratio.

4. If the ratio is not a whole number, multiply by a suitable factor to make it whole.

(b) From Masses of Combining Elements

1. Convert the given masses of elements into moles by dividing by their molar
masses.
2. Follow steps 3 and 4 as above to determine the simplest ratio.

Molecular Formula
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a
compound.

Steps to Calculate the Molecular Formula

1. Find the empirical formula mass (sum of atomic masses in the empirical formula).
2. Use the relationship: n=Molecular Mass (given)/Empirical Formula Mass
3. Multiply the empirical formula by nnn to get the molecular formula.

Example : Compound with 40% Carbon, 6.7% Hydrogen, and 53.3% Oxygen. Molar mass =
180 g/mol.
Step 1: Assume 100 g of compound.
C = 40 g, H = 6.7 g, O = 53.3 g.
Step 2: Calculate moles:
C: 40/12=3.33 H: 6.7/1 =6.7 , O: 53.3/16=3.33
Step 3: Divide by the smallest value:
C: 3.33/3.33=1, H: 6.7/3.33≈2 , O: 3.33/3.33=1.
Empirical formula = CH2O
Step 4: Molecular formula:
Empirical formula mass = 12+2(1)+16=30
n=180/30=6

Molecular Formula:
Multiply the empirical formula by n:
Molecular Formula=(CH2O)×6=C6H12O6
Mole and Its Relation to Mass
Relating Mole to Atomic Mass
Atomic Mass: The mass of one atom of an element (measured in atomic mass
units, amu).
Example: Atomic mass of Carbon = 12 u.
Gram Atomic Mass: The mass of one mole of atoms of an element (measured in
grams).
1 mole of atoms = 6.022×10^22 atoms (Avogadro's number).
Example: Gram atomic mass of Carbon = 12 g.
Gram Atom: The amount of an element in grams equivalent to its gram atomic
mass.

Relating Mole to Molecular Mass

Molecular Mass: The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.
Example: Molecular mass of H2​O = (2×1)+16=18 u
Gram Molecular Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance (measured in
grams).
Example: Gram molecular mass of H2O = 18 g.
Gram Molecule: The amount of a compound in grams equivalent to its gram
molecular mass.
Relating Mole to Volume and Avogadro’s Number
Relation to Mass: Mass of substance (g)=Moles×Gram Atomic/Molecular
Mass
Relation to Volume: At STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure), 1 mole of a
gas occupies 22.4 L.
Volume of gas (L)=Moles×22.4
Relation to Avogadro’s Number: Number of particles = Moles × 6.022 × 10^23

Simple Calculations Based on Chemical Equations

Steps to Solve Problems:

1. Write the balanced chemical equation.
2. Identify the molar ratio of reactants and products.
3. Use the formula: Mass=Moles×Molar Mass. OR Volume of gas (at
STP)=Moles × 22.4
Example Calculation

Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Given: 4 g of Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen. Find the mass of water formed.
Step 1: Molar mass of H2​= 2 g/mol, H2O = 18 g/mol.
Step 2: Calculate moles of H2​:
Moles of H2=Mass/Molar Mass=4/2=2 moles
Step 3: Use molar ratio from the equation (2:2).
Moles of H2O formed = 2 moles.
Step 4: Calculate mass of H2​O: Mass of H2O=Moles×Molar Mass=2×18=36 g.
Multiple Choice Questions
Recall
Q1: What is the mass of 1 mole of hydrogen atoms?
(a) 1 g
(b) 2 g
(c) 16 g
(d) 18 g
Answer: (a) 1 g
Recall
Q2: How many molecules are present in 2 moles of oxygen gas (O2_22​)?
(a) 6.022×10^23
(b) 1.204×10^24
(c) 3.011×10^23
(d) 2.408×10^24
Answer: (b) 1.204×10^24
Recall and Understanding
Q3: Which statement is true about Avogadro’s number?
(a) It is the number of molecules in 1 gram of a substance.
(b) It is the number of atoms in 1 mole of a substance.
(c) It is equal to 22.4 at STP.
(d) It is a unit of mass.
Answer: (b) It is the number of atoms in 1 mole of a substance.
Understanding
Q4: What is the molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO2_22​)?
(a) 32 u
(b) 28 u
(c) 44 u
(d) 16 u
Answer: (c) 44 u
Application
Q5: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of NaCl (Molar mass = 58.5 g/mol).
(a) 58.5 g
(b) 29.25 g
(c) 117 g
(d) 27.75 g
Answer: (b) 29.25 g
Analysis and Application
Q6: If 1 mole of oxygen gas (O2) occupies 22.4 L at STP, what volume would 0.75 moles of O2 occupy?
(a) 11.2 L
(b) 16.8 L
(c) 18.6 L
(d) 22.4 L
Answer: (b) 16.8 L
Recall
Q7: The atomic mass of magnesium is 24 u. What is the mass of 1 atom of magnesium?
(a) 24×10^−23
(b) 4.0×10^−23
(c) 1.0×10^−24
(d) 2.4×10^−23
Answer: (b) 4.0×10^−23
Recall and Understanding
Q8: What is the gram molecular mass of H2SO4?
(a) 49 g
(b) 98 g
(c) 100 g
(d) 120 g
Answer: (b) 98 g
Understanding and Application
Q9: How many moles of a substance are there in 36 g of water (H2_22​O)? (Molar mass = 18 g/mol)
(a) 1 mole
(b) 2 moles
(c) 0.5 moles
(d) 3 moles
Answer: (b) 2 moles
Analysis and Application
Q10: In the reaction: 2H2+O2→2H2O
If 4 g of hydrogen reacts completely, what is the mass of water formed?
(a) 36 g
(b) 18 g
(c) 72 g
(d) 9 g
Answer: (a) 36 g
Understanding
Q11: The molar volume of a gas at STP is:
(a) 22.4 cm3^33
(b) 224 L
(c) 22.4 L
(d) 2.24 L
Answer: (c) 22.4 L
Application
Q12: Calculate the number of moles in 88 g of CO2_22​(Molar mass = 44 g/mol).
(a) 1 mole
(b) 2 moles
(c) 3 moles
(d) 4 moles
Answer: (b) 2 moles
Analysis and Application
Q13: A sample of gas occupies 44.8 L at STP. How many moles of gas are present?
(a) 0.5 moles
(b) 1 mole
(c) 2 moles
(d) 3 moles
Answer: (c) 2 moles
Recall and Understanding
Q14: If 1 mole of N2 gas contains 6.022×10^23 molecules, how many atoms does it contain?
(a) 6.022×10^23
(b) 1.204×10^24
(c) 3.011×10^23
(d) 2.408×10^24
Answer: (b) 1.204×1024
Recall
Q15: Which of the following is equivalent to 1 mole of gas at STP?
(a) 12 g of Carbon
(b) 32 g of Oxygen
(c) 1 g of Hydrogen
(d) 1 L of water vapor
Answer: (b) 32 g of Oxygen
Analysis
Q16: Which statement is correct regarding gram molecular mass?
(a) It is the number of molecules in 1 mole of a compound.
(b) It is the mass of 1 molecule of a compound.
(c) It is the mass of 1 mole of a compound.
(d) It is always equal to 12 g.
Answer: (c) It is the mass of 1 mole of a compound.
Recall and Understanding
Q17: What is the mass of 0.25 moles of SO2_22​(Molar mass = 64 g/mol)?
(a) 16 g
(b) 24 g
(c) 32 g
(d) 8 g
Answer: (a) 16 g
Analysis and Application
Q18: In the reaction:
C+O2→CO2
If 12 g of Carbon reacts with 32 g of Oxygen, how many moles of CO2_22​are formed?
(a) 1 mole
(b) 2 moles
(c) 0.5 moles
(d) 3 moles
Answer: (a) 1 mole
Application
Q19: What is the volume occupied by 0.5 moles of Nitrogen gas (N2_22​) at STP?
(a) 11.2 L
(b) 22.4 L
(c) 5.6 L
(d) 2.24 L
Answer: (a) 11.2 L
Recall
Q20: What is Avogadro's number?
(a) 6.022×10^23
(b) 3.011×10^23
(c) 1.204×10^24
(d) 22.4×10^23
Answer: (a) 6.022×10^23

Numericals
Q1: Calculate the mass of 2 moles of oxygen gas (O2).
(Molar mass of O2= 32 g/mol)
Answer: 64 g

Q2: How many moles are present in 54 g of water (H2O)?

(Molar mass of H2O = 18 g/mol)
Answer: 3 moles

Q3: Calculate the number of molecules in 2 moles of nitrogen gas (N2).

(Avogadro’s number = 6.022×10^23)
Answer: 1.204×10^24

Q4: What volume will 0.5 moles of CO2 gas occupy at STP?
(Molar volume at STP = 22.4 L)
Answer: 11.2 L

Q5: How many grams are there in 0.25 moles of sodium chloride (NaCl)?
(Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g/mol)
Answer: 14.625 g

Q6: Find the mass of 1 atom of carbon.

(Atomic mass = 12 u; 1 u=1.66×10^ −24 g)
Answer: 1.992×10^ −23

Q7: Calculate the number of moles in 1.2 kg of H22SO4

(Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol)

Q8: How many atoms are there in 3 moles of hydrogen gas (H2)?
Answer: 3.613×10^24
Q9: Calculate the molar mass of Na2​SO4.
(Na = 23 u, S = 32 u, O = 16 u)
Answer: 142 g/mol

Q10: How many liters will 0.75 moles of oxygen gas (O2) occupy at STP?
Answer: 16.8 L

Q11: Calculate the number of moles in 44.8 L of methane gas (CH4) at STP.
Answer: 2 moles

Q12: What is the mass of 0.1 mole of CaCO3?

(Molar mass of CaCO3 = 100 g/mol)

Q13: In the reaction:

C+O2→CO2
If 6 g of carbon reacts with oxygen, what mass of CO2​is formed?
(Molar mass: C = 12 g/mol, O2 = 32 g/mol, CO2 = 44 g/mol)
Answer: 22 g

Q14: Calculate the volume of 10 g of hydrogen gas at STP.

(Molar mass of H2​= 2 g/mol)
Answer: 112 L

Q15: If 5 moles of N2 react with H2 to form NH3​, how many moles of NH3 are produced?
Reaction: N2+3H2→2NH3
Answer: 10 moles

Q16: Find the number of moles in 24 g of oxygen gas.

(Molar mass of O2​= 32 g/mol)
Answer: 0.75 moles

Q17: What is the mass of 0.5 moles of HCl?

(Molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g/mol)
Answer: 18.25 g

Q18: Calculate the number of molecules in 3.6 g of water.

(Molar mass of H2​O = 18 g/mol)
Answer: 1.204×10^23

Q19: How many moles are in 9.8 g of H2SO4​?

(Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol)
Answer: 0.1 moles

Q20: If 0.2 moles of oxygen gas react with hydrogen gas, how many moles of water are formed?
Reaction:
O2+2H2→2H2O
Answer: 0.4 moles
Electrolysis
Electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity
when dissolved in water or in molten form. They
dissociate into ions (charged particles) that carry
electrical charge.

Non-electrolytes are substances that do not conduct

electricity when dissolved in water because they do
not dissociate into ions.
Examples: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), Urea (NH₂CONH₂),
Alcohols (C₂H₅OH)

Substances Containing Molecules Strong Electrolytes: These completely

Only, Ions Only, and Both Molecules dissociate into ions in solution.
and Ions E.g., Sodium chloride (NaCl), Potassium
nitrate (KNO₃), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
Substances Containing
Molecules Only : These Weak Electrolytes: These only partially
substances are made up of dissociate into ions in solution.
neutral molecules, not ions, and E.g., Acetic acid (CH₃COOH), Ammonium
do not dissociate into ions when hydroxide (NH₄OH)
dissolved in water. Examples:
Non-electrolytes Water-
insoluble substances like
glucose, urea, and alcohol.
Behavior: They do not conduct
electricity in solution since there
are no ions present to carry
charge.

Substances Containing Ions Only : These substances are made up entirely of

ions (positively and negatively charged particles). Examples: Strong
Electrolytes: Salts like NaCl, KCl, and H₂SO₄, which are present in ionic form in
water. Water-insoluble substances like glucose, urea, and alcohol. Behavior:
They can conduct electricity because they consist of free-moving ions in
solution.

Substances Containing Both Molecules and Ions : Some substances contain both
molecules and ions in their structure, especially when they dissolve in water or
undergo chemical reactions. Examples: Weak Electrolytes: Acids like H₂CO₃
(carbonic acid) and CH₃COOH (acetic acid), where only a fraction of the
molecules dissociate into ions. Behavior: Only some of the molecules break
apart into ions, leading to weak electrical conduction. In acetic acid, for
example, only a small fraction of the molecules dissociate into acetate ions
and hydrogen ions, making it a weak electrolyte.
Electrolysis and Related Terms
Electrolysis : t is the process of decomposition of a chemical compound in
aqueous solution or in a molten state, accompanied by a chemical change using
direct current.
Electrodes : The graphite, metal plates or gas carbon rods immersed in the
electrolyte through which current enters and leaves the electrolytic cell are
called electrodes.
Anode : The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is
called an anode.
Cathode : The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery is
called a cathode
Anions : Atoms which carry a negative charge are called anions
Cations : Atoms which carry a positive charge are called cations
Oxidation: The process in which a substance loses electrons.
At the Anode: Oxidation occurs, and electrons are released into the external
circuit. Example: Zn → Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻ (Zinc loses electrons).
Reduction: The process in which a substance gains electrons.
At the Cathode: Reduction occurs, and electrons are gained by the ions from
the external circuit. Example: Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu (Copper ions gain electrons and
form copper metal).

Electrochemical Series
It is a series in which metals are arranged based on the ease with which atoms of
metals lose electrons to form positively charged ions
Electrolysis of Molten Lead Bromide (PbBr₂)
Objective: To break down molten lead bromide (PbBr₂) into its constituent elements—
lead (Pb) and bromine (Br₂)—using the process of electrolysis.
Anode: Graphite
Cathode: Graphite
At the Anode (Positive Electrode):
The bromide ions (Br⁻) are attracted to the anode.
At the anode, bromide ions lose electrons
(oxidation) and are converted into bromine gas
(Br₂).
The reaction is: Br– − e − → Br
Bromine gas is released at the anode.

At the Cathode (Negative Electrode):

Lead ions (Pb²⁺) are attracted to the cathode.
At the cathode, lead ions gain electrons (reduction) and are converted into solid lead
metal.
The reaction is: Pb2+ + 2e− → Pb
Solid lead is deposited at the cathode.

Overall Reaction: PbBr2 → Pb2+ + 2Br –

Electrolysis of Acidified Water

Electrolyte: Acidified water

Anode: Platinum
Cathode: Platinum
Water ionizes slightly: H₂O. ↔ H⁺ +OH⁻
Sulfuric acid ionizes completely: H₂SO₄→ 2H⁺ + SO₄²⁻⁻
At the Cathode (Reduction): Positive hydrogen ions (H+)
gain electrons to form hydrogen gas: 2H⁺ + 2e−→ H₂
At the Anode (Oxidation): Hydroxide ions (OH−) or water
molecules lose electrons to form oxygen gas:
4OH⁻→2H₂O+O₂ (gas)+4e or 2H₂O → O₂ (gas)+4H⁺ + 4e−
Overall Reaction : The net reaction for the electrolysis of
water is: 2H₂O (liquid)→2H₂ (gas)+O₂ (gas)

Electrolysis of Aqueous copper (II) sulphate

Electrolyte: Aqueous copper (II) sulfate (CuSO₄).
Electrodes: Copper electrodes (both anode and cathode).
Ionization in the Solution : CuSO₄→ Cu²⁺ + SO₄²⁻
Reaction at the cathode : Copper ions gain electrons and
are deposited as copper metal Cu²⁺ + 2e−→ Cu (solid)
Cu being lower in the electrochemical series.
Reaction at the anode: The copper anode loses electrons
and dissolves into the solution as copper ions:
Cu (solid)→Cu²⁺+2e−
Overall Reaction : SO4 2– and OH– are not discharged.
 Electroplating : Electroplating is the process of
depositing a thin layer of a metal on the surface of
Applications of another object using electrolysis.
Electrolysis
Conditions for Electroplating:
i. Electroplating with metals 1. Clean Surface: The object to be plated must be
ii. Electrorefining of metals cleaned to remove grease and dirt.
iii. Extraction of metals 2. Choice of Electrolyte: A suitable electrolyte
containing ions of the plating metal must be used.
3. Low Voltage Current: Ensures a uniform and smooth
deposition of the metal.

Reasons for Electroplating:

Protection: Prevents corrosion (e.g., nickel plating).
Aesthetic Appeal: Enhances the appearance (e.g., silver plating).
Functionality: Improves properties like electrical conductivity and wear resistance.

Electroplating with Nickel and Silver

Anode: Pure nickel (source of nickel ions). Anode: Pure silver.
Cathode: Object to be plated. Cathode: Object to be plated.
Electrolyte: A solution of nickel sulfate Electrolyte: A solution of silver
(NiSO₄) and nickel chloride (NiCl₂) in water. nitrate (AgNO₃).

Reactions: Reactions:
At the Cathode: Ni²⁺ + 2e−→ Ni (deposited) At the Cathode: Ag⁺ + e−→ Ag
At the Anode: Ni (solid)→Ni²⁺+2e− (deposited)
Article to be electroplated is always kept At the Anode: Ag (solid)→Ag⁺+e−
at the cathode.

Electro-Refining of Copper
Electro-refining is used to purify impure metals by electrolysis.
Process for Copper Refining:
1. Anode: Impure copper.
2. Cathode: Pure copper.
3. Electrolyte: Acidified copper sulfate (CuSO₄, H₂SO₄).

Reactions:
At the Cathode: Cu²⁺+2e−→Cu (deposited)
Copper ions from the electrolyte are reduced and deposited on the cathode.
At the Anode: Cu (impure)→Cu²⁺+2e−
Copper from the impure anode dissolves into the solution as copper ions.
Impurities like silver, gold, and other metals settle at the bottom as sludge.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
What is the color of the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added drop by drop to a
solution of iron(III) chloride?
a) Green
b) Brown
c) Blue
d) White
Answer: b) Brown

Which of the following ions is responsible for the formation of a blue precipitate when ammonium
hydroxide is added to copper(II) sulfate solution?
a) Cu²⁺
b) Fe²⁺
c) Pb²⁺
d) Zn²⁺
Answer: a) Cu²⁺

What is the color of the precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of zinc
sulfate in excess?
a) White
b) Yellow
c) Blue
d) Green
Answer: a) White

Application
Which of the following substances is an example of a weak electrolyte?
a) Sodium chloride
b) Hydrochloric acid
c) Acetic acid
d) Potassium nitrate
Answer: c) Acetic acid

Which of the following ions will be reduced first during electrolysis?

a) Na⁺
b) Mg²⁺
c) H⁺
d) Fe²⁺
Answer: c) H⁺
What happens to sodium ions (Na⁺) during electrolysis?
a) They are reduced at the anode
b) They are oxidized at the cathode
c) They are reduced at the cathode
d) They remain unchanged
Answer: c) They are reduced at the cathode

Analysis
Which of the following metals will be discharged first during electrolysis, according to the
electrochemical series?
a) Copper
b) Sodium
c) Magnesium
d) Iron
Answer: b) Sodium

What happens at the anode during the electrolysis of acidified water?

a) Hydrogen gas
b) Oxygen gas
c) Chlorine gas
d) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: b) Oxygen gas

Which of the following ions is most easily oxidized during electrolysis?

a) Na⁺
b) H₂O
c) Cl⁻
d) Cu²⁺
Answer: c) Cl⁻

The selective discharge of ions during electrolysis is mainly influenced by:

a) The concentration of ions in the electrolyte
b) The relative reactivity of the ions involved
c) The voltage applied
d) The type of electrolyte used
Answer: b) The relative reactivity of the ions involved

During electrolysis, oxidation occurs at the:

a) Anode
b) Cathode
c) Both anode and cathode
d) Neither anode nor cathode
Answer: a) Anode
Understanding and Application
In the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, what is formed at the cathode?
a) Lead (Pb)
b) Bromine (Br₂)
c) Oxygen (O₂)
d) Hydrogen (H₂)
Answer: a) Lead (Pb)

Which of the following substances contains both ions and molecules?

a) Sodium chloride
b) Water
c) Hydrochloric acid in solution
d) Copper sulfate
Answer: c) Hydrochloric acid in solution

During the electrolysis of acidified water, what is produced at the anode?

a) Hydrogen
b) Oxygen
c) Copper
d) Sodium
Answer: b) Oxygen

What happens at the cathode during copper (II) sulfate electrolysis with copper electrodes?
a) Copper (Cu) is deposited
b) Hydrogen gas is released
c) Oxygen gas is released
d) Sulfur is deposited
Answer: a) Copper (Cu) is deposited

Application and Analysis

In the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, which ion moves to the cathode?
a) Pb²⁺
b) Br⁻
c) O²⁻
d) Na⁺
Answer: a) Pb²⁺

Which of the following is a strong electrolyte?

a) Acetic acid
b) Sugar solution
c) Sodium chloride solution
d) Ammonia solution
Answer: c) Sodium chloride solution
When an electric current is passed through aqueous copper (II) sulfate solution, what happens at
the cathode?
a) Copper is deposited
b) Hydrogen is released
c) Oxygen is released
d) Sulfur is deposited
Answer: a) Copper is deposited

Recall and Understanding

Which of the following is correct about the anode in electrolysis?
a) It is the site of reduction
b) It attracts anions
c) It is the site of oxidation
d) It is negatively charged
Answer: c) It is the site of oxidation

Electrolysis involves:
a) A physical change in the substance
b) The breaking of bonds in a compound using heat
c) The breakdown of a compound using electrical energy
d) A chemical change without any energy input
Answer: c) The breakdown of a compound using electrical energy

Short Answer Type Questions

Understanding
Define electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Give one example of each.
Electrolytes: Substances that conduct electricity in molten or aqueous form by dissociating into
ions. Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl).
Non-electrolytes: Substances that do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water or molten.
Example: Sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆).

What is meant by "substances containing molecules only, ions only, and both molecules and ions"?
Provide one example for each type.
Molecules only: Substances that exist as neutral molecules and do not dissociate into ions.
Example: Sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆).
Ions only: Substances that exist as ions and do not form molecules. Example: Sodium chloride
(NaCl) in molten form.
Both molecules and ions: Substances that contain both neutral molecules and ions. Example:
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in aqueous solution.

Explain the terms 'anode' and 'cathode' in the context of electrolysis.

Anode: The positive electrode where oxidation occurs (loss of electrons).
Cathode: The negative electrode where reduction occurs (gain of electrons).
Define the process of electrolysis. What happens during electrolysis at the anode and cathode?
Electrolysis is the process of using electric current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical
reaction.
At the anode, oxidation occurs (e.g., chloride ions (Cl⁻) lose electrons to form chlorine gas (Cl₂)).
At the cathode, reduction occurs (e.g., hydrogen ions (H⁺) gain electrons to form hydrogen gas
(H₂)).

What is the role of an electrolyte in the process of electrolysis?

An electrolyte conducts electricity and provides ions that participate in oxidation and reduction
reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis.

Application
How would you determine if a substance is a strong or weak electrolyte? Give examples for both.
A strong electrolyte dissociates completely into ions in solution, e.g., Sodium chloride (NaCl).
A weak electrolyte only partially dissociates into ions in solution, e.g., Acetic acid (CH₃COOH).

What happens during the electrolysis of molten lead bromide? Write the reactions occurring at the
anode and cathode.
At the cathode: Pb²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb (Lead is deposited).
At the anode: 2Br⁻ → Br₂ + 2e⁻ (Bromine gas is released).

During the electrolysis of acidified water, what gases are produced at the anode and cathode?
Explain why.
At the cathode, hydrogen gas (H₂) is produced because hydrogen ions (H⁺) gain electrons.
At the anode, oxygen gas (O₂) is produced because hydroxide ions (OH⁻) lose electrons.

What would happen if copper electrodes are used in the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate
solution?
At the cathode, copper (Cu) will be deposited because Cu²⁺ ions will gain electrons and become
solid copper.
At the anode, copper (Cu) will dissolve because copper atoms will lose electrons to form Cu²⁺
ions.

Explain why sodium ions (Na⁺) are reduced at the cathode during electrolysis.
Sodium ions (Na⁺) are reduced at the cathode because they are positive and are attracted to the
negative cathode, where they gain electrons to form sodium metal (Na).

Analysis
In the electrolysis of copper (II) sulfate with copper electrodes, why does copper get deposited at the
cathode?
Copper ions (Cu²⁺) are reduced at the cathode by gaining electrons, leading to the deposition of
solid copper metal.
Why is hydrogen gas released at the cathode during the electrolysis of acidified water instead of
metals like sodium or potassium?
Sodium and potassium are highly reactive and would react with water to form hydroxides and
hydrogen gas. Therefore, only hydrogen gas (H₂) is released at the cathode.

In the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, why is lead deposited at the cathode and not bromine?
Lead ions (Pb²⁺) are reduced at the cathode because they have a lower reduction potential
compared to bromine ions, which are oxidized at the anode.

What is the significance of the activity series of metals in determining which ions will be discharged
during electrolysis?
The activity series ranks metals based on their tendency to lose electrons and form positive ions.
More reactive metals (e.g., sodium, magnesium) are less likely to be deposited at the cathode
compared to less reactive ones (e.g., copper).

Why is platinum used as an electrode in the electrolysis of acidified water? What properties of
platinum make it suitable?
Platinum is inert, meaning it does not participate in chemical reactions, and it conducts
electricity well. These properties make it suitable for use in electrolysis.

Understanding and Application

How does the concentration of ions affect the selective discharge of ions during electrolysis? Explain
with an example.
The concentration of ions affects the ease with which they are discharged at the electrodes. More
concentrated ions are more likely to be discharged. For example, in the electrolysis of dilute
acidified water, H⁺ ions are discharged preferentially over OH⁻ ions.

During the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, how do the ions migrate and what factors influence
their migration?
In molten lead bromide, lead ions (Pb²⁺) migrate toward the cathode (negative electrode), and
bromide ions (Br⁻) migrate toward the anode (positive electrode). Factors such as the electric
field and the charge of the ions influence their migration.

What role does the ionization reaction play in the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate?
In aqueous copper (II) sulfate, CuSO₄ dissociates into Cu²⁺ and SO₄²⁻ ions. Cu²⁺ ions are reduced at
the cathode to form copper metal, while SO₄²⁻ ions remain in the solution and do not participate
in the electrolysis.

Application and Analysis

Explain how the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate with copper electrodes is related to the
concept of electron transfer at the electrodes.
At the cathode, Cu²⁺ ions gain electrons (reduction) and are deposited as solid copper (Cu). At
the anode, copper atoms lose electrons (oxidation) and enter the solution as Cu²⁺ ions.
Metallurgy
Minerals and Ores
Occurrence of Metals in Nature Mineral: A naturally occurring
Metals occur in nature in the following forms: substance in the Earth's crust
1. Native State: Metals like gold, silver, and that contains metal compounds.
platinum are found in their pure form Ore: A mineral from which metals
because they are unreactive. can be extracted profitably.
2. Combined State: Most metals occur in the
form of compounds due to their reactivity,
such as oxides, sulfides, and carbonates.

Common ores of iron, aluminium and zinc.

Ores Of Aluminium
Bauxite - Hydrated aluminium oxide - Al2O3.2H2O
Cryolite - Sodium aluminium fluoride - Na3AlF6
Corundum - Anhydrous aluminium oxide - Al2O3

Ores Of Iron
Red haematite - Anhydrous ferric oxide - Fe2O3
Brown haematite - Hydrated ferric oxide - 2Fe2O3.3H2O
Magnetite - Triferric tetraoxide - Fe3O4
Iron pyrites - Iron disulphide - FeS2
Siderite - Ferrous carbonate - FeCO3

Ores Of Zinc
Zinc blende - Zinc sulphide - ZnS
Zincite - Zinc oxide - ZnO
Calamite - Zinc carbonate - ZnCO

Stages Involved in the Extraction of Metals

Dressing of the Ore
Dressing is the process of removing unwanted impurities (gangue) from the ore to
concentrate the metal.

Methods of Concentration:
1. Hydraulic Washing (Hydrolytic Method): Based on the difference in density
between ore particles and gangue. Ore is washed with a stream of water, leaving
heavier particles behind.
2. Magnetic Separation: Used for ores with magnetic properties (e.g., magnetite
Fe₃O₄).
A magnetic roller attracts magnetic ore, separating it from non-magnetic
gangue.
3. Froth Flotation Method: Used for sulfide ores (e.g., zinc sulfide ZnS, copper
pyrite CuFeS₂)
The ore is mixed with water and frothing agents. Sulfide particles attach to air
bubbles and rise, while gangue settles.
Conversion of Concentrated Ore to Its Oxide

Conversion is achieved through roasting or calcination, depending on the nature of

the ore.
1. Roasting:
Heating the ore in the presence of excess oxygen to convert sulfides into
oxides.
Used for sulfide ores.
Example: 2ZnS+3O₂→2ZnO+2SO₂

2. Calcination:
Heating the ore in the absence or limited supply of oxygen to remove volatile
impurities (e.g., water, carbon dioxide).
Used for carbonate and hydrated ores.
Example: ZnCO₃→Δ ZnO+CO₂

Reduction of Metallic Oxide

Reduction involves extracting metal from its oxide by removing oxygen.
Methods of Reduction:
1. Reduction by Carbon (C):
Example: ZnO+C→Zn+CO
2. Reduction by Carbon Monoxide (CO):
Example: Fe₂O₃+3CO→2Fe+3CO₂
3. Reduction by Hydrogen (H₂):
Example: CuO+H₂→Cu+H₂O
4. Electrolytic Reduction (for highly reactive metals like sodium, potassium, and
calcium):
Example: 2NaCl→Electrolysis 2Na+Cl₂

Metals That Cannot Be Reduced by Carbon, CO, or H₂:

Examples: Al₂O₃.
These metals are extracted by electrolysis due to their high reactivity.

Electro-Refining
Electro-refining is the process of purifying impure metals by electrolysis.
Example: Copper Refining:
Anode: Impure copper.
Cathode: Pure copper.
Electrolyte: Acidified copper sulfate solution.

Reactions:
At the Cathode: Cu²⁺+2e−→Cu (deposited))
At the Anode: Cu (impure)→Cu²⁺+2e−
Purification of Bauxite – Baeyer’s Process
Purpose: To remove impurities like iron oxide and silica from bauxite (Al₂O₃. 2H₂O).
Steps:
1. Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):
Bauxite reacts with hot, concentrated NaOH forming soluble sodium aluminate: Al₂O₃
H₂O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + 3H₂O
2. Precipitation of Aluminium Hydroxide (Al(OH)₃):
The solution is cooled, and aluminium hydroxide precipitates:
NaAlO₂+2H₂O→Al(OH)₃+NaOH
3. Calcination:
Aluminium hydroxide is heated to produce pure alumina:
2Al(OH)₃ →Δ Al₂O₃ + 3H₂O

Electrolytic Extraction – Hall-Héroult Process

Structure of the Electrolytic Cell

Components:
Electrolyte: A mixture of molten alumina (Al₂O₃), cryolite (Na₃AlF₆), and fluorspar
(CaF₂).
Cathode: Steel vessel lined with graphite (acts as the cathode).
Anode: Graphite rods dipped in the electrolyte.

Purpose of Components:
Cryolite: Lowers the melting point of alumina and increases conductivity.
Fluorspar: Improves the fluidity of the molten mixture.

Electrode Reactions
1. At the Cathode (Reduction):
Aluminium ions gain electrons to form molten aluminium: Al³⁺+3e⁻→Al (molten)
2. At the Anode (Oxidation):
Oxygen ions lose electrons to form oxygen gas: 2O²⁻−4e⁻→O₂
The oxygen reacts with carbon from the graphite anode, forming CO₂ and CO₂:
C+O₂→CO₂
Alloys: Composition and Uses Duralumin
Composition: Aluminium (Al), Copper (Cu),
Alloys are mixtures of metals or a metal Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn).
with non-metals, designed to improve Example: 95%Al,4%Cu,0.5%Mg and Mn
properties like strength, corrosion Uses:
resistance, and conductivity. Aircraft and automobile bodies.
Lightweight machinery parts.
Stainless Steel
Composition: Iron (Fe), Chromium (Cr), Brass
Nickel (Ni), Carbon (C). Composition: Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn).
Example: 74%Fe,18%Cr,8% Example: 70%Cu,30%
Uses: Uses:
Kitchen utensils. Electrical fittings.
Surgical instruments. Musical instruments.
Construction materials (e.g., bridges, Decorative items (e.g., lamps, trophies).
buildings).

Bronze
Fuse Metal / Solder
Composition: Copper (Cu) and Tin (Sn).
Composition: Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn).
Example: 90%Cu,10%
Example: 50%Pb,50%
Uses:
Uses:
Statues and medals.
Joining electrical wires.
Coins.
Plumbing work.
Bearings and gears.
Circuit boards.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
Which of the following is the correct definition of an ore?
a) A metal compound found in nature
b) A mixture of metals
c) A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically
d) A metal in its pure form
Answer: c) A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically

Which of the following is the common ore of iron?

a) Bauxite
b) Hematite
c) Galena
d) Zinc blende
Answer: b) Hematite

What is the main purpose of dressing an ore?

a) To purify the ore
b) To separate the metal from its oxide
c) To remove impurities from the ore
d) To convert the ore into a liquid
Answer: c) To remove impurities from the ore

Which method is used to separate magnetic materials from ores?

a) Froth flotation
b) Magnetic separation
c) Hydrolytic method
d) Roasting
Answer: b) Magnetic separation

Which of the following is an example of calcination?

a) Heating zinc ore in the absence of oxygen
b) Heating copper ore with oxygen
c) Roasting sulphide ores
d) Heating a metal in the presence of carbon
Answer: a) Heating zinc ore in the absence of oxygen

Application
Which of the following processes is used to reduce copper oxide to copper?
a) Electrolysis
b) Reduction by hydrogen
c) Reduction by carbon monoxide
d) Reduction by sodium
Answer: c) Reduction by carbon monoxide
In the extraction of aluminium, what is the role of NaOH in the Bayer's process?
a) It reacts with aluminium to form aluminium hydroxide
b) It purifies bauxite by dissolving silica
c) It separates impurities from bauxite
d) It acts as a reducing agent
Answer: b) It purifies bauxite by dissolving silica

What is the function of cryolite in the Hall-Héroult process?

a) It increases the melting point of alumina
b) It increases the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte
c) It acts as a reducing agent
d) It purifies aluminium
Answer: b) It increases the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte

What is the main product formed at the cathode during the electrolysis of alumina (Al₂O₃)?
a) Oxygen
b) Aluminium
c) Hydrogen
d) Sodium
Answer: b) Aluminium

Which of the following methods is used to extract zinc from its ore?
a) Electrolysis
b) Carbon reduction
c) Roasting
d) Froth flotation
Answer: b) Carbon reduction

Analysis
Why can't magnesium oxide (MgO) be reduced by carbon like zinc oxide (ZnO)?
a) Magnesium is more reactive than carbon
b) Magnesium oxide does not undergo reduction reactions
c) Magnesium is less reactive than carbon
d) Magnesium oxide is stable and cannot be reduced by carbon
Answer: a) Magnesium is more reactive than carbon

Which of the following factors is most important for the reduction of a metallic oxide using carbon?
a) The reactivity of the metal
b) The temperature
c) The concentration of oxygen
d) The purity of the ore
Answer: a) The reactivity of the metal
What is the primary reason for using electrolytic reduction to extract sodium and potassium?
a) These metals are too reactive to be reduced by carbon
b) These metals can be reduced by carbon
c) These metals are easy to extract by roasting
d) These metals are unstable at high temperatures
Answer: a) These metals are too reactive to be reduced by carbon

Which of the following equations represents the reduction of copper (II) oxide by carbon?
a) CuO + C → Cu + CO₂
b) CuO + CO₂ → Cu + C
c) Cu + O₂ → CuO
d) Cu + CO₂ → CuO
Answer: a) CuO + C → Cu + CO₂

Why is the froth flotation method particularly useful for the extraction of zinc?
a) It is used for ores with low metal content
b) It is effective for separating ores containing silica
c) It is used to remove magnetic impurities
d) It helps in separating the metal from the ore efficiently
Answer: d) It helps in separating the metal from the ore efficiently

Understanding and Application

In the Hall-Héroult process, what is the material formed at the anode?
a) Aluminium
b) Oxygen
c) Carbon
d) Hydrogen
Answer: b) Oxygen

Which of the following statements about electrolytic refining is correct?

a) It is used to extract metals from ores
b) It produces pure metal by electrolysis
c) It involves the reduction of metal ions at the anode
d) It only works for less reactive metals
Answer: b) It produces pure metal by electrolysis

Why is the extraction of aluminium done by electrolysis?

a) Aluminium is highly reactive and cannot be reduced by carbon
b) Aluminium can easily be purified by roasting
c) Aluminium is non-reactive and requires no reduction process
d) Aluminium can only be obtained by heating
Answer: a) Aluminium is highly reactive and cannot be reduced by carbon
Application and Analysis

Which of the following is the correct equation for the reaction at the cathode in the Hall-Héroult
process?
a) Al₃⁺ + 3e⁻ → Al
b) O₂ + 4e⁻ → 2O²⁻
c) Al₂O₃ → 2Al + 3O₂
d) 2Al + 3O₂ → 2Al₂O₃
Answer: a) Al₃⁺ + 3e⁻ → Al

What is the composition of stainless steel?

a) Iron and carbon
b) Iron, carbon, and chromium
c) Iron, carbon, and nickel
d) Iron and nickel
Answer: b) Iron, carbon, and chromium

Short Answer Type Question

Understanding
What is the difference between a mineral and an ore?
Solution:
Mineral is a naturally occurring substance from which a metal can be extracted. It contains the
metal in the form of its compounds.
Ore is a type of mineral that contains a sufficient amount of metal to make extraction
economical.

Name the common ores of iron, aluminium, and zinc.

Solution:
Iron: Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Limonite (FeO(OH)·nH₂O)
Aluminium: Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O), Cryolite (Na₃AlF₆)Zinc: Zinc Blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO₃)

Define roasting and calcination. How do these processes differ?

Solution:
Roasting: The process of heating an ore in the presence of oxygen, usually to convert the metal
into its oxide. Example: Roasting of zinc blende (ZnS) to ZnO.
Calcination: The heating of an ore in the absence or limited supply of oxygen to remove volatile
impurities or to drive off water from hydrated ores. Example: Calcination of limestone (CaCO₃) to
CaO.

What is the role of NaOH in Bayer’s process for purifying bauxite?

Solution: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used to dissolve the aluminium oxide from bauxite. This
separates it from impurities like silica. The process produces sodium aluminate, which is later
treated to obtain pure aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃).
What is the significance of the Hall-Héroult process in the extraction of aluminium?
Solution: The Hall-Héroult process is a major industrial method for obtaining aluminium metal from
aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) by electrolysis. It involves dissolving Al₂O₃ in molten cryolite and passing
an electric current through it to reduce aluminium ions to aluminium metal at the cathode.

Application

Why is froth flotation used in the dressing of ores? Provide an example.

Solution: Froth flotation is used to separate hydrophobic (water-repelling) particles from
hydrophilic (water-attracting) particles. It is used for ores containing sulphide minerals, like copper
pyrites (CuFeS₂), to separate copper from impurities.

What is the purpose of using carbon monoxide in the reduction of iron (III) oxide?
Solution: Carbon monoxide (CO) is used to reduce iron (III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) to iron (Fe). The carbon
monoxide reacts with the iron oxide to remove oxygen, leaving behind pure iron:
Fe2O3 + 3CO→2Fe + 3CO2

Explain the role of cryolite in the electrolytic extraction of aluminium.

Solution: Cryolite (Na₃AlF₆) is used to lower the melting point of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) during the
electrolysis process. This reduces energy consumption, making the extraction process more
economical.

Give one example of an alloy and explain its composition and main use.
Solution: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, usually with about 70% copper and 30% zinc. It is used
in making coins, musical instruments, and decorative items due to its corrosion resistance and
attractive appearance.

Why is magnetic separation used in the dressing of ores? Provide an example where it is used.
Solution: Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic ores from non-magnetic ones. For
example, magnetite (Fe₃O₄), a magnetic iron ore, can be separated from non-magnetic impurities
using a magnetic field.

Analysis

Compare and contrast roasting and calcination with respect to their applications in metal
extraction.
Solution: Roasting is used when the ore is a sulphide, and the aim is to convert it into an oxide. For
example, zinc sulphide (ZnS) is roasted to form zinc oxide (ZnO).
Calcination is used for carbonates or hydrated ores, aiming to remove volatile components like
CO₂ or H₂O. For example, limestone (CaCO₃) is calcined to produce calcium oxide (CaO).
Analyse the use of electrolysis in the extraction of active metals. Provide examples.
Solution: Active metals such as sodium, potassium, and calcium are extracted using electrolysis
because they cannot be reduced by carbon or other reducing agents due to their high reactivity. For
example, sodium is extracted by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride (NaCl).

Why can aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) not be reduced by carbon in the same way iron oxide can?
Solution: Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) is more stable than iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) and has a higher affinity for
oxygen. Carbon cannot reduce Al₂O₃ because aluminium is a more reactive metal than carbon, and
the temperature required to reduce it is too high for carbon to be effective.

Explain why electro refining is not required for metals like copper but is important for others like zinc.
Solution: Copper is already found in a relatively pure form in ores and can be purified by simple
processes like displacement or precipitation. Zinc, on the other hand, needs electro refining to
remove impurities that affect its properties and make it more suitable for industrial use.

What would happen if the temperature in the Hall-Héroult process is not maintained correctly?
Solution: If the temperature is too low, the aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) may not dissolve properly in
cryolite, resulting in reduced efficiency. If the temperature is too high, it could lead to excessive
energy consumption and damage the equipment.

Understanding and Application

Explain how the froth flotation method works and give an example of an ore that is extracted using
this method.
Solution: In froth flotation, the ore is mixed with water and chemicals that make the desired minerals
hydrophobic. Air is bubbled through the mixture, causing the hydrophobic minerals to attach to the
bubbles and float to the surface, where they can be skimmed off. Example: The extraction of copper
from copper pyrites (CuFeS₂).

How is the reduction of zinc oxide different from the reduction of lead (II) oxide?
Solution:
Zinc oxide (ZnO) can be reduced by carbon at a high temperature to form zinc metal.
Lead (II) oxide (PbO) can also be reduced by carbon, but zinc requires a higher temperature due
to its position higher in the reactivity series.

Application and Analysis

Using the activity series of metals, explain why sodium cannot be extracted by heating its oxide with
carbon.
Solution: Sodium is a highly reactive metal, and its oxide (Na₂O) cannot be reduced by carbon
because carbon is less reactive than sodium. In the activity series, sodium is placed above carbon,
so sodium will not give up oxygen to carbon.
What happens if the incorrect amount of NaOH is used during the Bayer process for purifying
bauxite?
Solution: If too much NaOH is used, it may lead to excessive formation of sodium aluminate, which
can be difficult to separate from the impurities. If too little NaOH is used, the aluminium oxide may
not dissolve completely, making the process inefficient.

Recall and Understanding

What is an alloy? Name two alloys used in everyday life and their applications.
Solution:
Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal, that has properties different
from those of the individual components.
Stainless Steel: An alloy of iron, chromium, and nickel, used in cutlery, surgical instruments, and
appliances due to its corrosion resistance.
Duralumin: An alloy of aluminium and copper, used in aircraft construction due to its light weight
and strength.
Hydrogen Chloride (HCL)
Laboratory Preparation Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride
Laboratory Preparation:
Reactants: Sodium chloride (NaCl) and concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄).
Apparatus Setup:
Conical flask or round-bottomed flask (for
reaction)
Delivery tube (to collect the gas)
Wash bottle (filled with water, to absorb
excess HCl fumes)
Gas jar or inverted water trough (to collect the
gas)
Bunsen burner (for heating the reaction mixture,
if needed)
Rubber cork with hole (for sealing the flask and
delivering the gas)
Thermometer (optional, to monitor
temperature)
Conditions:
Concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is used as the dehydrating agent.
The reaction is carried out in a fume cupboard because hydrogen chloride gas is toxic and
highly corrosive.
The apparatus should be set up to avoid any leaks and to safely collect the gas.

Chemical Equation:
NaCl (s)+H₂SO₄ (aq)→NaHSO₄ (s)+HCl (g)
In this reaction:
Sodium chloride (NaCl) reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to form sodium
bisulfate (NaHSO₄) and hydrogen chloride gas (HCl).
Procedure:
1. Setup the Apparatus: Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram (conical flask with
delivery tube leading to an inverted gas jar or trough of water).
2. Add Sodium Chloride and Sulfuric Acid: Place about 10 g of sodium chloride in the conical flask.
Carefully add about 15 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to the flask.
3. Heat the Mixture: Gently heat the conical flask using a Bunsen burner (if necessary).
Hydrogen chloride gas will be produced as a result of the reaction.
4. Collect the Gas: The hydrogen chloride gas is collected in the gas jar over water (since HCl is
soluble in water). If the gas is not being absorbed, it may be passed through a water wash
bottle to remove any impurities.
Precautions:
Observations:
1. Use concentrated sulfuric acid with care, as it is
During the reaction: A white fume of
highly corrosive.
hydrogen chloride gas is produced.
2. Always perform the experiment in a fume
Color Change: No significant color change
cupboard to avoid inhaling toxic fumes.
is observed; however, the evolution of
3. Ensure the delivery tube is properly connected
gas is noticeable.
to prevent gas leakage.
Effervescence: The reaction produces
4. Avoid direct contact with the concentrated
effervescence (bubbling) due to the
sulfuric acid and hydrogen chloride gas, as both
release of HCl gas.
are corrosive.
5. Always use eye protection and gloves.
Collection of the Gas:
Downward displacement of water: Since Identification of Hydrogen Chloride Gas:
HCl is soluble in water, the gas is Hydrogen chloride gas can be identified by the
collected using downward displacement of following tests:
water. However, if the goal is to collect Effect on blue litmus paper: HCl gas turns blue
dry HCl gas, a drying agent like litmus paper red because it is an acidic gas.
concentrated sulfuric acid can be used. Reaction with Ammonia: When HCl gas is passed
Alternative method: HCl can also be through a glass tube containing ammonia
absorbed in a solution of water or sodium solution, a white dense smoke of ammonium
hydroxide (NaOH) to form hydrochloric chloride (NH₄Cl) is formed.
acid (HCl) or sodium chloride (NaCl). NH₃ (g)+HCl (g)→NH₄Cl (s)
Simple Experiment to Show the Density of Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
Aim : To demonstrate that hydrogen chloride gas is heavier than air.
Apparatus
Two gas jars
A piece of cardboard

Procedure
1. Fill one gas jar with dry hydrogen chloride gas.
2. Place the cardboard over the mouth of the gas jar.
3. Invert the gas jar containing HCl over an empty gas jar.
4. Carefully remove the cardboard.

Observation
The gas from the upper jar moves down into the lower jar, displacing the air in the lower jar.
This indicates that hydrogen chloride gas is heavier than air.

Solubility of Hydrogen Chloride (Fountain Experiment)

Aim
To demonstrate the high solubility of hydrogen chloride gas
in water.
Apparatus
Round-bottom flask containing dry HCl
Glass jet or nozzle.
Beaker containing blue litmus solution.
Rubber stopper with an inlet for water.

Procedure
1. Prepare a round-bottom flask filled with dry hydrogen
chloride gas and seal it with a rubber stopper.
2. Fix a glass jet in the flask for water entry.
3. Invert the flask and immerse the jet in a beaker
containing blue litmus solution.
4. Allow a small amount of water to enter the flask
through the jet by pressing gently or squeezing a
connected rubber bulb.
Observation
As water enters the flask, it dissolves hydrogen chloride gas rapidly, creating a vacuum.
This causes more water to rush into the flask, resulting in the formation of a fountain.
The blue litmus solution in the beaker turns red, indicating acidity.

Inference
High Solubility: Hydrogen chloride gas is highly soluble in water.
Acidic Nature: The solution formed is acidic, as shown by the color change of the litmus
solution.

Preparation of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl Solution)

Aim : To prepare hydrochloric acid by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water and understand
the mechanism to prevent back suction.
Chemical Equation
HCl (g) Dissolve in water → HCl (aq) Special Arrangement to Prevent Back Suction
Procedure Mechanism: A funnel is used, and its mouth is
1. Place a beaker filled with water. kept just below the surface of the water.
2. Invert a funnel into the beaker so that its This prevents direct exposure of the
mouth is just below the surface of the delivery tube to the water.
water. Reason: Hydrogen chloride is highly soluble
3. Pass dry hydrogen chloride gas into the in water, which creates a vacuum in the
funnel. delivery tube. The funnel arrangement
4. The gas dissolves in water to form prevents water from rushing back into the
hydrochloric acid. tube, avoiding back suction.
Reaction with ammonia : When dry hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas comes into contact with
dry ammonia (NH₃) gas, a dense white smoke of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) is formed.

NH₃ (g)+HCl (g)→NH₄Cl (s)

Acidic Properties of Hydrogen Chloride Solution (Hydrochloric Acid)

Hydrogen chloride dissolved in water forms hydrochloric acid (HCl), which exhibits
strong acidic properties. Its reactions with various substances are as follows:

Reaction with Metals : Hydrochloric acid reacts with active metals (above hydrogen in
the reactivity series) to form a metal chloride and liberate hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 ​+ H2​↑

Reaction with Metal Oxides : Hydrochloric acid reacts with metal oxides to form the
corresponding metal chloride and water.
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2​ + H2​O

Reaction with Metal Hydroxides : Hydrochloric acid reacts with metal hydroxides
(bases) to form the corresponding metal chloride and water. This is a neutralization
reaction.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2​O

Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates : Hydrochloric acid reacts with
metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form the corresponding metal chloride,
water, and carbon dioxide gas.
CaCO3​ + 2HCl → CaCl2 ​+ H2​O + CO2 ↑
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2↑

Reaction with Sulphides : Hydrochloric acid reacts with metal sulphides to form the
corresponding metal chloride and hydrogen sulphide gas.
FeS + 2HCl → FeCl2 ​+ H2​S↑

Reaction with Sulphites : Hydrochloric acid reacts with sulphites to form the
corresponding metal chloride, water, and sulphur dioxide gas.
Na2​SO3 ​+ 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2​O + SO2​↑

Precipitation reactions with silver nitrate solution and lead nitrate solution.
Reaction with Silver Nitrate Solution (AgNO₃):
Reaction: HCl+AgNO3→AgCl(whiteprecipitate)+HNO3

Observation:
A white precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) forms.
AgCl is insoluble in water but dissolves in dilute ammonia.

Reaction with Lead Nitrate Solution (Pb(NO₃)₂):

Reaction: 2HCl+Pb(NO3)2→PbCl2(whiteprecipitate)+2HNO32HCl + Pb(NO₃)₂ →
PbCl₂ (white precipitate) + 2HNO₃2HCl+Pb(NO3​)2​→PbCl2​(whiteprecipitate)+2HNO3

Observation:
A white precipitate of lead chloride (PbCl₂) forms.
PbCl₂ is sparingly soluble in cold water but dissolves in hot water.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
Which of the following is the correct method of preparing hydrogen chloride in the laboratory?
a) Heating sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid
b) Heating sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid
c) Passing hydrogen gas over chlorine gas
d) Passing chlorine gas over sodium hydroxide
Answer: b) Heating sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid

What is the physical state of hydrogen chloride gas at room temperature?

a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gas
d) Plasma
Answer: c) Gas

Hydrogen chloride gas is heavier than air. Which experiment demonstrates this?
a) Burning hydrogen chloride in oxygen
b) Fountain experiment
c) Reaction with ammonia
d) Dissolving in water
Answer: b) Fountain experiment

When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, what is formed?

a) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
b) Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)
c) Hydrosulfuric acid (H₂S)
d) Nitric acid (HNO₃)
Answer: a) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

What safety precaution is necessary when preparing hydrogen chloride in the laboratory?
a) Use of a Bunsen burner
b) Handling in an open environment
c) Avoid inhaling the gas
d) Using a solution of hydrochloric acid directly
Answer: c) Avoid inhaling the gas

Application
What would you observe when ammonia is bubbled through hydrogen chloride gas?
a) A colorless solution is formed
b) A white smoke or solid of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) is formed
c) A gas is produced
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: b) A white smoke or solid of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) is formed
What is the product of the reaction between hydrogen chloride and metals?
a) Metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
b) Metal chloride and hydrogen gas
c) Metal oxide and water
d) Metal chloride and water
Answer: b) Metal chloride and hydrogen gas

What is the role of the back suction prevention apparatus in the preparation of hydrochloric acid
from hydrogen chloride gas?
a) To prevent the gas from escaping
b) To avoid the backflow of water into the gas jar
c) To dissolve hydrogen chloride into water
d) To condense the gas into a liquid
Answer: b) To avoid the backflow of water into the gas jar

What happens when hydrogen chloride reacts with sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃)?
a) Sodium chloride, water, and carbon dioxide are formed
b) Sodium chloride and hydrogen gas are produced
c) Sodium carbonate decomposes to form sodium oxide
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: a) Sodium chloride, water, and carbon dioxide are formed
Na2CO3+2HCl→2NaCl+H2O+CO2

How can the solubility of hydrogen chloride in water be demonstrated experimentally?

a) By passing hydrogen chloride gas into a dry test tube
b) By bubbling the gas through water and observing the formation of hydrochloric acid
c) By burning hydrogen chloride in the presence of oxygen
d) By reacting hydrogen chloride with a metal
Answer: b) By bubbling the gas through water and observing the formation of hydrochloric acid

Analysis
Why is hydrogen chloride considered a stronger acid than acetic acid in aqueous solutions?
a) It ionizes completely in water
b) It has a higher molecular weight
c) It forms fewer ions in solution
d) It has a lower solubility in water
Answer: a) It ionizes completely in water

What would happen when hydrogen chloride gas is passed over heated copper?
a) It would form copper chloride and hydrogen gas
b) It would form copper oxide and chlorine gas
c) It would form copper chloride and water
d) No reaction would occur
Answer: a) It would form copper chloride and hydrogen gas
Which of the following reactions demonstrates the acidic properties of hydrogen chloride?
a) Reaction with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water
b) Reaction with magnesium to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
c) Reaction with calcium carbonate to form calcium chloride and carbon dioxide
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

In the fountain experiment, what is the reason behind the back suction of water when hydrogen
chloride is dissolved in water?
a) Hydrogen chloride gas is heavier than air
b) Hydrogen chloride reacts with water to form hydrochloric acid, creating a vacuum
c) The reaction generates heat, creating a pressure difference
d) Water is attracted to the hydrogen chloride gas due to polarity
Answer: b) Hydrogen chloride reacts with water to form hydrochloric acid, creating a vacuum

What would happen if hydrogen chloride gas is mixed with silver nitrate solution?
a) A white precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) is formed
b) A yellow precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) is formed
c) A red precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) is formed
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: a) A white precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) is formed

Understanding and Application

What is the result of the reaction between hydrogen chloride and lead nitrate solution?
a) Lead chloride (PbCl₂) is formed as a white precipitate
b) Lead nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂) forms a white precipitate
c) A yellow precipitate of lead iodide (PbI₂) is formed
d) No precipitate is formed
Answer: a) Lead chloride (PbCl₂) is formed as a white precipitate

When hydrogen chloride is passed through a solution of iron(III) chloride, what is the resulting
product?
a) Iron chloride
b) Iron hydroxide
c) Ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen chloride
Answer: a) Iron chloride

What is the effect of hydrogen chloride on metals such as zinc and magnesium?
a) It produces metal chloride and hydrogen gas
b) It produces metal hydroxide and oxygen gas
c) It produces metal oxide and hydrogen gas
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: a) It produces metal chloride and hydrogen gas
Application and Analysis
Which of the following best describes the reaction of hydrogen chloride with a metal oxide such as
copper(II) oxide?
a) Hydrogen chloride reacts with metal oxide to form a salt and water
b) Hydrogen chloride reacts with metal oxide to form metal chloride and oxygen
c) Hydrogen chloride reacts with metal oxide to form hydrogen gas and water
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: a) Hydrogen chloride reacts with metal oxide to form a salt and water
CuO+2HCl→CuCl2+H2O

What observation would you make when hydrogen chloride reacts with calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃)?
a) Calcium chloride, water, and carbon dioxide are produced
b) Calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide
c) A white precipitate of calcium chloride is formed
d) Hydrogen chloride decomposes into hydrogen and chlorine
Answer: a) Calcium chloride, water, and carbon dioxide are produced
CaCO3+2HCl→CaCl2+H2O+CO2

Short Answer Type Question

Understanding
Explain the laboratory preparation of hydrogen chloride gas from sodium chloride. Include the
reactants, products, and conditions.
Solution: Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared by reacting sodium chloride (NaCl) with concentrated
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The reaction is: NaCl+H2SO4→NaHSO4+HCl. The gas is then collected by
downward displacement of water.
Conditions: The reaction is carried out in a fume hood to avoid inhaling toxic fumes.

Why is hydrogen chloride gas collected by downward displacement of water?

Solution: Hydrogen chloride is soluble in water and has a higher density than air, so it is collected by
downward displacement of water to prevent its escape into the atmosphere. This method also helps
to avoid the contamination of the gas by water.

What is the purpose of using concentrated sulfuric acid in the preparation of hydrogen chloride from
sodium chloride?
Solution: Concentrated sulfuric acid is used because it provides the necessary heat and acts as a
dehydrating agent to displace hydrogen chloride from sodium chloride. It also helps in the reaction
to produce hydrogen chloride gas.

Describe the appearance of hydrogen chloride gas and the observation when it is exposed to
ammonia.
Solution: Hydrogen chloride gas is a colorless, pungent gas. When it is exposed to ammonia, a
white, dense smoke of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) forms: HCl+NH3→NH4Cl
Applications
What happens when hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water? Describe the process and its
product.
Solution: When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, it forms hydrochloric acid (HCl). The
process is exothermic, and the equation is: HCl(g)+H2O→HCl(aq)

In an experiment, when hydrogen chloride reacts with ammonia, what is formed? Provide the
equation for the reaction.
Solution: When hydrogen chloride reacts with ammonia, ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) is formed. The
equation is: HCl+NH3→NH4Cl

How can the density of hydrogen chloride gas be demonstrated experimentally?

Solution: The density of hydrogen chloride can be demonstrated using the fountain experiment. In
this experiment, hydrogen chloride gas is bubbled through water. Due to its high density, it
displaces the water in the tube, causing the water to rise in the inverted tube.

What safety precautions should be taken while preparing hydrogen chloride gas in the laboratory?
Solution:
Perform the experiment in a fume hood to avoid inhaling toxic hydrogen chloride gas.
Wear safety goggles, gloves, and a lab coat to protect from chemical exposure.
Ensure the apparatus is set up securely to avoid leaks and accidents.

Analysis
Explain why hydrogen chloride is heavier than air and how this can be shown in an experiment.
Solution: Hydrogen chloride (HCl) has a molecular mass of 36.46 g/mol, which is heavier than air
(with a molecular mass of approximately 29 g/mol). This can be demonstrated using the fountain
experiment, where hydrogen chloride gas displaces water due to its higher density.

What would you observe when hydrogen chloride gas is passed through a solution of silver nitrate?
Explain the reaction.
Solution: A white precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl) forms when hydrogen chloride reacts with
silver nitrate solution: AgNO3+HCl→AgCl(s)+HNO3 ​The white precipitate of AgCl is insoluble in
water.

What are the observations when hydrogen chloride reacts with sodium carbonate? Write the
equation for the reaction.
Solution: When hydrogen chloride reacts with sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, water, and
carbon dioxide are produced: Na2CO3+2HCl→2NaCl+H2O+CO2 The effervescence of carbon dioxide
gas is observed.
When hydrogen chloride reacts with copper (II) oxide, what products are formed? Provide the
equation for the reaction.
Solution: When hydrogen chloride reacts with copper (II) oxide (CuO), copper (II) chloride (CuCl₂)
and water are formed: CuO+2HCl→CuCl2+H2O Observation: A greenish-blue solution of copper
chloride forms.

Understanding and Application

Describe the experimental setup for demonstrating the solubility of hydrogen chloride using the
fountain experiment. What are the observations and inferences?
Solution: Setup: A gas jar containing hydrogen chloride is inverted in a trough of water. The gas is
allowed to pass through water.
Observations: The water level in the jar rises as hydrogen chloride dissolves. The gas dissolves and
forms hydrochloric acid in water.
Inference: Hydrogen chloride is highly soluble in water.

Explain how the back suction is avoided while dissolving hydrogen chloride in water in the
preparation of hydrochloric acid.
Solution: Back suction is avoided by using a two-necked flask and a delivery tube connected to the
container. The delivery tube is submerged in the water to ensure that no water is drawn back into
the flask. A thistle funnel or water trap may be used to collect the gas and prevent back suction.
Write the balanced equation for the reaction between hydrogen chloride and zinc. What are the
products formed in this reaction?
Solution:
When hydrogen chloride reacts with zinc, zinc chloride and hydrogen gas are formed:
Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2Zn + 2HCl \rightarrow ZnCl_2 + H_2Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2​+H2​Observation:
Effervescence of hydrogen gas is observed.
Ammonia (NH3)
Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia from Ammonium Chloride
Objective: Prepare ammonia (NH₃) gas using ammonium
chloride and a base.

Reaction:
NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → NH3(gas) + CaCl2 + H2O

Apparatus Setup:
Components: Flat-bottom flask, delivery tube, cork,
gas jar, water trough.
Diagram: A flask containing dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] ,
fitted with a delivery tube leading to a gas jar over
water (for collection).

Procedure:
Mix Ammonium chloride (NH2Cl) and dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]
Gently heat the mixture to release ammonia gas.
Collect the gas via the downward displacement of air (since NH₃ is lighter than air).

Observations:
A pungent smell of ammonia is detected.
Moist red litmus paper turns blue when exposed to the gas (basic nature).

Collection:
Ammonia gas is collected in a dry gas jar by upward delivery.
Identification: NH₃ turns moist red litmus blue.
Forms dense white fumes of ammonium chloride when exposed to HCl gas:
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Preparation of Ammonia from Nitrides (e.g., Mg₃N₂ or AlN)

Reactions:
Magnesium Nitride: Mg3 N2 + 6H2O → 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
Aluminium Nitride: AlN + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + NH3
Procedure:
a. Add warm water to a nitride (e.g., Mg₃N₂ or AlN) in a flask.
b. Observe the release of ammonia gas.

Observations:
Gas evolves with a characteristic pungent smell.
Ammonia gas turns red litmus paper blue.
Preparation of Ammonia from Ammonium Salts Using Alkalies

General Reaction: NH4X + NaOH → NH3 + NaX

NH4X : Ammonium salt (e.g., NH₄Cl, NH₄NO₃, NH₄₂SO₄).
NaX : Sodium salt (e.g., NaCl, NaNO₃, Na₂SO₄).

Conditions:
Strong alkalies like NaOH or KOH.
Gentle heating to release NH₃ gas.

Procedure:
a. Mix ammonium salt (e.g., NH₄Cl) with sodium hydroxide in a flask.
b. Heat gently to liberate ammonia gas.
c. Collect ammonia as described above.

Observations:
Pungent-smelling gas evolves.
Red litmus turns blue, confirming the basic nature of the gas.
Manufacture of Ammonia by Haber’s Process
Raw Materials:
Chemical Equation:
Nitrogen (N2​):
Obtained from the
fractional distillation
of liquid air.
Conditions:
Hydrogen (H2):
1. Catalyst: Finely divided iron (Fe) with promoters like K2O
Obtained by steam
and Al₂O₃
reforming natural gas
2. Temperature: 450–500°C (a compromise between yield and
or from the
reaction rate).
electrolysis of water.
3. Pressure: 200–250 atm (to favor ammonia formation as the
reaction is exothermic and decreases in volume).
4. Recycling: Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled
back into the system to improve efficiency

. Products
Ammonia (NH₃): A colorless gas with a pungent
odor, used in fertilizers, explosives, and
refrigerants.

Observations
The reaction mixture contains approximately 15-20% ammonia at equilibrium.
Ammonia is liquefied by cooling under high pressure and separated.
Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled back into the process.

fountain experiment:
Apparatus: A flask filled with dry ammonia gas, connected
to a jet tube, Red litmus solution is placed in the trough
below, Dropper containing water.

Procedure: The jet is dipped into water, and a few drops of

water are introduced. Ammonia dissolves, reducing
pressure in the flask, causing a fountain effect.

Observation: Ammonia gas present in the flask dissolves in

water due to it's high solubility, thereby creating a partial
vacuum in the flask. The outside pressure being higher
pushes the red litmus solution up the jet tube which
emerges out at the end of the tube as a blue fountain.

Burning of Ammonia in Oxygen Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia

Reaction: Reaction:
4NH3+3O2→2N2+6H2O 4NH3 + 5O2 Pt, 800°C → 4NO + 6H2O4
(Ammonia burns in oxygen to produce Conditions: Catalyst: Platinum (Pt).
nitrogen and water). Temperature: 800°C.
Observation:
Observation: A pale yellow flame is
Ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide (NO).
observed.
NO appears as a colorless gas that turns
Water droplets are formed. brown on exposure to air (forming NO₂).
Condition: Ammonia burns only in pure
oxygen, not in air.
Reactions of Ammonia

1. With Hydrogen Chloride (HCl):

Reaction: NH3 + HCl→ NH4Cl
Observation: Dense white fumes of ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) are formed.

2. With Hot Copper (II) Oxide (CuO):

Reaction: 3CuO + 2NH3 → 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O3
Observation: Black CuO is reduced to reddish-brown copper (Cu).
Nitrogen gas and water are also produced.

3.With Chlorine (Cl₂):

Chlorine in Excess: 8NH3 + 3Cl2 → 6NH4Cl + N2
Observation: Formation of ammonium chloride and nitrogen.
Ammonia in Excess: NH3 + Cl2 → N2 + 3HCl
Observation: Nitrogen gas and hydrogen chloride (HCl) are formed.

Reactions of Aqueous Ammonia (NH₄OH)

With Acids: Aqueous ammonia is basic in nature and reacts with acids to form ammonium
salts.

With Sulphuric Acid (H₂SO₄):

2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2 SO4
Observation: Formation of ammonium sulphate.

With Nitric Acid (HNO₃):

NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
Observation: Formation of ammonium nitrate.

With Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Observation: Formation of ammonium chloride (dense white fumes if gaseous).

Metal Salt Solutions:

Aqueous ammonia reacts with solutions of certain metal salts, producing precipitates.
The nature of the precipitate depends on the metal ion present.

With Iron(III) Chloride (FeCl₃): FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl

Observation: Formation of reddish-brown precipitate of ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)₃).

with Iron(II) Sulphate (FeSO₄) : FeSO4 + 2NH4OH → Fe(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4

Observation: Formation of a dirty green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2)

with Lead Nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂) : Pb(NO3)2+2NH4OH→Pb(OH)2+2NH4NO3

Observation: Formation of a white precipitate of lead hydroxide (Pb(OH)2​).

with Zinc Nitrate (Zn(NO₃)₂): Zn(NO3)2+2NH4OH→Zn(OH)2+2NH4NO3

Observation: Formation of a white precipitate of zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2​).
Reaction in Excess Ammonia:
Zinc hydroxide dissolves in excess ammonia to form a colorless complex:
Zn(OH)2+4NH3→[Zn(NH3)4](OH)2]

with Copper(II) Sulphate (CuSO₄) : CuSO4+2NH4OH→Cu(OH)2+(NH4)2SO4

Observation: Formation of a pale blue precipitate of copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2).
Reaction in Excess Ammonia:
Copper hydroxide dissolves in excess ammonia to form a deep blue complex:
Cu(OH)2+4NH3→[Cu(NH3)4](OH)2]
Uses of Ammonia
Manufacture of Fertilizers
Primary Use: Ammonia is a key component in the production of fertilizers,
which provide essential nitrogen for plant growth.
Examples of Fertilizers:
1. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3​): Made by reacting ammonia with nitric
acid.
2. Ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4​): Produced by reacting ammonia with
phosphoric acid.
3. Urea (CO(NH2)2): Synthesized by combining ammonia and carbon
dioxide.

Manufacture of Explosives
Nitrogen-Based Explosives: Ammonia is used in producing ammonium nitrate,
a key ingredient in explosives like ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
Applications:
Mining and construction industries for blasting purposes.
Defense industry for creating explosives.

Manufacture of Nitric Acid (HNO3HNO_3HNO3​)

Process:
Ammonia undergoes catalytic oxidation in the Ostwald Process to produce nitric acid.
Reaction: 4NH3+5O2→4NO+6H2O
2NO+O2→2NO2
3NO2+H2O→2HNO3+NO
Uses of Nitric Acid: Essential in fertilizers, explosives, and dyes.

Refrigerant Gas
Ammonia as a Refrigerant:
Ammonia absorbs heat effectively, making it suitable for use in refrigeration systems.
Common in large industrial cooling systems and ice plants.

Cleansing Agents
Ammonium Hydroxide: Aqueous ammonia is used as a powerful cleaning agent due to its ability
to dissolve grease and grime.
Applications:
Used in cleaning glass, ceramics, and tiles.
Commonly found in household and industrial cleaners.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding
Which of the following is the correct method for the laboratory preparation of ammonia?
a) Decomposition of ammonium nitrate
b) Reaction of ammonium chloride with sodium hydroxide
c) Reaction of magnesium nitride with water
d) Reaction of ammonium sulfate with sodium hydroxide
Answer: b) Reaction of ammonium chloride with sodium hydroxide

What is the physical state of ammonia at room temperature?

a) Solid
b) Gas
c) Liquid
d) Plasma
Answer: b) Gas

Ammonia is a soluble gas. Which of the following is an experiment that demonstrates its solubility?
a) Burning ammonia in oxygen
b) Fountain experiment
c) Reaction with hydrogen chloride
d) Reaction with copper(II) oxide
Answer: b) Fountain experiment

What is the product when ammonia reacts with excess chlorine?

a) Nitrogen chloride
b) Ammonium chloride
c) Nitrogen
d) Nitric acid
Answer: b) Ammonium chloride

Application
In the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process, which of the following is the catalyst used?
a) Iron
b) Nickel
c) Copper
d) Zinc
Answer: a) Iron

When ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride gas, the product formed is:
a) Ammonium chloride
b) Nitrogen chloride
c) Nitric acid
d) Copper(II) chloride
Answer: a) Ammonium chloride
What would be observed when ammonia gas is passed over heated copper(II) oxide?
a) Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen
b) Ammonia is reduced to nitrogen
c) Ammonia dissolves in water
d) No change occurs
Answer: a) Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen

Ammonia reacts with sulfuric acid to form:

a) Ammonium sulfate
b) Ammonium chloride
c) Nitric acid
d) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: a) Ammonium sulfate

Analysis
What would happen if excess ammonia is used in the reaction with chlorine gas?
a) Ammonium chloride is formed
b) Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen
c) Nitric acid is formed
d) Hydrogen chloride is produced
Answer: a) Ammonium chloride is formed

In the catalytic oxidation of ammonia, which of the following conditions is necessary?

a) High temperature and low pressure
b) High temperature and high pressure
c) Low temperature and high pressure
d) High temperature, high pressure, and the presence of a catalyst
Answer: d) High temperature, high pressure, and the presence of a catalyst

Which of the following reactions involves the reduction of copper(II) oxide by ammonia?
a) 3CuO + 2NH₃ → 3Cu + N₂ + 3H₂O
b) CuO + NH₃ → Cu + H₂O + N₂
c) CuO + 2NH₃ → Cu + 2H₂O + 2NO₂
d) 2CuO + 4NH₃ → Cu + 4H₂O + NO₂
Answer: a) 3CuO + 2NH₃ → 3Cu + N₂ + 3H₂O

In the reaction of ammonia with chlorine, what is produced when ammonia is in excess?
a) Nitrogen chloride
b) Ammonium chloride
c) Nitric oxide
d) Hydrogen chloride
Answer: b) Ammonium chloride
Understanding and Application
What happens when ammonia is burned in excess oxygen?
a) It forms nitrogen dioxide
b) It forms nitrogen monoxide
c) It forms nitrogen
d) It forms nitrogen and water
Answer: d) It forms nitrogen and water

Ammonia is used in the manufacture of fertilizers. Which compound is commonly produced from
ammonia in fertilizer production?
a) Sodium nitrate
b) Ammonium nitrate
c) Ammonium phosphate
d) Potassium chloride
Answer: b) Ammonium nitrate

What is the reaction between ammonia and iron(III) chloride?

a) Formation of ammonium chloride and iron(III) hydroxide
b) Formation of nitrogen and iron
c) Formation of ammonium chloride and iron(III) oxide
d) No reaction occurs
Answer: a) Formation of ammonium chloride and iron(III) hydroxide

Application and Analysis

Which of the following compounds can be used to prepare ammonia in the laboratory?
a) Ammonium chloride
b) Ammonium nitrate
c) Ammonium sulfate
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

Which of the following gases is produced in the reaction between magnesium nitride and water?
a) Nitrogen
b) Ammonia
c) Hydrogen
d) Oxygen
Answer: b) Ammonia

What would be the observation if ammonia gas is passed into a solution of copper(II) sulfate?
a) The solution turns blue
b) A green precipitate forms
c) A white precipitate forms
d) The solution turns colorless
Answer: b) A green precipitate forms
Recall and Understanding
What is the main use of ammonia in the production of nitric acid?
a) Ammonia is a catalyst in the process
b) Ammonia reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides
c) Ammonia is directly oxidized to form nitric acid
d) Ammonia neutralizes acids to form ammonium salts
Answer: b) Ammonia reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides

Which of the following is NOT a use of ammonia?

a) Manufacture of fertilizers
b) Manufacture of explosives
c) Manufacture of sulfuric acid
d) Manufacture of refrigerants
Answer: c) Manufacture of sulfuric acid

Short Answer Type Questions

Understanding

What is the laboratory method for preparing ammonia from ammonium chloride?
Answer: Ammonia can be prepared by heating ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH). The reaction produces ammonia gas (NH₃), water (H₂O), and sodium chloride (NaCl).
NH4Cl+NaOH→NH3+H2O+NaCl

Explain the use of warm water in the preparation of ammonia from magnesium nitride (Mg₃N₂).
Answer: When magnesium nitride reacts with warm water, ammonia gas is produced. The reaction
involves the breakdown of Mg₃N₂ into magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) and ammonia.
Mg3N2+6H2O→3Mg(OH)2+2NH3

What is the role of the catalyst in the Haber Process?

Answer: In the Haber Process, iron (Fe) is used as a catalyst to speed up the reaction between
nitrogen (N₂) and hydrogen (H₂) to form ammonia (NH₃) without being consumed in the reaction.
N2(g)+3H2(g) →Fe,450°C, 200atm2NH3(g)

Why is ammonia considered a soluble gas?

Answer: Ammonia is highly soluble in water due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules. It dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), a weak base.

What are the products of the reaction of ammonia with hydrogen chloride gas?
Answer: Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) as a white
solid. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Application
Describe the procedure for the laboratory preparation of ammonia gas from ammonium chloride
and sodium hydroxide.
Answer:
Set up a round-bottom flask with ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Heat the mixture gently.
Ammonia gas will evolve and can be collected by displacement of water or using a delivery tube.
Ammonia is identified by its pungent smell and its ability to turn red litmus paper blue.

How does the density of ammonia compare with air, and how is this demonstrated in the fountain
experiment?
Answer: Ammonia is lighter than air. In the fountain experiment, ammonia gas is passed through
water, dissolving into it, and creating a vacuum that causes water to be drawn into the flask. This
demonstrates its solubility and low density.

How is ammonia gas prepared from ammonium salts and alkalis?

Answer: Ammonium salts like ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
other alkalis to release ammonia gas.
NH4Cl+NaOH→NH3+H2O+NaCl

What is the significance of ammonia in the manufacturing of fertilizers?

Answer: Ammonia is a key raw material in the production of fertilizers like ammonium nitrate
(NH₄NO₃) and ammonium phosphate, which are essential for plant growth.

How does ammonia react with copper(II) oxide (CuO)?

Answer: When ammonia is heated with copper(II) oxide, it reduces the copper(II) oxide to copper
and liberates nitrogen gas.
3CuO+2NH3→3Cu+N2+3H2O

Analysis
Explain the reaction between ammonia and chlorine in excess. What are the products formed?
Answer: In excess chlorine, ammonia reacts to form ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) and nitrogen
trichloride (NCl₃). 3NH3+3Cl2→6HCl+N2+3Cl2

Why can ammonia be used to manufacture explosives, and what are the types of explosives?
Answer: Ammonia is a precursor in the manufacture of explosives like ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃),
which is used in fertilizers but can also be used in explosives due to its high nitrogen content and
ability to undergo rapid decomposition.

What would happen if ammonia gas is burned in excess oxygen?

Answer: When ammonia is burned in excess oxygen, it produces nitrogen (N₂) and water vapor
(H₂O). 4NH3+3O2→2N2+6H2O
Compare the use of ammonia in refrigeration to that of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).
Answer: Ammonia is used as a refrigerant because it has a high heat capacity and is an efficient
refrigerant. Unlike CFCs, ammonia does not deplete the ozone layer, making it an environmentally
friendlier option.

What happens when ammonia is reacted with sulfuric acid?

Answer: Ammonia reacts with sulfuric acid to form ammonium sulfate, which is used in fertilizers.
2NH3+H2SO4→(NH4)2SO4

Understanding and Application

How is ammonia collected in the laboratory, and why is it collected over water?
Answer: Ammonia is collected by downward displacement of water because it is soluble in water,
but it is less soluble than carbon dioxide. This method prevents contamination of the gas with other
gases.

What is the reaction between ammonia and nitric acid, and what product is formed?
Answer: Ammonia reacts with nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃), which is used in
fertilizers. NH3+HNO3→NH4NO

How does ammonia react with iron(III) chloride and what is the observation?
Answer: Ammonia reacts with iron(III) chloride to form a brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide,
which is insoluble in water. 3NH3+FeCl3→Fe(OH)3+3NH4Cl

What are the products of the catalytic oxidation of ammonia?

Answer: The catalytic oxidation of ammonia produces nitrogen monoxide (NO) and water. The
reaction occurs in the presence of a platinum catalyst.
4NH3 + 3O2 →Pt 2N2+ 6H2O

In what way does ammonia act as a base in aqueous solution, and how does it react with copper
sulfate?
Answer: Ammonia acts as a base in aqueous solution by accepting protons to form ammonium ions
(NH₄⁺). When ammonia reacts with copper sulfate, a blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide is
formed. CuSO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O→ Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Laboratory Preparation of Nitric Acid

Reactants:
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) or sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
Concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Reaction:
NaNO3 + H2SO4 → Heating NaHSO4 + HNO3
KNO3 + H2SO4 → Heating KHSO4 + HNO3

Apparatus Setup:
Equipment:
Round-bottom flask to mix the reactants.
Delivery tube to collect the nitric acid
vapors.
Condenser to cool and condense the
vapors into liquid nitric acid.

Process:
Mix potassium or sodium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid in the flask.
Heat the mixture gently.
Nitric acid vapors are released and passed through a condenser.
The liquid is collected in a receiver.

Precautions:
Use a fume hood as nitric acid vapors are corrosive.
Avoid overheating to prevent decomposition of nitric acid.

Large-Scale Preparation (Ostwald Process)

Key Steps:

Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia: 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

Oxidation of Nitric Oxide (NO): 2NO + O2→ 2NO2
Formation of Nitric Acid: 3NO2+H2O→2HNO3+NO

Conditions:
Platinum-rhodium catalyst.
Temperature: 500°C.
Pressure: 9 atmospheres.

Nitric Acid as an Oxidizing Agent

Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent that reacts with metals and non-metals, releasing
nitrogen oxides.

Reaction with Copper (Cu): 3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO

Observation: Reddish-brown fumes of NO2​are released.

Reaction with Carbon (C): C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O

Observation: Effervescence and release of nitrogen dioxide gas.

Reaction with Sulphur (S): S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

Observation: Formation of sulphuric acid and nitrogen dioxide gas.
Multiple Choice Questions
Recall
Which of the following is used as a reactant in the laboratory preparation of nitric acid from
potassium nitrate?
a) Potassium hydroxide
b) Potassium nitrate
c) Sodium chloride
d) Sodium bicarbonate
Answer: b) Potassium nitrate

What is the product obtained when nitric acid reacts with copper?
a) Copper sulphate
b) Copper nitrate
c) Copper oxide
d) Copper chloride
Answer: b) Copper nitrate

Which acid is used in the laboratory preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate?
a) Hydrochloric acid
b) Sulfuric acid
c) Nitric acid
d) Acetic acid
Answer: b) Sulfuric acid

Understanding

in the laboratory preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate, which of the following is a
precaution to avoid the back suction of gases?
a) Use a water bath
b) Use a side-arm flask
c) Use a condenser
d) Use a reducing agent
Answer: b) Use a side-arm flask

What is the role of sulfuric acid in the laboratory preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate?
a) It oxidizes potassium nitrate
b) It helps in the decomposition of potassium nitrate
c) It acts as a reducing agent
d) It is used to dilute nitric acid
Answer: b) It helps in the decomposition of potassium nitrate
Which of the following is a characteristic property of nitric acid?
a) It is a weak acid
b) It is a strong oxidizing agent
c) It does not react with metals
d) It does not dissolve in water
Answer: b) It is a strong oxidizing agent

Applications
What is one major industrial use of nitric acid?
a) Preparation of hydrochloric acid
b) Manufacture of fertilizers
c) Manufacture of baking soda
d) Manufacture of sodium hydroxide
Answer: b) Manufacture of fertilizers

When carbon reacts with nitric acid, what is formed?

a) Carbon monoxide
b) Nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide
c) Carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
d) Nitrogen trioxide
Answer: b) Nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide

What is the main product when nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent with copper?
a) Copper nitrate
b) Copper chloride
c) Copper oxide
d) Copper sulfate
Answer: a) Copper nitrate

Analysis

In the laboratory preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate, which of the following gases is
released during the reaction?
a) Nitrogen dioxide
b) Nitrogen gas
c) Oxygen gas
d) Hydrogen chloride
Answer: a) Nitrogen dioxide

What is the purpose of using concentrated sulfuric acid in the preparation of nitric acid?
a) To neutralize potassium nitrate
b) To act as a dehydrating agent
c) To increase the temperature of the reaction
d) To reduce the decomposition of potassium nitrate
Answer: b) To act as a dehydrating agent
In the Ostwald process for manufacturing nitric acid, what is the intermediate product formed
before the production of nitric acid?
a) Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
b) Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)
c) Nitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃)
d) Ammonium nitrate
Answer: a) Nitrogen monoxide (NO)

Understanding and Application

Which of the following is a correct equation for the reaction between copper and nitric acid?
a) Cu + 4HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O + 2NO₂
b) Cu + HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + H₂O + NO
c) Cu + 2HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + H₂O + N₂
d) Cu + HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂
Answer: a) Cu + 4HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O + 2NO₂

Which of the following reactions demonstrates the oxidizing property of nitric acid?
a) Nitric acid reacting with zinc to form zinc nitrate
b) Nitric acid reacting with copper to form copper nitrate
c) Nitric acid reacting with hydrochloric acid to form chlorine
d) Nitric acid reacting with water to form nitric oxide
Answer: b) Nitric acid reacting with copper to form copper nitrate

Application
In large-scale manufacturing, which process is used to produce nitric acid?
a) Contact process
b) Haber process
c) Ostwald process
d) Deacon process
Answer: c) Ostwald process

When nitric acid reacts with sulfur, the product formed is:
a) Sulfur dioxide
b) Sulfuric acid
c) Sulfur trioxide
d) Sulfur nitrate
Answer: b) Sulfuric acid

Which of the following is a major use of nitric acid in the production of explosives?
a) Ammonium nitrate production
b) Hydrogen cyanide production
c) Chlorine gas production
d) Sulfuric acid production
Answer: a) Ammonium nitrate production
Analysis and Application
What is the by-product of the reaction between nitric acid and carbon?
a) Nitrogen dioxide
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Nitric oxide
d) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: b) Carbon dioxide

Which of the following reactions is used to demonstrate the oxidizing nature of nitric acid in
laboratory experiments?
a) Reaction with copper to form copper nitrate
b) Reaction with sodium bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide
c) Reaction with hydrochloric acid to release chlorine
d) Reaction with potassium permanganate
Answer: a) Reaction with copper to form copper nitrate

Recall and Understanding

What is the primary role of sulfuric acid in the Ostwald process for manufacturing nitric acid?
a) To oxidize nitrogen
b) To act as a dehydrating agent
c) To form nitrogen dioxide
d) To neutralize the nitric acid produced
Answer: b) To act as a dehydrating agent

Short Answer Type Question

Recall

What is the laboratory method used for the preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate?
Answer: The laboratory preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate involves heating
potassium nitrate with concentrated sulfuric acid. This produces nitric acid and potassium bisulfate
as products.

Write the equation for the reaction between potassium nitrate and sulfuric acid to prepare nitric
acid.
Answer: 2KNO3+H2SO4→2HNO3+K2SO4

What is the product obtained when copper reacts with nitric acid?
Answer: The product obtained is copper nitrate (Cu(NO₃)₂) along with nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and
water.

Understanding

Why is concentrated sulfuric acid used in the preparation of nitric acid from potassium nitrate?
Answer: Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent, helping to decompose potassium
nitrate into nitric acid and potassium bisulfate.
What is the role of a condenser in the laboratory preparation of nitric acid?
Answer: The condenser helps in cooling and condensing the nitric acid vapors, which are then
collected as liquid nitric acid.

What precautions should be taken while preparing nitric acid in the laboratory?
Answer: Precautions include working in a fume hood to avoid inhaling toxic fumes, using a side-arm
flask to prevent back suction of gas, and ensuring the apparatus is tightly sealed to avoid leakage.

Applications
What is one industrial application of nitric acid?
Answer: Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, particularly ammonium nitrate, which is
used as a nitrogen-rich fertilizer.

How is nitric acid used as an oxidizing agent in reactions with carbon?

Answer: Nitric acid oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) when
reacting with carbon.

In what way is nitric acid used in the production of explosives?

Answer: Nitric acid is used to manufacture explosives like ammonium nitrate, which is a key
ingredient in many explosives.

Analysis
What are the products of the reaction between nitric acid and copper?
Answer: The products are copper nitrate (Cu(NO₃)₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and water (H₂O).

Explain why nitric acid is considered a strong oxidizing agent.

Answer: Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent because it readily donates oxygen atoms to other
substances, causing them to undergo oxidation. For example, it oxidizes copper to copper nitrate
and carbon to carbon dioxide.

How is the Ostwald process used for the large-scale production of nitric acid?
Answer: The Ostwald process involves the oxidation of ammonia (NH₃) to nitrogen monoxide (NO) in
the presence of a platinum catalyst. Nitrogen monoxide is then oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂),
which reacts with water to form nitric acid.

Understanding and Application

Write the equation for the Ostwald process in the production of nitric acid.
Answer:
4NH3+3O2→Pt2N2+6H2O
2N2+5O2→4NO2
2NO2+H2O→2HNO3
How does the Ostwald process differ from the laboratory method of nitric acid preparation?
Answer: The laboratory method uses potassium nitrate and sulfuric acid, while the Ostwald process
involves the oxidation of ammonia (NH₃) to produce nitric acid on a larger scale using a platinum
catalyst.

What are the applications of nitric acid as an oxidizing agent in industrial processes?
Answer: Nitric acid is used to oxidize substances like carbon, sulfur, and metals in various chemical
industries. For example, it oxidizes sulfur to produce sulfuric acid and is used in the nitration of
organic compounds.

Application

What is the industrial significance of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) in the Ostwald process?
Answer: Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) is an important intermediate in the Ostwald process. It is further
oxidized to form nitric acid, making it crucial for the large-scale production of nitric acid.
In the Ostwald process,

what is the purpose of using a platinum catalyst?

Answer: The platinum catalyst speeds up the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen monoxide (NO),
increasing the efficiency of the reaction.

What happens when nitric acid reacts with sulfur?

Answer: Nitric acid oxidizes sulfur to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The reaction is as follows:
S + 2HNO3 → H2SO4 + 2NO2 + H2OS

Analysis and Application

How does the oxidation of copper by nitric acid illustrate its strong oxidizing properties?
Answer: Nitric acid oxidizes copper metal to copper nitrate (Cu(NO₃)₂), releasing nitrogen dioxide
gas (NO₂) and water. This shows the ability of nitric acid to donate oxygen and cause oxidation.

Explain the role of water in the final step of the Ostwald process.
Answer: In the final step of the Ostwald process, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) reacts with water to form
nitric acid (HNO₃) and nitrogen oxide (NO), completing the conversion to nitric acid:
2NO2+H2O→2HNO3
Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid by the Contact Process

The Contact Process is the industrial method used to manufacture sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) from
sulfur or sulfur dioxide (SO₂). The process involves a series of reactions, which occur in specific
conditions to ensure maximum efficiency. Below is an explanation of the reactions, along with the
conditions for each step:
1. Production of Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) :
Sulfur is burned in excess oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide: S(s) + O2(g) →Δ SO2(g)
Condition: High temperature (about 1000°C) is required to initiate the reaction.
Reactants: Sulfur (S) and Oxygen (O₂).

2.Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide (SO₃)

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is oxidized to sulfur trioxide (SO₃) in the presence of oxygen (O₂) and a
vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) catalyst: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
Conditions:
Temperature: 450°C
Pressure: 2 atm (for maximum yield)
Catalyst: Vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅)

3.Formation of Oleum (H₂S₂O₇)

Sulfur trioxide (SO₃) is absorbed in concentrated sulfuric acid to form oleum:
SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) → H2S2O7(aq)

4. Formation of Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄)

Oleum is diluted with water to produce concentrated sulfuric acid:
H2S2O7(aq) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(aq)

Behaviour of Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄)

Reaction with Metals:
When dilute sulfuric acid reacts with metals, it releases hydrogen gas and forms the metal sulfate:
Metal (M)+H2​SO4​(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2​SO4​)+H2​(g)
Example With zinc (Zn): Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction with Metal Oxides:
Metal oxides react with dilute sulfuric acid to form metal sulfates and water:
Metal Oxide (MO)+H2SO4(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2SO4)+H2O(l)
Example: With copper(II) oxide (CuO): CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction with Metal Hydroxides:

Metal hydroxides react with dilute sulfuric acid to form metal sulfates and water:
Metal Hydroxide (MOH)+H2SO4(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2SO4)+H2O(l))
Example: With sodium hydroxide (NaOH): 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Reaction with Metal Carbonates:
When metal carbonates react with dilute sulfuric acid, they form metal sulfates, carbon dioxide, and water
Metal Carbonate (MCO3)+H2SO4(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2SO4)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)
Example: With calcium carbonate (CaCO₃): CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Reaction with Metal Bicarbonates:
Metal bicarbonates also react with dilute sulfuric acid to produce metal sulfates, carbon dioxide, and
water
Metal Bicarbonate (MHCO₃)+H2​SO4​(aq)→Metal Sulfate (MSO₄)+CO2​(g)+H2​O(l)
With calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO₃)₂): Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Reaction with Metal Sulfites:

Metal sulfites react with dilute sulfuric acid to form metal sulfates, sulfur dioxide, and water:
Metal Sulfite (MSO₃)+H2SO4(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2SO4)+SO2(g)+H2O(l)
With sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃): Na2SO3(aq)+H2SO4(aq)→Na2SO4(aq)+SO2(g)+H2O(l)

Reaction with Metal Sulfides:

Metal sulfides react with dilute sulfuric acid to produce metal sulfates and hydrogen sulfide gas (H₂S):
Metal Sulfide (MS)+H2SO4(aq)→Metal Sulfate (M2SO4)+H2S(g):
With iron(II) sulfide (FeS): FeS(s)+H2SO4(aq)→FeSO4(aq)+H2S(g)
Concentrated Sulfuric Acid as an Oxidizing Agent : Concentrated
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is a strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes
substances like carbon (C) and sulfur (S) to higher oxidation states.
Oxidation of Carbon (C)
Reaction: When concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with carbon, it oxidizes
carbon to carbon dioxide (CO₂) and produces sulfur dioxide (SO₂).
C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
Oxidation Process: Carbon is oxidized from an oxidation state of 0 to +4 (in
CO₂).
Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and Water (H₂O).

Oxidation of Sulfur (S)

Reaction: Sulfur reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid when heated, producing
sulfur dioxide (SO₂).
S(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) →Δ 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Oxidation Process: Sulfur is oxidized from an oxidation state of 0 to +4 (in SO₂).
Products: Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and Water (H₂O).
Concentrated Sulfuric Acid as a Dehydrating Agent :

1. Dehydration of Sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆) : When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to

sugar (sucrose), it removes water from the sugar, resulting in the formation of
carbon (C) and water (H₂O).

Observation: The reaction is exothermic, producing black carbon (charcoal) and

releasing heat. The sugar is completely dehydrated, and carbon is left behind in
the form of black solid.
Explanation: The sulfuric acid absorbs water from the sugar molecules, leaving
behind elemental carbon.

2. Dehydration of Copper (II) Sulfate Crystals (CuSO₄ · 5H₂O) : When concentrated

sulfuric acid is added to copper(II) sulfate crystals, it removes the water of
crystallization from copper sulfate, turning the blue crystals into white
anhydrous copper sulfate.

Observation: The blue hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO₄ · 5H₂O) changes to a

white anhydrous copper sulfate (CuSO₄) when dehydrated.
Explanation: The concentrated sulfuric acid removes the water molecules
(water of crystallization) from the copper sulfate, leaving behind the
anhydrous form.
Non-Volatile Nature of Sulfuric Acid
Reaction with Sodium or Potassium Chloride (NaCl / KCl)
Reaction:
NaCl + H₂SO₄ → NaHSO₄ + HCl (gas)
KCl + H₂SO₄ → KHSO₄ + HCl (gas)
Observation: HCl gas is released, and bisulfate salts (NaHSO₄ or KHSO₄) are
formed.
Explanation: Sulfuric acid, being non-volatile, reacts with chloride salts to
produce hydrogen chloride gas.

Reaction with Sodium or Potassium Nitrate (NaNO₃ / KNO₃)

Reaction:
NaNO₃ + H₂SO₄ → NaHSO₄ + HNO₃
KNO₃ + H₂SO₄ → KHSO₄ + HNO₃
Observation: Nitric acid (HNO₃) is formed, along with bisulfate salts.
Explanation: Sulfuric acid reacts with nitrate salts to produce nitric acid
without evaporating.
Multiple Choice Questions
Recall
What is the industrial method for the large-scale preparation of sulfuric acid?
A) Ostwald Process
B) Contact Process
C) Haber Process
D) Claus Process
Answer: B) Contact Process

Which of the following reactions is used in the Contact Process for the preparation of sulfuric acid?
A) 2SO₂ + O₂ → 2SO₃
B) SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
C) SO₃ + O₂ → 2SO₄
D) H₂SO₄ + NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + H₂O
Answer: A) 2SO₂ + O₂ → 2SO₃

What is the chemical formula of sulfuric acid?

A) H₂SO₃
B) H₂SO₄
C) H₃SO₄
D) SO₄
Answer: B) H₂SO₄

Understanding

What is the role of vanadium(V) oxide (V₂O₅) in the Contact Process?

A) Catalyst
B) Reducing agent
C) Reactant
D) Inert material
Answer: A) Catalyst

In the Contact Process, what is the purpose of using 450°C temperature and 2 atm pressure?
A) To increase the rate of the reaction
B) To prevent the formation of SO₂
C) To increase the solubility of sulfur dioxide
D) To make the process safer
Answer: A) To increase the rate of the reaction
Applications
What is a common application of concentrated sulfuric acid as an oxidizing agent?
A) Dehydration of sugar
B) Oxidation of sulfur to sulfuric acid
C) Oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide
D) Neutralization with bases
Answer: C) Oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide

Which of the following metals reacts with dilute sulfuric acid to form hydrogen gas?
A) Copper
B) Zinc
C) Lead
D) Gold
Answer: B) Zinc

How does concentrated sulfuric acid act as a dehydrating agent?

A) It removes hydrogen from water molecules.
B) It removes oxygen from water molecules.
C) It removes water molecules from compounds like sugar.
D) It adds water to sugar molecules.
Answer: C) It removes water molecules from compounds like sugar.

Analysis
What happens when copper (II) sulfate crystals are treated with concentrated sulfuric acid?
A) The copper (II) sulfate dissolves.
B) Water is removed from the crystals.
C) The copper (II) sulfate turns blue.
D) The reaction produces sulfur dioxide.
Answer: B) Water is removed from the crystals.

Which of the following is true for sulfuric acid in its concentrated form?
A) It is a weak acid
B) It is a dehydrating agent
C) It reacts violently with water
D) It is a non-volatile compound
Answer: B) It is a dehydrating agent

Which of the following is an observation when dilute sulfuric acid reacts with sodium carbonate?
A) A white precipitate is formed
B) Effervescence is observed
C) No reaction occurs
D) A gas is evolved that turns lime water milky
Answer: B) Effervescence is observed
When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆), what is the product formed?
A) Carbon dioxide
B) Hydrogen gas
C) Carbon
D) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: C) Carbon

Understanding and Application

What is the role of sulfuric acid in the oxidation of sulfur to sulfur dioxide?
A) It acts as a dehydrating agent.
B) It is used to absorb the gases.
C) It acts as an oxidizing agent.
D) It is a catalyst for the reaction.
Answer: C) It acts as an oxidizing agent.

In the reaction of sulfur dioxide with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide in the Contact Process, what is the
intermediate product formed?
A) Sulfuric acid
B) Sulfur
C) Sulfur dioxide
D) Sulfur trioxide
Answer: D) Sulfur trioxide

Why is concentrated sulfuric acid not stored in containers made of iron or copper?
A) It is reactive with metal.
B) It dissolves the metal.
C) It forms non-volatile salts.
D) It corrodes the metal quickly.
Answer: D) It corrodes the metal quickly.

Application
What would happen if concentrated sulfuric acid is added to potassium chloride?
A) A white precipitate of potassium sulfate forms.
B) Sulfur dioxide and chlorine gas are evolved.
C) Hydrogen chloride gas is evolved.
D) Potassium chloride dissolves in the acid.
Answer: B) Sulfur dioxide and chlorine gas are evolved.

What is formed when concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with potassium nitrate?
A) Nitrous acid
B) Nitric acid
C) Nitrogen dioxide
D) Nitrogen monoxide
Answer: B) Nitric acid
Analysis and Application
When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to sugar, what is the final product after complete
dehydration?
A) Water
B) Carbon dioxide
C) Carbon black
D) Sulfur dioxide
Answer: C) Carbon black

What type of reaction occurs when concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with metals like copper or iron?
A) Precipitation
B) Reduction
C) Oxidation
D) Neutralization
Answer: C) Oxidation

What is the outcome when sulfuric acid reacts with a metal bicarbonate, such as sodium
bicarbonate?
A) No reaction occurs
B) A salt and carbon dioxide are produced
C) Water is produced along with a metal oxide
D) A salt and sulfur dioxide are produced
Answer: B) A salt and carbon dioxide are produced

Short Answer Type Questions

Recall
What is the large-scale method used for the preparation of sulfuric acid?
Answer: The large-scale preparation of sulfuric acid is done by the Contact Process.

What is the role of vanadium(V) oxide (V₂O₅) in the Contact Process?

Answer: Vanadium(V) oxide acts as a catalyst in the Contact Process.

What is the chemical formula of sulfuric acid?

Answer: The chemical formula of sulfuric acid is H₂SO₄.

Understanding
Describe the reaction of sulfuric acid with zinc. What products are formed?
Answer: When sulfuric acid reacts with zinc, zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄) and hydrogen gas (H₂) are
produced.
Equation: Zn+H2SO4→ZnSO4+H2

How does concentrated sulfuric acid behave as an oxidizing agent? Give an example.
Answer: Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as an oxidizing agent by oxidizing non-metals like carbon
and sulfur.
Example: The oxidation of carbon:
C+2H2SO4→CO2+2H2O+SO2
What happens when sulfuric acid reacts with sodium carbonate?
Answer: The reaction produces sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water (H₂O).
Equation: Na2CO3+H2SO4→Na2SO4+CO2+H2O

Applications
Why is sulfuric acid considered a non-volatile liquid?
Answer: Sulfuric acid is non-volatile due to its strong intermolecular forces and high boiling point,
which prevent it from vaporizing easily.

What is the reaction of sulfuric acid with potassium chloride (KCl)?

Answer: When concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with potassium chloride, hydrogen chloride (HCl)
gas is produced along with potassium bisulfate (KHSO₄).
Equation: KCl+H2SO4→KHSO4+HCl

How does concentrated sulfuric acid act as a dehydrating agent?

Answer: Concentrated sulfuric acid removes water from compounds, as seen in its reaction with
sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆), resulting in the formation of carbon.
Equation: C6 H12 O6 → H2SO4 → C+6H2O

Analysis
What happens when sulfuric acid reacts with copper (II) sulfate crystals?
Answer: When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to copper (II) sulfate crystals, it acts as a
dehydrating agent, removing water from the crystals and converting CuSO₄·5H₂O into anhydrous
copper (II) sulfate (CuSO₄).

Explain the mechanism by which concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide.
Answer: In this reaction, sulfuric acid acts as an oxidizing agent, removing electrons from carbon
atoms to form carbon dioxide (CO₂).
Equation: C+2H2SO4→CO2+2H2O+SO2

What is the behavior of sulfuric acid when it reacts with a metal hydroxide, such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)?
Answer: Sulfuric acid reacts with metal hydroxides to form salts and water.
Equation: NaOH+H2SO4→Na2SO4+H2O

Understanding and Application

How does sulfuric acid behave when it is dilute? Describe its reaction with a metal oxide like
copper(II) oxide.
Answer: When sulfuric acid is dilute, it behaves as an acid, reacting with metal oxides to form salts.
Equation: CuO+H2SO4→CuSO4+H2O
Write the equation for the oxidation of sulfur by concentrated sulfuric acid.
Answer: The oxidation of sulfur by concentrated sulfuric acid produces sulfur dioxide (SO₂).
Equation: S+2H2SO4→SO2+2H2O+SO3

Application
What is formed when sulfuric acid reacts with a metal bicarbonate, like sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO₃)?
Answer: The reaction produces sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water (H₂O).
Equation: 2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

What is the result when sulfuric acid reacts with sodium nitrate?
Answer: The reaction produces nitric acid (HNO₃) and sodium bisulfate (NaHSO₄).
Equation: NaNO3+H2SO4→HNO3+NaHSO4

When concentrated sulfuric acid is used as an oxidizing agent, what is produced during the
oxidation of sulfur?
Answer: During the oxidation of sulfur, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and water (H₂O) are produced.
Equation: S+2H2SO4→SO2+2H2O+SO3

Analysis and Application

What is the effect of concentrated sulfuric acid on sodium chloride?
Answer: When concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with sodium chloride, hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas
and sodium bisulfate (NaHSO₄) are produced.
Equation: NaCl+H2SO4→NaHSO4+HCl

What is the role of sulfuric acid in the dehydration of sugar?

Answer: Sulfuric acid removes water molecules from sugar, leaving behind carbon.
Equation: C6 H12 O6→H2SO4C+6H2O

How does concentrated sulfuric acid react with metals such as copper and iron?
Answer: Concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes metals like copper and iron, producing sulfur dioxide
(SO₂) and metal sulfate.
Equation (copper): Cu+2H2SO4→CuSO4+2H2O+SO2
 Organic Chemistry
Introduction to Organic compounds
Organic compounds are carbon-based compounds, typically containing carbon-
hydrogen bonds. The study of organic compounds is known as organic chemistry.
Unique Nature of Carbon Atom :
Tetravalency: Carbon has four valence electrons, allowing it to form four covalent bonds
with other atoms. This enables the formation of a wide variety of organic compounds.
Example: In methane (CH₄), carbon forms four bonds with four hydrogen atoms.

Catenation: Carbon atoms can form long chains and rings by bonding with other carbon
atoms. This ability to form stable chains is called catenation.
Example: In ethane (C₂H₆), carbon atoms are bonded together to form a chain.
Formation of Bonds
Single Bond (σ-bond): Carbon can form single bonds with other atoms by sharing one
pair of electrons.
Example: In methane (CH₄), carbon forms single bonds with hydrogen atoms.
Double Bond (π-bond): Carbon can also form double bonds by sharing two pairs of
electrons.
Example: In ethene (C₂H₄), two carbon atoms are connected by a double bond (C=C).
Triple Bond: Carbon can form triple bonds by sharing three pairs of electrons.
Example: In ethyne (C₂H₂), carbon atoms form a triple bond (C≡C).

Types of Organic Compounds

Straight Chain: Carbon atoms are linked in an
unbranched line.
Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) has a straight
chain of four carbon atoms.

Branched Chain: Carbon atoms form a chain with branches.

Example: Isobutane (C₄H₁₀) is a branched form of butane.

Cyclic Compounds: Carbon atoms are connected in a ring structure.

Example: Benzene (C₆H₆) is a cyclic compound with six carbon atoms forming a stable
ring, with alternating single and double bonds between them.

Structure of Compounds with Single, Double, and Triple Bonds

Single Bonds (Alkanes): Alkanes are hydrocarbons with only single bonds between
carbon atoms.
General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂

Example:
Methane (CH₄): Single bonds between carbon and hydrogen.
Butane (C₄H₁₀): C-C single bonds forming a chain.
Double Bonds (Alkenes): Alkenes are Triple Bonds (Alkynes): Alkynes are
hydrocarbons with at least one double hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond
bond between carbon atoms. between carbon atoms.
General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
Example: Example:
Ethene (C₂H₄): C=C double bond. Ethyne (C₂H₂): C≡C triple bond.
Butene (C₄H₈): C=C double bond. Butyne (C₄H₆): C≡C triple bond.

Isomerism in Organic Compounds

Structural Isomerism: Compounds with the same
Isomerism
molecular formula but different structural arrangements.
Isomerism refers to the existence of two
This can be of two types:
or more compounds with the same
molecular formula but different
Chain Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular structures or arrangements of atoms.
formula but different carbon chain arrangements. This topic focuses on the structure of
Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) has two isomers: organic compounds and the types of
Butane (straight chain) isomerism, especially in hydrocarbons.
Isobutane (branched chain)

Position Isomerism: Compounds with the

same molecular formula but different
positions of functional groups (like double or
triple bonds).
Example: Butene (C₄H₈) has two position
isomers:
1-Butene (double bond at the first
position)
2-Butene (double bond at the second
position)

Homologous Series
Homologous Series refers to a group of organic compounds that share the same functional
group and have similar chemical properties, but differ by a CH₂ group (methylene group) in
their molecular formula. These compounds have a common general formula, and the series
progresses with a consistent difference in molecular mass

Characteristics:
Same Functional Group: All members of a homologous series have the same functional
group, which defines their chemical properties.
Gradation in Properties: As the number of carbon atoms increases, the physical
properties (like boiling point, melting point) change gradually, while the chemical
properties remain similar.
Differ by CH₂ Unit: Successive members of a homologous series differ by one CH₂ group
in their molecular formula.
Similar Chemical Reactions: All members of a homologous series undergo similar types
of chemical reactions, such as combustion, addition, or substitution reactions.
Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈), Butane (C₄H₁₀), etc.
Alkane Series (Saturated Hydrocarbons) : General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
Properties:
Only single bonds between carbon atoms.
Relatively less reactive, undergo combustion and substitution reactions.
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.

Alkene Series (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons) : General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ

Properties:
Contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms.
More reactive than alkanes, undergo addition reactions.
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.

Alkyne Series (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons) : General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂

Properties:
Contain at least one triple bond between carbon atoms.
Highly reactive, undergo addition reactions.
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents.

Gradation in Properties and Molecular Mass Relationship

Boiling and Melting Points:
Increase with the number of carbon atoms.
As molecular mass increases, intermolecular forces (van der Waals) become
stronger, leading to higher boiling and melting points.
Example: Methane (boiling point -161°C) vs. Butane (boiling point -0.5°C).

Reactivity:
Alkanes are less reactive (due to single bonds).
Alkenes and alkynes are more reactive due to the presence of double or triple bonds.

Flammability:
All are highly flammable, but alkenes and alkynes burn more vigorously due to their
higher reactivity.
Solubility:
All hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes) are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents.
Simple Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons

Longest Chain Rule: The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms is selected as the
parent chain. This chain determines the root name of the compound.

Smallest Number Rule: Functional groups (double bond, triple bond, etc.) are given
the lowest possible number based on their position in the chain.
Hydrocarbons with Simple Functional Groups
Alkanes (Single Bonds) : General Formula: Alkenes (Double Bonds) : General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ
CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ Example:
Example: Trivial Name: Ethene (C₂H₄)
Trivial Name: Methane (CH₄) IUPAC Name: Ethene
IUPAC Name: Methane Naming: The suffix "-ene" is used for compounds
Naming: Use "ane" as the suffix for with a double bond. The position of the double
saturated hydrocarbons. bond is indicated by the lowest possible number.

Alkynes (Triple Bonds) : General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂

Example:
Trivial Name: Ethyne (C₂H₂)
IUPAC Name: Ethyne
Naming: The suffix "-yne" is used for compounds with a triple bond. The position of the
triple bond is indicated by the lowest possible number.

Functional Groups and Nomenclature

Alcohol Group (-OH) : General Formula: Aldehyde Group (-CHO) : General Formula:
CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH CₙH₂ₙ₋₁CHO
Example: Example:
Trivial Name: Ethyl alcohol (C₂H₅OH) Trivial Name: Acetaldehyde (C₂H₄O)
IUPAC Name: Ethanol IUPAC Name: Ethanal
Naming: Use the suffix "-ol" and number Naming: Use the suffix "-al" for aldehydes. The
the carbon chain to give the -OH group the aldehyde group is always at the end of the carbon
lowest possible number. chain, so no numbering is needed.

Carboxyl Group (-COOH)

General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂COOH
Example:
Trivial Name: Acetic acid (CH₃COOH)
IUPAC Name: Ethanoic acid
Naming: Use the suffix "-oic acid" for carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is always at the end
of the chain.

Steps for Naming Hydrocarbons Examples of Naming Compounds:

1. Identify the functional group C₂H₄ (Ethene): Alkene with a double bond, so
(double bond, triple bond, name is Ethene.
alcohol, aldehyde, or carboxyl). C₃H₈O (Propanol): Alcohol group (-OH), so
2. Find the longest chain of carbon name is Propanol.
atoms, which gives the base C₄H₆ (Butyne): Alkyne with a triple bond, so
name of the hydrocarbon. name is Butyne.
3. Number the carbon chain from C₄H₆O (Butanal): Aldehyde group (-CHO), so
the end nearest to the name is Butanal.
functional group, ensuring the C₂H₄O₂ (Acetic acid): Carboxyl group (-COOH),
smallest possible number for so name is Ethanoic acid.
the functional group.
4. Apply the appropriate suffix
Key Takeaways:
based on the functional group.
5. For more than one functional Suffixes:
group, follow the priority order
of functional groups, but here -ane for alkanes
-ene for alkenes
we focus on one functional -yne for alkynes
group at a time. -ol for alcohols
-al for aldehydes
-oic acid for carboxylic acids

Naming Priority: Follow the longest chain and

smallest number rules.
Hydrocarbons: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes.
Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons)
General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ (where n is the number of carbon atoms).
Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆).

Preparation of Alkanes
(a) From Sodium Ethanoate (Sodium Acetate)
Reaction: Sodium ethanoate (CH₃COONa) is heated with soda lime (CaO +
NaOH) to produce ethane.
Equation: CH3 COONa + NaOH → CaO, heat C2H6 + Na2CO3
Products: Ethane (C₂H₆), Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).

(b) From Sodium Propanoate (Sodium Propionate)

Reaction: Sodium propanoate (CH₃CH₂COONa) is heated with soda lime to form
propane.
Equation: CH3 CH2 COONa + NaOH → CaO, heat C3H8 + Na2CO3
Products: Propane (C₃H₈), Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃).

(c) From Iodomethane (Methyl Iodide)

Reaction: Methyl iodide (CH₃I) reacts with sodium to form methane.
Equation: 2CH3I + 2Na → 2CH4 + 2NaI2CH₃I + 2Na
Products: Methane (CH₄), Sodium iodide (NaI).

(d) From Bromoethane (Ethyl Bromide)

Reaction: Ethyl bromide (C₂H₅Br) reacts with sodium to form ethane.
Equation:C2H5 Br+Na → C2H6 + NaBr
Products: Ethane (C₂H₆), Sodium bromide (NaBr).

Reactions of Methane and Ethane

(a) Complete Combustion of Methane (CH₄)

Reaction: Methane reacts with oxygen in excess to form carbon dioxide and
water.
Equation: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

(b) Complete Combustion of Ethane (C₂H₆)

Reaction:Ethane reacts with oxygen in excess to form carbon dioxide and water.
Equation: 2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Water (H₂O).

(c) Substitution Reaction of Methane with Chlorine

Reaction: Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight to form
chloromethane.
Equation: CH4 + Cl2 → UV light CH3Cl + HCl
Products: Chloromethane (CH₃Cl), Hydrogen chloride (HCl).

(d) Substitution Reaction of Ethane with Chlorine

Reaction: Ethane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight to form
chloroethane.
Equation: C2H6 + Cl2 → UV light C2H5Cl+HCl
Products: Chloroethane (C₂H₅Cl), Hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Alkenes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a double bond.
Example: Ethene (C₂H₄)

Preparation:
Dehydrohalogenation Reaction: Removal of HX from alkyl halide in the
presence of alcoholic KOH.
CH₃-CH₂Br + alc. KOH → CH₂=CH₂ + HBr
Dehydration Reaction: Removal of water from alcohol in the presence of
concentrated H₂SO₄.
CH₃-CH₂OH → CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O

Properties:
Addition with Hydrogen:
CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ → CH₃-CH₃ (Nickel catalyst required)
Addition with Halogens (Cl₂, Br₂, I₂):
CH₂=CH₂ + Br₂ → CH₂Br-CH₂Br
Alkynes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a triple bond.
Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂)

Preparation:
From Calcium Carbide:
CaC₂ + H₂O → C₂H₂ + Ca(OH)₂
From Ethylene Dibromide (1,2-Dibromoethane):
CH₂Br-CH₂Br + alc. KOH → CH≡CH + 2HBr

Properties:
Addition with Hydrogen:
CH≡CH + 2H₂ → CH₃-CH₃
Addition with Halogens (Cl₂, Br₂, I₂):
CH≡CH + 2Br₂ → CHBr₂-CHBr₂

Uses
Methane: Used as fuel and in the production of chemicals like methanol.
Ethane: Refrigerant and precursor in ethylene production.
Ethene: Used for making polyethylene and ripening fruits.
Ethyne: Used in welding and as a starting material for chemical synthesis.
Alcohols
Preparation of ethanol by hydrolysis of alkyl halide :
C₂H₅Cl + KOH (aq) → C₂H₅OH + KCl

Properties of Ethanol
Physical Properties:
Nature: Clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor.
Solubility: Completely miscible with water due to hydrogen bonding.
Density: 0.789 g/cm³ (lighter than water).
Boiling Point: 78.5°C.

Chemical Properties:
Combustion: Burns with a blue flame : C₂H₅OH + 3O₂ → 2CO₂ + 3H₂O + Heat

Reaction with Sodium: Forms sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas

2C₂H₅OH + 2Na → 2C₂H₅ONa + H₂

Ester Formation (Esterification): Reacts with acetic acid in the presence of

concentrated H₂SO₄.
C₂H₅OH + CH₃COOH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O

Dehydration: Forms ethene when heated with concentrated H₂SO₄.

C₂H₅OH → CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O
Denatured Alcohol : Denatured Alcohol: Ethanol mixed with toxic substances (e.g.,
methanol) to make it unfit for drinking.
Base Compound: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

Additives:
Methanol: CH₃OH
Pyridine: C₅H₅N
Kerosene: (A mixture of hydrocarbons, no fixed formula)

Spurious Alcohol : Adulterated or low-quality alcohol, often unsafe for

consumption.
Base Compound: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)
Adulterants:
Methanol: CH₃OH (commonly used but highly toxic)
Other impurities or toxic chemicals, depending on illegal production methods.

Important uses of Ethanol.

As a solvent in perfumes, medicines, and paints.
In the preparation of alcoholic beverages.
As a fuel and in gasohol (ethanol + petrol).
In the manufacture of acetic acid and esters.
Used as an antiseptic in sanitizers and disinfectants
Carboxylic acids
Structure of acetic acid
Formula: CH₃COOH
Structure: Contains a carboxyl group (-COOH)
attached to a methyl group (CH₃).

Properties of Acetic Acid

Physical Properties:
Odor: Pungent smell; vinegar owes its characteristic smell to acetic acid.
Glacial Acetic Acid: Pure acetic acid solidifies at 16.6°C, forming ice-like
crystals when sufficiently cooled.

Chemical Properties:
Action with Litmus: Turns blue litmus red (acidic nature).
Reaction with Alkalis: Forms salts (acetates).
CH₃COOH + NaOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O
Reaction with Alcohol (Esterification): Forms esters in the presence of
concentrated H₂SO₄.
CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O

Uses of Acetic Acid

As a preservative (in pickles and food, commonly as vinegar).
In the manufacture of synthetic fibers like rayon and plastics.
In the preparation of esters for perfumes and flavoring agents.
As a cleaning agent to remove lime deposits.
As a solvent in laboratories and industries.
Multiple Choice Questions
Understanding and Recall
1. What is the unique characteristic of the carbon atom that allows it to form large,
complex organic molecules?
a) Tetravalency
b) Bivalence
c) Monovalency
d) Trivalency
Answer: a) Tetravalency
Understanding and Application
2. Which of the following is an example of a compound formed by the catenation
property of carbon?
a) Methane (CH₄)
b) Benzene (C₆H₆)
c) Ammonia (NH₃)
d) Water (H₂O)
Answer: b) Benzene (C₆H₆)
Recall and Understanding
3. What is the general formula for alkanes?
a) CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
b) CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
c) CₙH₂ₙ
d) CₙHₙ
Answer: b) CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
Understanding
4. Which of the following is an example of an alkene?
a) Ethane (C₂H₆)
b) Methane (CH₄)
c) Ethene (C₂H₄)
d) Ethyne (C₂H₂)
Answer: c) Ethene (C₂H₄)
Recall
5. What is the molecular formula of propane?
a) C₂H₆
b) C₃H₆
c) C₃H₈
d) C₄H₁₀
Answer: c) C₃H₈
Analysis
6. Which is an example of isomerism in hydrocarbons?
a) Methane and ethane
b) Butane and isobutane
c) Ethene and ethyne
d) Propane and methane
Answer: b) Butane and isobutane
Understanding and Application
7. Which of the following functional groups is present in alcohols?
a) -OH
b) -COOH
c) -C=O
d) -NH₂
Answer: a) -OH
Understanding
8. What is the IUPAC name of the compound with the formula C₂H₄?
a) Ethane
b) Ethene
c) Ethyne
d) Propane
Answer: b) Ethene
Application
9. Which of the following is the correct method to prepare ethene from ethanol?
a) Dehydration with NaOH
b) Dehydration with concentrated sulfuric acid
c) Addition of chlorine
d) Combustion of ethanol
Answer: b) Dehydration with concentrated sulfuric acid
Analysis and Application
10. Which of the following compounds is used for the preparation of ethanol by the
hydrolysis method?
a) Bromoethane
b) Bromine
c) Acetylene
d) Ethanol
Answer: a) Bromoethane
Recall
11. What is the molecular formula of acetic acid?
a) C₂H₆O₂
b) C₃H₈O₂
c) C₆H₁₄O₂
d) C₄H₆O₂
Answer: a) C₂H₆O₂
Understanding and Recall
12. What is the primary reaction when ethanol reacts with sodium metal?
a) Formation of ethane
b) Formation of ethyl chloride
c) Formation of sodium ethoxide and hydrogen
d) Formation of sodium ethanoate
Answer: c) Formation of sodium ethoxide and hydrogen
Application and Analysis
13. Which compound undergoes esterification when reacted with acetic acid?
a) Acetone
b) Propanol
c) Methanol
d) Ethanol
Answer: d) Ethanol
Understanding and Recall
14. What is the chemical formula of methane?
a) CH₄
b) C₂H₄
c) C₃H₆
d) C₄H₁₀
Answer: a) CH₄
Understanding and Application
15. Which of the following is the simplest method to prepare acetylene (ethyne)?
a) Dehydration of ethanol
b) Reaction of calcium carbide with water
c) Reaction of ethene with hydrogen
d) Reaction of ethane with chlorine
Answer: b) Reaction of calcium carbide with water
Analysis and Application
16. Which of the following reactions is characteristic of alkenes?
a) Addition of hydrogen to form alkane
b) Substitution with chlorine
c) Oxidation to alcohol
d) Dehydration to alkynes
Answer: a) Addition of hydrogen to form alkane
Understanding
17. What is the product of the addition of bromine to ethene?
a) Ethane
b) Ethyne
c) 1,2-Dibromoethane
d) Butane
Answer: c) 1,2-Dibromoethane
Recall
18. What is the functional group in carboxylic acids?
a) -COOH
b) -OH
c) -C=O
d) -NH₂
Answer: a) -COOH
Application
19. Which of the following is an example of a monosubstituted alkene?
a) Butene
b) Methane
c) Methanol
d) Acetylene
Answer: a) Butene

Analysis and Recall

20. Which of the following is used to test for the presence of an alkene?
a) Bromine water
b) Litmus paper
c) Sodium hydroxide
d) Acidified potassium dichromate
Answer: a) Bromine water

Short Answer Type Questions

Understanding
Question: Explain why carbon is unique in forming a wide variety of compounds.
Solution: Carbon is unique because of its tetra valency (it can form four bonds) and
catenation (ability to form long chains or rings with other carbon atoms). This
enables carbon to form a vast variety of compounds with other elements and with
itself, leading to the formation of organic compounds.

Understanding
Question: What is catenation? How does it contribute to the formation of organic
compounds?
Solution: Catenation is the ability of an element (like carbon) to form chains or rings
by bonding with itself. This property of carbon allows it to form long chains (as in
alkanes) and cyclic structures (as in benzene), which are fundamental to organic
compounds.

Understanding
Question: Describe the bonding in methane (CH₄) and explain why it is a stable
molecule.
Solution: In methane, carbon forms four covalent bonds with four hydrogen atoms.
Carbon shares one electron with each hydrogen, completing its octet. The molecule
is stable because all the bonds are strong covalent bonds, and the molecule has a
tetrahedral geometry, minimizing repulsion between electron pairs.
Application
Question: Draw the structural formula of ethene (C₂H₄) and explain the type of bond
formed between the carbon atoms.
Solution: Structural formula of ethene:
CH₂=CH₂
Ethene has a double bond between the two carbon atoms. Each carbon atom shares
two electrons with the other, forming a double bond, which consists of one sigma
bond and one pi bond. This makes ethene an unsaturated hydrocarbon.

Recall
Question: What is the general molecular formula of alkenes?
Solution: The general molecular formula of alkenes is CₙH₂ₙ, where "n" is the number
of carbon atoms in the molecule.

Application
Question: Name the type of isomerism exhibited by butane (C₄H₁₀) and explain the
difference between the two isomers.
Solution: Butane exhibits structural isomerism, specifically chain isomerism. The
two isomers of butane are:
n-Butane: a straight-chain alkane.
Isobutane (methylpropane): a branched-chain alkane.
Both have the same molecular formula, but their structures are different.

Understanding
Question: What are homologous series? Give examples for alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes.
Solution: A homologous series is a series of organic compounds that differ by a
constant unit (usually a -CH₂ group) in their molecular formula. Examples:
Alkanes: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈), etc.
Alkenes: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆), Butene (C₄H₈), etc.
Alkynes: Ethyne (C₂H₂), Propyne (C₃H₄), Butyne (C₄H₆), etc.

Application
Question: Explain how the boiling points of alkanes change with an increase in the
number of carbon atoms.
Solution: As the number of carbon atoms increases in alkanes, the boiling point
increases. This is because larger molecules have more surface area and stronger
van der Waals forces, requiring more energy to overcome these forces and boil the
substance.
Analysis
Question: Why do alkynes generally have higher reactivity than alkenes and
alkanes?
Solution: Alkynes have a triple bond between carbon atoms, which is more reactive
than the double bond in alkenes and the single bond in alkanes. The triple bond has
a high electron density, making alkynes more susceptible to addition reactions,
which is why they are more reactive.

Understanding and Application

Question: Explain the longest chain rule in naming organic compounds with
examples.
Solution: The longest chain rule states that the longest continuous carbon chain in a
molecule is considered the parent chain for naming. Substituents and functional
groups are numbered based on the position on this chain. For example, in C₆H₁₂
(hexane), the longest chain is six carbon atoms, and the compound is named as
hexane.

Recall
Question: What is the IUPAC name of CH₃CH₂OH?
Solution:
The IUPAC name of CH₃CH₂OH is ethanol.

Application
Question: How is ethene (C₂H₄) prepared in the laboratory by dehydration of
ethanol? Write the reaction.
Solution: Ethene can be prepared by the dehydration of ethanol using concentrated
sulfuric acid as a catalyst. The reaction is: C₂H₅OH → H₂SO₄ → C₂H₄+H₂O

Analysis and Application

Question: In the reaction of ethene with hydrogen (hydrogenation), why does the
product ethane (C₂H₆) have a saturated structure?
Solution: During hydrogenation, ethene (an unsaturated hydrocarbon) reacts with
hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst (like palladium). The double bond in ethene
breaks, and each carbon atom bonds with a hydrogen atom, resulting in ethane,
which is saturated because it now has single bonds between all carbon atoms.

Understanding
Question: What is the general formula of alkynes? Provide an example.
Solution: The general molecular formula of alkynes is CₙH₂ₙ₋₂. Example: Ethyne
(C₂H₂).
Application
Question: Write the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of
methane (CH₄).
Solution: The balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of methane
is: CH₄+2O₂→CO₂+2H₂O

Understanding
Question: What is the significance of using ethanol in the process of esterification?
Write the reaction involved with acetic acid.
Solution: Ethanol is used in esterification to form an ester when it reacts with a
carboxylic acid (like acetic acid). The reaction produces an ester and water.
The reaction is:
C₂H₅OH+CH₃COOH→CH₃COOC₂H₅+H₂O
(Ethanol + Acetic acid → Ethyl acetate + Water)

Recall
Question: What is the molecular formula of acetic acid?
Solution: The molecular formula of acetic acid is CH₃COOH.

Application
Question: How is acetic acid used in the production of vinegar? Explain its properties
that make it suitable for this use.
Solution: Acetic acid is the key component of vinegar, typically found in a dilute form
(around 4-8%). Its sour taste and ability to act as a preservative make it ideal for
use in vinegar production.

Analysis
Question: Why does acetic acid freeze at temperatures below 16°C, and what is the
state of acetic acid in its pure form at this temperature?
Solution: Acetic acid freezes at 16°C because of its strong hydrogen bonding, which
leads to the formation of a solid structure at lower temperatures. At this
temperature, pure acetic acid is in its solid (glacial) form.

Recall
Question: List two major uses of ethanol.
Solution: As a fuel: Ethanol is used as a biofuel in vehicles and engines.
In alcoholic beverages: Ethanol is the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks.