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QUANTITATIVE
REASONING
Exploring Quantitative Skills
Muhammad Usman Hamid
University of Sargodha
Ayesha Ghazanfar
Ammara Batool
Raniya Hayat
Superior College, Sillanwali

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Preface
Since ancient times, numbers, quantification, statistics and mathematics has played a
central role in scientific and technological development. In the 21st century, Quantitative
Reasoning (QR) skills are essential for life as they help to better understand socio-
economic, political, health, education, and many other issues, an individual now faces in
daily life. The skills acquired by taking this course will help the students to apply QR
methods in their daily life and professional activities. This course will also change
student‘s attitude about statistics and mathematics. It will not only polish their QR skills,
but also enhance their abilities to apply these skills.
We would like to extend our sincerest gratitude to Ayesha Ghazanfar, Ammara Batool,
and Rania Hayat for their invaluable contributions to this project. Their tireless efforts in
research, content development, and editing have been instrumental in shaping this book
into its current form. Their dedication, expertise, and passion for quantitative skills have
enriched this publication, and we are deeply grateful for their involvement.
Through this book, we aim to equip readers with a solid understanding of quantitative
concepts, techniques, and applications. Our goal is to foster a community of individuals
who can navigate complex data, think critically, and make informed decisions in an
increasingly data-driven world.
We hope that Exploring Quantitative Skills will serve as a valuable resource for students,
professionals, and anyone seeking to enhance their numerical literacy. Thank you for
joining us on this journey, and we wish you success in your pursuit of quantitative
excellence.
Muhammad Usman Hamid
University of Sargodha

Mathematical Thinking and Quantitative Reasoning presents an analytical investigation of

topics and concepts that are relevant to modern society. Our goal is to demonstrate the
power of mathematics and quantitative reasoning in solving contemporary problems.
The purpose of this text is to strengthen students‘ quantitative reasoning skills by having
them solve a variety of real-world problems. Although we assume that the reader has an
intermediate algebra background, each topic is carefully developed, and appropriate
material is reviewed whenever necessary. When deciding on the depth of coverage, our
singular criterion was to make mathematics accessible.
Dr. Aamir Shahzad
Baba Guru Nanak University

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Sr # Chapter Name Pg #
No. No.
1 Introduction to Numeracy 3
 Introduction to quantitative reasoning
 Overview of contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians
especially Muslim scholars.
 Types of standard numbers
 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

2 Unit analysis as a problem-solving tool 18

 Dimensions, Area, Volume, Perimeter
3 Proportions 59
 Proportions, rates, ratio and percentages
4 Data handling and Errors 82
 Data handling (small and large)
 Data errors, absolute and relative and their
applications
5 Financial indicator analysis, and money management 91
 Profit, loss, zakat, ushr, tax
 Simple and compound interest
6 Numbers 123
 sequence and series
7 Statistics
 Descriptive statistics
 Scale of measurements
8 Rules of counting
 Multiplication rule
 Factorial, permutation and combination
9 Probability
 Probability and its application in real life
 Odds and odds ratio
10 Sets and Expressions
 A graphical perspective through Venn Diagram
 Practical scenarios involving algebraic expressions:
linear and quadratic

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INTRODUCTION to Numeracy
Welcome to Quantitative Skills and Reasoning! Just what are quantitative skills and
reasoning? The simple answer is working with numbers, making sense of data, and using
your brain to figure things out. This will cover fundamental concepts from problem
solving, statistics, probability, graphs, logic, sets, measurements, and finance.
What is Reasoning?
Reasoning is the ability to assess things rationally by applying logic based on new or
existing information when making a decision or solving a problem. It allows you to
weigh the benefits and disadvantages of two or more courses of action before choosing
the one with the most benefit or the one that suits your needs.

Types of Reasoning

 Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning that uses formal logic and observations to prove a
theory or hypothesis. It can be used to apply a general law to a specific case or test an
induction. Its results typically have a logical certainty.
 Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples. It uses theories and assumptions to validate
observations. It can be used to apply a specific law to a general. Its results are not always
certain because it uses conclusions from observations to make generalizations. It is
helpful for extrapolation, prediction and part – to – whole arguments.
 Analogical Reasoning: Form of thinking that finds similarities between two or more
things and then use those characteristics to find other qualities common to them. It is
based on brain tendency. It can help you expand your understanding by looking for
similarities between different things.
 Abductive Reasoning: Type of reasoning that uses an observation or set of observations
to reach a logical conclusion. It is similar to inductive reasoning; however it permits
making best guesses to arrive at the simplest conclusions.
 Cause and Effect Reasoning: Type of thinking in which you show the linkage between
two events. It explains what may happen if an action takes place or why things happen
when some conditions are present.
 Critical Thinking: It involves extensive rational thought about a specific object in order
to come to a definitive conclusion. It is helpful in logic, computing and social sciences.
 Decompositional Reasoning: It is the process of breaking things into constituent parts
to understand the function of each component and how it contributes to the operation of
the item as a whole. It is helpful in logic, computing, game theory, product development,
marketing and social sciences.

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Quantitative Skills

Any skills that use or manipulate numbers are called quantitative skills. They help to make
sense of numerical, categorical or ordinal data and scientific concepts. It is helpful in
statistics, economics, algebra, finance, business, logic and social sciences.

Quantitative Reasoning / Quantitative Literacy / Numeracy

Quantitative Reasoning is the ability to assess mathematical ideas or things rationally by

applying logic based on new or existing information when making a decision or solving a
problem. It is application of mathematical concepts or skills to solve real world problems.

Importance of Quantitative Skills / Numeracy

Numeracy is simply the application of critical thinking skills like analysis and interpretation
along with mathematical basics like algebra to quantitative information. It refers to the ability
to solve quantitative reasoning problems, or to making judgment derived from quantitative
reasoning in a variety of context. It helps to make sense of numerical, categorical or ordinal
data and scientific concepts. It is helpful in statistics, economics, algebra, finance, business,
logic and social sciences.

Quantitative Reasoning Examples

 Statical Analysis: Analysts apply quantitative reasoning when they assess large dataset to
derive meaningful conclusions. They use statical methods like regression analysis and
hypothesis testing to interpret data and distinguish patterns.
 Financial Planning: A financial planner utilizes quantitative reasoning for a client‘s
investment strategy. This involves analyzing expected returns, tax implications and risk
factors.

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What is Mathematics?

The branch of science that deals with the numbers is called Mathematics. The world
―Mathematics‖ is derived from the Greek word ―Mathematikos‖ which means ―inclined to
learn‖

Mathematics is based on deductive reasoning though man's first experience with mathematics
was of an inductive nature. This means that the foundation of mathematics is the study of
some logical and philosophical notions. We elaborate in simple terms that the deductive
system involves four things:

Known Branches of Mathematics

 Logi: The Study of Principles of Reasoning.

 Arithmetic: Method for operating on numbers.
 Algebra: Method for working with unknown quantities.
 Geometry: The study of size and shape.
 Trigonometry: The study of triangles and their uses.
 Probability: The study of chance.
 Statistics: Method for analyzing data.
 Calculus: The study of quantities that change.

Remember

 * +
 * +
 * +
 2 3
 2 3

 * +


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Number System

A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, & label. It is the mathematical
notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a
consistent manner. It provides a unique representation of every number and represents the
arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures.

Number System: A system of writing to express numbers. It presents a unique

representation of numbers

Types

 Binary Number system has only two digits that 0 & 1

 Octal Number System has only eight digits from 0 to 7
 Decimal Number System has only ten digits from 0 to 9
 Hexadecimal Number System has sixteen alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 & A to F

Types of Standard Numbers

1. Natural Numbers

The set of positive integers that start at 1 and continue infinitely. The set of natural numbers
is represented by the letter ―N‖ or the symbol ℕ.

N = {1,2,3,4,5….}

2. Whole Numbers

In math, whole numbers are positive integers, including zero, that do not have any decimal or
fractional parts. The symbol for whole numbers is ―W‖

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...}

3. Integers

Integers, also known as whole numbers or round numbers, are positive or negative numbers
that don't have fractional or decimal parts. The symbol for integers is Z

Z = {−1,−2,0,1,2,...}

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4. Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers includes all the integers, each of which can be written as a
quotient with the integer as the numerator and 1 as the denominator. rational number, in
arithmetic, a number that can be represented as the quotient p/q of two integers such that
q ≠ 0. i.e. 2 3

Q = {3/2,⅕, ¾…}

5. Irrational Numbers

An irrational number is a real number that cannot be written as a fraction of two integers, or
in the form of p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0

*√ √ √ +

6. Real Numbers

Real numbers can be positive or negative & include fractions, integers& irrational numbers.
They can be used in arithmetic operations and represented on a number line.

R = {23, 12, 6.99, 5/2, π, √ , 12.6}

7. Prime or Composite Numbers

A prime number is a whole number that is greater than 1 and can only be divided by itself
and 1 without a remainder. For example, 19 is a prime number because it can only be divided
by 1 and 19 these are P ={2,3,5,7,11…}

8. Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number that has both real and imaginary parts, and is written in the
form * +. For example * +

9. Even & Odd Numbers

Even numbers are numbers that can be divided into two equal parts, while odd numbers are
numbers that cannot.

Even numbers: End in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8

Odd numbers: End in 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9

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Arithmetic

Arithmetic is a field of mathematic that studies the characteristics of classical operations on

numbers, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation and root
extraction.

Arithmetic Operations

Arithmetic is the fundamental of mathematics that includes the operations of numbers. These
operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Arithmetic is one of the
important branches of mathematics that lays the foundation of the subject 'Maths', for
students.

Addition

Combines objects into a larger collection, or increases a value. It's represented by the plus
sign (+) and the answer is called the sum. For example, 4 + 7 = 11.

Subtraction

Finds the difference between numbers or quantities, or decreases a value. It's represented by
the minus sign (-) and the answer is called the difference. For example, 9 - 7 = 2.

Multiplication

Multiplication is represented by the multiplication signs ( ) or (*), and division is

represented by the division signs (÷) or (/4, 5, 6). For example, 8 multiplied by 4 is equal to
32, which can be written as 8 4 = 32.

Division

Division is a method of dividing or distributing a number into equal parts. For example, 16
divided by 4 is equal to 4, which can be written as 16 ÷ 4 = 4.

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Contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians

Especially Muslim Scholars
Here is the list with era, date of birth, and date of death:
Mathematicians:

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

Developed calculus, laws of motion, and universal gravitation
Published "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687)
Laid the foundation for classical mechanics and modern physics

Archimedes (c. 287 BC - c. 212 BC)

Discovered the principle of buoyancy and developed fluid mechanics
Made significant contributions to geometry and the study of spheres,
cylinders, and cones
Invented various machines, including the Claw of Archimedes and
the Archimedes' screw

Euclid(fl. 300 BC)

Authored the famous book "Elements," systematizing geometry and
establishing axioms
Developed the concept of theorems and proofs
Introduced the concept of irrational numbers

Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)

Developed probability theory and the concept of expected value
Made significant contributions to celestial mechanics and the study of
planetary motion
Published "A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities" (1812)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Developed the theory of special relativity and the famous equation E = mc2
Introduced the concept of spacetime and the speed of light as a
universal constant
Made significant contributions to the development of quantum mechanics

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Statisticians:

Ronald Fisher (1890-1962)

Developed modern statistical inference and experimental design
Introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing
Made significant contributions to the development of maximum
likelihood estimation

Karl Pearson (1857-1936)

Developed the correlation coefficient and principal component analysis
Introduced the concept of the p-value
Published "The Grammar of Science" (1892)

William Gosset (1876-1937)

Developed the t-distribution and statistical hypothesis testing
Introduced the concept of the t-test
Made significant contributions to quality control and statistical process control

John Tukey (1915-2000)

Developed exploratory data analysis and the Fast Fourier Transform
Introduced the concept of the box plot
Made significant contributions to statistical graphics and visualization

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

Developed statistical graphics and applied statistics to medicine
Introduced the concept of the polar area chart
Made significant contributions to hospital sanitation and public health

Note: "fl." stands for "floruit," meaning "he/she flourished" and

indicates the period of activity or prominence.

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Muslim Scholars

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780AD–850AD) was a Persian mathematician,
astronomer, astrologer geographer and a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. He
was born in Persia of that time around 780. Al-Khwarizmi was one of the learned men
who worked in the House of Wisdom. The House of Wisdom was a scientific research and
teaching center. Al-Khwarizmi developed the concept of the algorithm in mathematics Al-
Khwarizmi‘s algebra is regarded as the foundation and cornerstone of the sciences .He is
known as the ―father of algebra‖, a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died in c. 850 being remembered as one of the most
seminal scientific minds of early Islamic culture.
Ibn al-Haytham

Ibn al-Haytham Latinised as Alhazen (965AD–1040AD) was a medieval mathematician,

astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq. Referred to as
"the father of modern optics".he made significant contributions to the principles of optics
and the use of scientific experiments. His most influential work is titled Kitāb al-Manāẓir
"Book of Optics" in Latin Edition. Ibn al-Haytham, who lived a thousand years ago, is
finally being recognized as the world's first true scientist.

Omar Khayyam

Omar Khayyam (1048AD–1131AD) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet.

He made great contributions to these areas. He lived during the period of the Seljuk
dynasty, around the time of the First Crusade. As a mathematician, he is most notable for
his work on the classification and solution of cubic equations. He is best known for his
work in geometric algebra, the Jalil calendar, and his poetry collected as, The Rubaiyat.

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Ibrahim ibn Sinan

Ibrahim ibn Sinan (908AD-946AD) was born in Baghdad. He was a mathematician and
astronomer who belonged to a family of scholars originally from Harran in northern
Mesopotamia. He belonged to a religious sect of star worshippers known as the Sabians of
Harran. Ibrahim ibn Sinan studied geometry, in particular tangents to circles. He made
advances in the quadrature of the parabola and the theory of integration, generalizing the
work of Archimedes, which was unavailable at the time. Ibrahim ibn Sinan is often
considered to be one of the most important mathematicians of his time.

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135AD-1213AD) was an Iranian mathematician and astronomer of

the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages). Sharaf al-Tusi was an Islamic
mathematician who wrote a treatise on cubic equations. Al-Tusi is best known for his
mathematically impressive study of the conditions under which cubic equations have a
positive real root and of numerical methods for finding a solution of such equations. He
made significant contributions to development of Algebraic geometry & cubic equation.

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973AD–1050AD) known as al-Biruni, was
a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been
called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy", Founder
of Indology and the first anthropologist. Al-Biruni was well versed in physics,
mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a
historian, chronologist, and linguist. In 1017, he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and
wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind ("The History of India"). Al-
Biruni developed many instruments for astronomy and geography measurements. He was
also a very good encyclopedia writer. His famous achievements were, studying geography
of India, accurately measuring Earth's radius, comparing different calendars & He enabled
direction of Qibla.

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Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific

examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

assumptions, procedures, or principles.

1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the most probable next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in
the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Practice
Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

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2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result
of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the
resulting number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the
given procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times the original
number.
Practice
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15
to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.

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3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table on the preceding page and inductive reasoning to answer
each of the following.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 25 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus
we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 25 units will have a period of 5
heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period
that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling
the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Practice
A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an under-water earthquake. The velocity of a
tsunami as it approaches land depends on the height of the tsunami. Use the table at
the left and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?

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4. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces
a number that is four times the original number.
Practice
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 5. Hint: Let n represent the original number.

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Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In next Example we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or

deductive reasoning.

5. Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year
the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated my
home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more
than $35,000.
Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument
is an example of deductive reasoning.
Practice
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel To the Nines is a Janet
Evanovich novel. Thus To the Nines is worth reading.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because it has
not paid out any money during the last 45 tries.

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Unit analysis as
Problem solving tool
(units their conversion, dimensions, area, perimeter, volume)

Units
The words that describe what we are measuring or counting such kg, m, cm are called the
units associated with the numbers.
Unit Analysis
The technique of working with units to help solve problems is called unit analysis or
dimensional analysis.
Keywords Per (divide) and Of (multiplication)
The word per (which means ―for every‖) is a keyword in mathematical problems, because
it tells us to divide. For example 50 miles per hour. The word of is a keyword in
mathematical problems, because it tells us to multiply. For example 10 apples at a price of
2 dollars.
1. What is the total distance travelled when you run 7 laps around a 400 meter track?
Solution
7 laps of a 400 meter track =

2. How many crates do you need to hold 2000 apples if each crate holds 40 apples?
Solution
Per crate apples =
Total needed crates = crates

3. How much will you pay for 3.5 pounds of bananas at a price of per pound?
Solution
Total weight = 3.5 pounds
Per pound rate =
Total price =

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4. What is the total weight of 23 baseballs that weigh 5.25 ounces each?
Solution
Weight of each ball = 5.25 ounces
Total balls = 23
Total weight =

5. How much will you earn working for 6 months at a salary of $3200 per month?
Solution
Per month salary = $3200 ; Total months = 6
Total earning =

6. How many apartment buildings are needed to house 3000 people if each building can
house 150 people?
Solution
Given ratio =
3000 people need apartment =

7. Identifying units
Identify the unit of the answer in each of the following cases
a) The price you paid for gasoline, found by dividing it's total cost in Dollars by the
number of gallons of gas that you bought.
b) The area of a circle, found with the formula , where the radius "r" is measured in
centimetres (note that π is a number and has no unit)
c) A volume found by multiplying an area measured in acres by a depth measured in feet

Solution

a) The price of the gasoline has units of dollars divided by gallons, which we write as
$/gal and read as" dollars per gallon."
b) The area of the circle has units of centimeters to the second power, which we write
as cm2 and read as" centimetre square".
c) In this case ,the volume has the units of acres × feet, which we read as " acre- feet"
.The unit of this volume is commonly used by hydrologists (water engineer) in the
United states

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8. Identifying units
a) Your average speed is on a long walk, found by dividing distance traveled in Miles
by time elapsed in hours?
miles/hour

b) The unit price of oranges, found by dividing the price in dollars by the weight in
pounds?
Dollars/pounds

c) The cost of a piece of a carpet, found by dividing its price in dollars by its area in
square yards?
Dollars/ square yards

d) The floor rate of a river in which 500 cubic feet of water flow past a particular
location every second?
Cubic feet/second

e) The unit price of rice in Japan, found by dividing the price in yen by the weight in
kilogram?
Yen/kilogram

f) The production rate of a bagel bakery, found by dividing the number of bagels
produced by the time required in hours?
bagels/hours

g) The per capita daily oil consumption by the residents of a town, found by dividing
the amount of oil used per day in gallons by the population of the town?
Galon/person

h) The density of a rock, found by dividing its weight in grams by its volume in cubic
centimeters?
Gram/cubic centimeter

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Area
Area is a fundamental concept in mathematics, particularly in geometry. It refers to the
amount of space inside a two-dimensional shape or region. In other words, it's the size of
the surface enclosed by a shape.
Here are some key aspects of area:
 Unit: Area is typically measured in square units, such as square meters (m²), square
feet (ft²), or square centimeters (cm²).
 Dimension: Area is a two-dimensional concept, meaning it's used to describe the
size of flat shapes like triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, circles, and more.
 Calculation: Area can be calculated using various formulas, depending on the
shape. For example:
Rectangle: length × width (A = lw)
Triangle: ½ × base × height (A = ½bh)
Circle: π × radius² (A = πr²)
Trapezoid: ½ × (base1 + base2) × height (A = ½(b1 + b2)h)
Area of a Square:
Area of a Parallelogram:
Properties: Area has several important properties, including:
 Positive: Area is always positive (or zero).
 Additive: The area of a composite shape is the sum of the areas of its individual
parts.
 Scaling: When a shape is scaled (enlarged or reduced), its area changes by the
square of the scaling factor.
Applications: Area is used in various real-world contexts, such as:

 Architecture: building design, room layout

 Engineering: structural analysis, material usage
 Physics: surface area, volume calculations
 Computer graphics: texture mapping, rendering
 Agriculture: land area, crop yields

In summary, area is a fundamental concept in mathematics that describes the size of two –
dimensional shapes and regions. Its properties and applications make it a crucial tool in
various fields.

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Volume

Volume is the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by a substance, object, or

container. It's a fundamental concept in mathematics, particularly in geometry. Volume
measures the amount of space inside a 3D shape or region.

Here are some key aspects of volume:

 Unit: Volume is typically measured in cubic units, such as cubic meters (m³), cubic
feet (ft³), or cubic centimeters (cm³).
 Dimension: Volume is a three-dimensional concept, describing the size of 3D
shapes like cubes, spheres, cylinders, cones, and more.
 Calculation: Volume can be calculated using various formulas, depending on the
shape:
Cube: side³ (V = s³)
Sphere: (4/3) × π × radius³ (V = (4/3)πr³)
Cylinder: π × radius² × height (V = πr²h)
Cone: (1/3) × π × radius² × height (V = (1/3)πr²h)
Regular Square Pyramid: (V = (1/3)s²h)

Properties: Volume has several important properties:

 Positive: Volume is always positive (or zero).

 Additive: The volume of a composite object is the sum of the volumes of its
individual parts.
 Scaling: When an object is scaled, its volume changes by the cube of the scaling
factor.

Applications: Volume is used in various real-world contexts:

 Physics: mass, density, buoyancy

 Engineering: fluid dynamics, structural analysis
 Chemistry: molar volume, concentration
 Biology: cell volume, tissue structure
 Everyday life: measuring liquids, packaging, and storage

In summary, volume is a fundamental concept in mathematics that describes the amount of

three-dimensional space occupied by an object or substance. Its properties and applications
make it a crucial tool in various fields.

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Hyphen
A hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark used to join two or more words, phrases, or parts of a
word together. It is a short horizontal line that connects the words or parts, indicating that
they are linked or related. Hyphen implies multiplication.
Here are some ways hyphens are used:
 Compound words: Hyphens connect two or more words to form a new word, like
self-portrait, merry-go-round, or well-being.
 Prefixes and suffixes: Hyphens attach prefixes and suffixes to words, like co-pilot,
re-write, or un-happy.
 Phrases and expressions: Hyphens join phrases and expressions, like two-thirds,
five-year-old, or high-speed.
 Numbers: Hyphens separate numbers, like phone numbers (123-456-7890) or dates
(2023-02-15).
 Connection: Hyphens indicate a connection or relationship between words, like
father-in-law or passers-by.
Remember, hyphens are different from dashes (-), which are longer and used for
different purposes.

Keywords Operations with Units

Key word or Symbol Operation Example
Per Division Miles per hour
Of or Hyphen Multiplication Kilowatt hours
Square Raising to second power Square feet
Cube or Cubic Raising to third power Cubic feet

9. How many squares, each 1 inch on a side, are needed to cover a rectangle that has
an area of 18 in2?
Eighteen squares, each 1 inch on a side, are needed to cover the rectangle.

10. How many square feet of sod are needed to cover a football field? A football field
measures 360 ft by 160 ft.

Area =

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11.A solar panel is in the shape of a parallelogram that has a base of 2 ft and a height
of 3 ft. Find the area of the solar panel.

Area

12. A homeowner wants to carpet the family room. The floor is square and measures
6 m on each side. How much carpet should be purchased?
Area

13. A riveter uses metal plates that are in the shape of a triangle with a base of 12 cm
and a height of 6 cm. Find the area of one metal plate.

Area

14. A boat dock is built in the shape of a trapezoid with bases measuring 14 ft and 6 ft
and a height of 7 ft. Find the area of the dock.

Area ( )
15. How large a cover is needed for a circular hot tub that is 8 ft in diameter? Round
to the nearest tenth of a square foot.
Area = ( ) ( ) ( )

16.Find the area of a circle with a diameter of 10 m. Round to the nearest hundredth
of a square meter.
Area = ( ) ( ) ( )

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17.Find the area of a room if the room is 12ft long and 10ft wide.
Area =

18.Find the volume of a box if the box is 6in. wide, 4in. deep and 10in. high.
Volume =

19.A large box shaped Arena has a rectangular floor that measures 200 feet by 150
feet and a flat ceiling that is 35 feet above the floor. Find the area of the floor and
the volume of the arena?
Area =
Volume =

20.A flat bottom reflecting pool has length 30 yards, width 10 yards and depth 0.3
yard. Find the surface area of the pool and the volume of water it holds?
Area =
Volume =

21.A raised flower bed is 25 feet long, 8 feet wide and 1.5 feet deep. Find the area of
the bed and the volume of soil it holds?
Area =
Volume =

22.A warehouse is 40 yards long and 25 yards wide and it is piled with curtains to a
height of 3 yards. What is the area of the warehouse floor? What is the total
volume of the cartons?
Area =
Volume =

23.The bed of a truck is 3.5 feet deep, 12 feet long and 5 feet wide. What is the area of
the bed's floor? What is the volume of the bed?
Area =
Volume =
24.A can has a circular base with an area of 6 square inches and is 4 inches tall. What
is its total volume?
Area =
Volume =

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25. Which of the following are rectangular solids: a juice box, a milk carton, a can of
soup, a compact disc, and a jewel case (plastic container in which a compact disc is
packaged)?
A juice box and a jewel case are rectangular solids.

26. Find the volume of a rubber ball that has a diameter of 6 in.
Volume . / ( )

27.Which of the following units could not be used to measure the volume of a regular
square pyramid?
a. ft3 b. m3 c. yd2 d. cm3 e. mi
Volume is measured in cubic units. Therefore, the volume of a regular square pyramid
could be measured in ft3, m3 or cm3 but not in yd2 or mi.

28. Find the volume of a cube that measures 1.5 m on a side.

Volume ( )

29. The radius of the base of a cone is 8 cm. The height of the cone is 12 cm. Find the
volume of the cone. Round to the nearest hundredth of a cubic centimeter.
Volume ( ) ( )

30. An oil storage tank in the shape of a cylinder is 4 m high and has a diameter of
6 m. The oil tank is two-thirds full. Find the number of cubic meters of oil in the
tank. Round to the nearest hundredth of a cubic meter.

Volume . / ( ) ( ) ( )

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Unit Conversions: The U.S. Customary System of Measurements

In the first State of the Union Address, George Washington advocated ―uniformity in the
currency, weights, and measures of the United States.‖ His recommendation led to the
adoption of the U.S.C.S. The standard U.S. C.S. units of length are inch, foot, yard, and
mile.
Lengths 1 inch = 2.54cm
1 furlong = 40 rods = 1.8 miles
1 ft = 12 inc
1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 ft
1 yard = 3 ft 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km = 6076.1 ft
1 league = 3 nautical miles

1 rod = 5.5 yards

1 fathom = 6 ft
Weights Avoirdupois Troy Apothecary
1 grain = 0.0648 gram 1 gran = 0.0648 gram 1 grain = 0.0648 gram
1 ounce = 437.5 grains 1 carat = 0.2 gram 1 scruple = 20 grains
= 3.086 grans
1 pound = 16 ounce 1 pennyweight = 24 grains 1 dram = 3 scruples
1 ton = 2000 ponds 1 troy ounce = 480 grains 1 apoth.oz = 8 dram
1 long ton = 2240 pound 1 troy pound = 12 troy ounce 1 apoth.lb = 10 oz
Volumes Liquid Measures Dry Measures
1 in3 = 16.387 cm3
1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoon
1 ft3 = 1728 in3
1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons = 1.805 in3
=7.48 gallon
1 cup = 8 fluid ounce
1 yd3 = 27 ft3
1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = 28.8 in3
1 quart = 2 pints = 57.75 in3 1 dry pint = 33.60 in3
1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 dry qrt = 2 dry pints
1 barrel of petroleum = 42 gallons = 67.2 in3
1 barrel of liquid = 31 gallons
1 peck = 8 dry quarts
( )
1 bushel = 4 pecks
1 cord = 128 t3

31. What conversion rate would you use to convert each of the following?
a. Feet to inches b. Inches to feet
c. Pounds to ounces d. Ounces to pounds
Answer

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32. Convert.
a. 36 fl oz to cups b. 4 tons to pounds
Solution
a.
b.

33. In 2005, a horse named Shaniko ran a 1.125-mile race in 1.829 min. Find
Shaniko‘s average speed for that race in miles per hour. Round to the nearest tenth.
Solution

34. A carpet is to be installed in a room that is 20 ft wide and 30 ft long. At $28.50 per
square yard, how much will it cost to carpet the room?
Solution

The cost to carpet the room is $1900.

35.Convert 2.5 h to seconds.

Solution
1 h = 60 min and 1 min = 60 s

36. Inches to feet

Convert a length of 102 inches to feet.
Solution

A length of 102 inches is equal to 8.5 feet.

37. Seconds to Minutes

Convert a time of 3000 second into minutes.
Solution

A time of 3000 seconds is equal to 50 minutes.

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38. Using a chain of conversion

How many seconds are there in one day?
Solution
We know that 1 day = 24 hrs = 60 minutes, and 1 min = 60 s. We can answer a question
by setting up a chain of unit conversions in which we start with day and end up with
seconds
1 day × 24 hrs/1day × 60 mint/1hr × 60 s/1 min = 86400s
By using the conversation factor needed to cancel the appropriate units, we are left with
the answer in seconds .There 86400 s in one day.

39.Conversions
i. Convert 24 feet to inches?

ii. Convert 24 feet to yards?

iii. Convert 25 minutes to seconds?

iv. Convert 32 years to days (neglecting leap years)?

v. Convert 2.5 hours to seconds?

2.5
vi. Convert the space station's orbital speed of 17,200 miles per hour to units of
miles per second?

vii. Convert 3 years to hours (neglecting leap years)?

viii. Convert 26,500 inches to miles, using the facts

1mile = 1760yd, 1yd = 3ft, 1ft = 12in.

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Conversion with Units Raised to Powers

40. Carpeting a room
You want to carpet a room that measures 10 ft by 12 ft, making an area of 120 square
feet. But carpet is usually sold by the square yard .How many square yards of carpet do
you need?
Solution
. /

41. Cubic units: Purchasing Garden Soil

You are preparing a vegetable garden that is 40 feet long and 16 feet wide ,and you
need enough soil to fill it to a depth of 1 foot .The landscape supply stores sells soil by
the cubic yard .How much soil should you order?
Solution
Volume of soil = 40 feet ×16feet × 1 feet = 640
. /
You will need to order about 24 cubic yards of soil for your garden

42. The Kentuchy Derby

The length of Kentucky derby horse race is 10 furlongs. How long is race in mile?
Solution
1 furlong then 10 furlong mile

43. 20,000 League Under the Sea

In Jules Verne‘s Novel 20,000 League Under the Sea, does the title refer to an ocean
depth? How do you know?
Solution
1 league nautical miles
20,000 league nautical miles = nautical miles
This distance is several time the diameter of Earth, so 20000 League cannot possibly
refer to an ocean depth. The book‘s title refers to the distance travelled by Captain
Nemo‘s submarine, Nautilus.

44.Find a conversion factor between square feet and Square inches. Write it in three
forms?
45.Solution

So Or Or

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46.Find a conversion factor between cubic meters and cubic centimeters. Write it in three
forms?
Solution

So or or

47.A new sidewalk will be 4 feet wide, 200 feet long, and filled to a depth of 6 inches
(0.5 feet) with concrete. How many cubic yards of concretes are needed?
Solution

48.Find the area in square feet of a rectangular yard that measures 20 yards by 12 yards?
Solution

Area

49.An air conditioning system can circulate 320 cubic feet of air per minute. How many
cubic yards of air can it circulate per minute?
Solution
. It can circulate about per minute.

50.A hot tub pump circulates 4 cubic feet of water per minute. How many cubic inches of
water does it circulate each minute?
Solution

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The International Metric System

SI, which is the official abbreviation in all languages for the System International d'Unites,
is an extension and refinement of the traditional metric system. More than 30 countries
have declared it to be the only legally accepted system. It was invented in France late 18th
century for two primary reasons;
To replace many customary units with just a few units.
To simplify conversions through use of a decimal (base 10) system.
Common Metric Prefixes
Small Values Small Values
prefix Abbrev. Value prefix Abbrev. Value
deci d deca da
centi c hecto h
milli m kilo k
micro mega M
nano n giga G
pico p tera T

Conversion in MLtT with Dimensions

Quantity Formula Unit (SI System) Dimension

Power
[ ]
Pressure
[ ]
Modulus of Elasticity
[ ]

Momentum
[ ]
K.E ( )
[ ]

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51.Which unit in the metric system is one-thousandth of a meter?

Answer
The millimeter is one-thousandth of a meter.

52.Which unit in the metric system is equal to one thousand grams?

Answer
The kilogram is equal to one thousand grams.

53.Convert 2759 centimeters to meters.

Solution

54.How many nanoseconds are in a microsecond?

Solution
We compare the quantities by dividing the longer time (microsecond) by the shorter
time (nanosecond).

There is 1000 nanosecond in a micro second.

55. Solve an Application Involving Metric Units

The thickness of a single sheet of paper is 0.07 mm. Find the height in centimeters of a
ream of paper. A ream is 500 sheets of paper.
Solution
0.07(500) = 35
35 mm = 3.5 cm
The height of a ream of this paper is 3.5 cm.

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37. Conversion

a. 4.08 m to centimeters b. 5.93 g to milligrams

c. 82 ml to liters d. 9 kl to liters

Solution

a. Write the units of length from largest to smallest.

Km hm dam m dm cm mm

Converting from meter to centimeter requires moving 2 places to the right

4.08 m = 408 cm

b. Write the units of mass from largest to smallest.

Kg hg dag g dg cg mg

Converting from gram to milligram requires moving 3 places to the right.

5.93 g = 5930 mg

c. Write the units of capacity from largest to smallest.

Kl hl dal L dl cl ml

Converting from mililiter to liter requires moving 3 places to the left.

82 ml = 0.082 L

d. Write the units of capacity from largest to smallest.

Kl hl dal L dl cl ml

Converting from kiloliter to liter requires moving 3 places to the right.

9kl = 9 000 L

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38. Question
Complete the following sentence with the number. All chances should be greater than 1

 A meter is 1000 times as large as a millimeter.

( )
.
Hence the statement.

 A kilogram is 1,000,000 times as large as a milligram.

( )
.
Hence the statement.

 A liter is 1000 times as large as a milliliter.

( )
.
Hence the statement.

 A kilometer is 1,000,000,000 times as large as a micrometer.

( )
.
Hence the statement.

 A square meter is 10,000 times as large as a Square centimeter.

( )
( )
.
Hence the statement.

 A cubic meter is 1,000,000,000 times as large as a cubic millimeter.

( )
( )
Hence the statement.

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Metric U.S Customary System of Measurements (USCS) Conversions

We carry out conversions between metric and USCS units like any other unit conversions.
Table lists a few handy Conversions factors. It's useful to memorize approximate
conversions, particularly if you plan to travel internationally or if you work with metric
units in sports and business. For example, if you remember that a kilometer is about 0.6
mile, you will know that a 10 kilometer road race is about 6 miles. Similarly, if you
remember that a meter is about 10% longer than a yard, you'll know that a 100 meter race
is about the same as a 110 yard race.

USCS – Metric Conversions

USCS to Metric Metric to USCS

1 in = 2.540 cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in
1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.28 ft
1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 m = 1.094 yd
1 mi = 1.6093 km 1 km = 0.6214 mi
1 lb = 0.4536 kg 1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 fl oz = 29.574 mL 1 mL = 0.03381 fl oz
1 qt = 0.9464 L 1 L = 1.057 qt
1 gal = 3.785 L 1 L = 0.2642 gal

39. Marathon Distance

The Marathon running race is about 26.2 miles. About how far is it in kilometers?
Solution
We know that 1 mi = 1.6093km.

Rounded to one decimal place, a marathon is 42.2 kilometers.

40. Square kilometers are in one square mile?

Solution
We know that 1 mi =1.6093 km.
Squaring both sides (1 mi)² = (1.6093 km)2
1 mi² = 2.5898km²
One square mile is approximately 2.6 square kilometers.

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41. The Kentucky Derby distance is 10 furlongs. How far is the Kentucky Derby in
(a)Rods (b)Fathoms?
Solution

42. The depth of the Challenger deep is 36,198 feet. How deep is it in
(a)Fathoms (b)Leagues (marine)?
Solution

43. One cubic foot holds 7.48 gallons of water, and one gallon of water weighs 8.33
pounds. How much does a cubic foot of water weigh in pounds?
In ounces (avoirdupois)?
Solution

44. Suppose you bought 10 six packs of soda, each six pack containing six 12-ounce cans.
How many gallons of soda did you buy?
Solution

45. The price of gasoline is $2.89 per gallon. Find the price per liter. Round to the nearest
cent.
Solution

46. A speed boat has a top speed of 46 knots (nautical miles per hour). What is this speed in
miles per hour?
Solution

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47. The price of gasoline is $.512 per liter. Find the price per gallon. Round to the nearest
cent.
Solution

Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy is stored in coal, in gasoline, in water
behind a dam, and in one‘ s own body.
One foot-pound (1 ft-lb) of energy is the amount of energy necessary to lift 1 pound a
distance of 1 foot. One ft-lb is read as 1 foot pound.
To lift 500 lb a distance of 3 ft requires ( )( ) of energy

48. Find the energy required for a 150-pound person to climb a mile-high mountain.
Solution
In climbing the mountain, the person is lifting 150 lb a distance of 5280 ft.
( )( )
The energy required is 792,000 ft-lb.

Note
Consumer items that use energy, such as furnaces, stoves, and air conditioners, are rated in
terms of the British thermal unit (Btu). For example, a furnace might have a rating of
35,000 Btu per hour, which means that it releases 35,000 Btu of energy in 1 hour.
Because 1 Btu is approximately 778 ft-lb, the following conversion rate, equivalent to 1, is
used:
49. A furnace is rated at 80,000 Btu per hour. How many foot-pounds of energy are
released in 1 h?
Solution

The furnace releases 62,240,000 ft-lb of energy in 1 h.

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50. Convert.
a. 200 m to feet b. 45 mph to kilometers per hour

Solution

51. How many cords a wood could you fit in a room that is 4 yards long, 4 yards wide and 2
yards high?
Solution

. /

52. Question
 22 kilograms to pounds?

 160 cm to inches?

 16 quarts to liters?

 2 square kilometers to square miles?

 55 miles per hour to kilometers per hour?

 23 meters per second to miles per hour?

 300 cubic inches to cubic centimeters?

 18 grams per cubic centimeter to pounds per cubic inch?

. /

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Standardized Temperature Units

Another important set of standardized units are those we use to measure temperature.
There temperature scales are commonly used.

 The Fahrenheit Scale, commonly used in the United States, is defined so water
freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F.
 The rest of the word uses the Celsius Scale, which places the freezing point of
water at 0°C and the boiling point at 100°C.
 In science, we use the Kelvin Scale which is the same as Celsius scale except for its
zero point, which corresponds to 273.15°C. A temperature of 0 K is known as
absolute zero, because it is the coldest temperature. (The degree symbol [°] is not
used on the Kelvin scale).

To convert From Conversion

Formula
Celsius to Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit to Celsius

Celsius to Kelvin
Kelvin to Celsius

53. Human Body Temperature

Average human body temperature is 98.6°F.
What is it in the Celsius and Kelvin?
Solution

Human body temperature is 37°C or 310.15K

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54. Convert the temperature 125.5 K in Degree Fahrenheit and Degree Celsius.
Solution
Temperature = 125.5 K

55. Convert from Celsius-Fahrenheit and Celsius-Kelvin.

(a) 45°F (b) 20°C (c) 50K (d) -10°C

a)
b)
c)
d)

Currency Conversion
Sample Currency Exchange Rate
Currency Dollars Per Foreign Foreign Per Dollar
British Pound 1.624 0.6158
Canadian Dollar 1.005 0.9950
European Euro 1.320 0.7576
Japanese Yen 0.0120 83.33
Mexican Peso 0.07855 12.73

56. At a French department store, the price for a pair of jean is 45 euros. What is the price
in US dollars? If 1 Euro = 1.320 Dollars.
Solution
1 Euro = 1.320 Dollars
€45 = 45 $1.320 = $59.40

57. You are on holiday in Mexico and need cash. How many pesos can you buy with $100?
If $1 = 12.73 Peso.
Solution
$1 = 12.73 Peso
$100 = 100 12.73 Peso = 1273 Peso

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58. (CAD: Canadian Dollars)

A gas station in Canada sells gasoline for CAD 1.34 per liter. What is the price in
dollars per gallon?
Solution
1 CAD = $1.005; 1 gallon = 3.785 liter
Gasoline per gallon = 1.34 1.005 3.785 = $5.10 per gallon

59. Conversions
 Your dinner in London costs 60 British pounds. How much was it in U.S dollars?

 Your hotel rate in Tokyo is 31,000 yen per night. What is the nightly rate in U.S
dollars?

 As you leave Paris, you convert 450 Euros to dollars. How much dollars do you
receive?

 You return from Mexico with 3000 pesos. How much are they worth in U.S dollars?

 Gasoline sells for 1.5 euros per liter in Bonn. What is the price in US dollars per
gallon?

 You purchase fresh strawberries in Mexico for 28 pesos per kilogram. What is the
price in US dollars per pound?

60. In July the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour, and the minimum wage in
California was $6.75 per hour. How much grater is an employ‘s pay for working 35
hours and earning the California minimum wage rather than the federal minimum
wage?
Solution
Hourly difference in wage
Employ‘s pay for working 35 hours
An employ‘s pay for working 35 hours and earning the California minimum wage is
grater.

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61. Solve an application using exchange rates

a. How many Japanese Yen are needed to pay for an order costing $10,000?
b. Find the number of British pounds that would be exchanged for $5000?
Solution
Required Yen JPY
Required British pounds BP

62. Solve an application using exchange rates

a. How many Canadian Dollars are needed to pay for an order costing $20,000?
b. Find the number of Euros that would be exchanged for $25,000?
Solution
Required Canadian Dollars
Required Euros EUR

63. The table below shows the exchange rates per U.S. dollar for four foreign countries on
December 2, 2005. Use this table for Exercises 25 to 28.
a. How many Danish kroner are equivalent to $10,000?
b. Find the number of Indian rupees that would be exchanged for $45,000.
c. Find the cost, in Mexican pesos, of an order of American computer hardware
costing $38,000.
d. Calculate the cost, in Australian dollars, of an American car costing $29,000.
Solution
a. Danish kroner equivalent to $10,000 kroner
b. Indian rupees exchanged for $45,000
c. Required cost Pesos
d. Cost of American Car
Exchange Rates Per US Dollar
Australian Dollar 1.3359
Danish Krone 6.3652
Indian Rupee 46.151
Mexican Peso 10.472

64. The median salary for the New York Yankees in 2008 was $1,875,000. Assuming a 160
game season express this salary in dollars per game?
Solution
Salary = $1,875,000; Game seasons = 160

Salary in dollars per game

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Unit Analysis as Problem Solving Tool

Identify the units involved in the problem and the units that you expect for the answer.

Use the given units and the expected answer units to help you find a strategy for solving
the problem.

Remember, you cannot add or subtract numbers with different units, but you can combine
different units through multiplication, division or rising to power.

65. A car travels 25 miles every hour. How fast is it going?

Solution

66. An Airliner travels 45 miles in 5 minutes. What is its speed in miles per hour?
Solution

67. Competition speed Skydivers have reached record speeds of 614 miles per hour. At this
speed how many feet would you fall every second?
Solution
Given speed = 614 miles per hour
Converted speed

68. You are buying 30 acres of farm land at $12000 per acre. What is the total cast?
Solution
Per acre cost = $12000 per acre
Total cost for 30 acres = 30 12000 = $360, 000

69. What is the total cost of 1.2 cubic yards of soil if it sells for $24 per cubic yard?
Solution
Cubic yards = 1.2
Sell per cubic yard = $24
Total cost = 1. 2 24 = $28.80

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70. You are a grader for math course an exam questions reads Eli purchased 5 pounds of
apples at a price of 50 cents per pound how much did he pay for the apples ? On the
paper you are grading a student has written 50 ÷ 5=10 he paid 10 cents .write a note to
the student explaining what went wrong?
Solution
5 pounds of apples at a price of 50 cents per pound =
It cannot correct for a question that asks for a price. The correct calculation is as
follows;
5 pounds of apples at a price of 50 cents per pound =

71. You are planning to make pesto and need to buy basil. At the grocery store you can buy
small containers of basil price at $ 2.99 for each 2/3 ounce container. At the farmer's
market you can buy basil in bunches for $12 per pound which is a better deal?
Solution
1 pound = 16 ounce
Container price
The small containers are priced at most $72 per pound. Which is six times as much as
the farmer‘s market price.

72. How much would you pay for 2.5 ounces of gold at a price of $920 per ounce?
Solution
Price of gold per ounce = $920
Total pay = 2.5 $920 = $2300

73. Your destination is 90 miles away and your fuel gauge shows that your gas tank is one
quarter full. Your tank holds 12 gallons of gas and your car average is about 25 miles
per gallon do you need to stop for gas?
Solution
Present fuel in car = one quarter of 12 gallons = 3 gallons
Total distance = 90 miles
Car average = 25 miles per gallon
Required fuel for 90 miles =
Since we have only 3 gallons fuel. So we should stop for gas.

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74. During a long road trip, you drive for 420 miles on a 12 gallon tank of gas. What is your
gas mileage (in miles per gallon)?
Solution
Distance = 420 miles; Tank of gas = 12 gallon
Gas mileage

75. If your car gets 28 miles per gallon, how much does it cost to drive 250 miles when
gasoline costs $2.90 per gallon?
Solution
Distance = 28 miles per gallon; Gasoline cost = $2.90 per gallon
Cost to drive 250 miles

76. A hose fills a hot tub at a rate of 3.2 gallons per minute. How many hours will it take to
fill a 300 gallons hot tub?
Solution
Required time

77. Suppose you earn $8.5 per hour and work 24 eight hour days in a month. How much do
you earn in that month?
Solution
Earning per hour = $8.5 per hour; Work = 24 eight – hour days
Total earning in moth

78. You found that melting the Antarctica ice would release about 25 million cubic
kilometers of water over Earth‘s 340 million square kilometers of ocean surface. Use
unit analysis to find the amount that sea level will rise?
Solution
Rise in sea level
Sea level would rise by 74 meter, or about 240 feet.

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79. As you ride an exercise bicycle that display states that you are using 500 calories per
hour are you generating in a power to light a 100 watt bulb? (1 Calorie = 4184Joule)
Solution
We use a chain of conversions to go from calories per hour to joule per second.

Electric Utility Bills

The watt-hour is used for measuring electrical energy. One watt-hour is the amount of
energy required to lift 1 kg a distance of 370 m. A light bulb rated at 100 watts (W) will
emit 100 watt-hours (Wh) of energy each hour.
Recall that the prefix kilo- means 1000.
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 watt-hours (Wh)
Utility bills electrical energy is usually measured in units of kilowatt hours.

Kilowatt hour: a kilowatt hour is a unit of energy (1KWH = 3.6MJ)

80. Your utility company charges 15 per kilowatt hour of electricity how much does it
cost to keep a 100 watt light bulb on per week? How much will you save in a year if
you replace the bulb with an LED bulb that provide the same amount of light for only
25 watts of power?
Solution
Energy used by bulb in a week
Energy used by bulb in a week
Energy used by bulb in a week
Energy charges 15 per kwh
If we replace bulb with 25 watt per week then we get and our saving will
be . Thus
Per annum saving (more efficient bulb)

81. A 150-watt bulb is on for 8 h. At 8¢ per kilowatt-hour, find the cost of the energy used.
Solution
Cost of Energy ( ) Find the number of watt-hours used
Convert watt-hours to kilowatt-hours.
( ) Multiply the number of kilowatt-hours used by
the cost, in dollars, per kilowatt-hour.
The cost of the energy used is $.096.

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82. Manhattan Island has a population of about 1.6 million people living in an area of about
57 Square kilometers. What is its population density if there were no high rise
apartments? How much space would be available person?
Solution
Population density
If there we no high rises, each resident would have of land. Then

. /
Without high rise, each person would have only 36 square meters. And no enough space
for roads, schools and other common properties. Clearly Manhattan Island could not fit
so many residents without high rises.

83. In 2008, 565,650 Americans died of (all forms of) Cancer. Assuming a population of
305 million what was the mortality rate in units of death per 1 lakh people?
Solution
Total deaths = 565,650
Total population = 305 million = 305000000
Mortality rate in units of death per 1 lakh people

Mortality rate

84. In 2008 about 310,000 Americans died of sudden cardiac attack (about half of all deaths
from coronary heart disease). Assuming a population of 305 million, what was the
mortality rate in units of death per 1 lakh people?
Solution
Total deaths = 310,000
Total population = 305 million = 305000000
Mortality rate in units of death per 1 lakh people

Mortality rate

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85. There were approximately 3 million births in the United States each year. Find the birth
rate in units of births per minute?
Solution
Total birth = 3 million per year
Birth rate

86. A child weighing 15 kilograms has a bacterial ear infection. A Physician order
treatment with amoxicillin at a dosage based on 30 milli grams per kilogram of body
weight per day divided into doses every 12 hours.
a) How much amoxicillin should the child be prescribed every 12 hours?
b) If the medicine is to be taken in a liquid suspension with concentration 25 mg per
ml how much should that child take every 12 hours?
Solution
Child weight = 15 kilogram
Daily 24 hour dosage = 30 milli grams per kilogram of body weight per day
Daily 12 hour dosage = 15 milli grams per kilogram of body weight per day
Dose every 12 hours
Liquid suspension with concentration = 25 mg per ml
Liquid Dose

87. And average size man has about 5 liters (5000 milliliters) of blood and average 12
ounce can of Beer contain about 15 grams of alcohol (assuming the beer is about 6%
alcohol by volume). If all the alcohol was immediately absorb into the blood stream
what blood alcohol contain content would we find in an average size men who quickly
drank a single can of beer? How much Beer would make him legally intoxicated (BAC
of 0.08)?
Solution
Concentration in grams per milliliters
Concentration in grams per 100 milliliters
The men‘s blood alcohol concentration would be of blood. Almost four time the
legal limit of . Therefore it would take only about one quarter of the can, or 3
ounce of beer, to reach the legal limit. This example points out how quickly and easily a
person can become dangerously intoxicated.

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88. If you sleep an average of 8 hours each night, how many hours do you sleep in a year?
Solution
Sleep = 8 hours; 1 year = 365 days
Sleep years

89. A human heart beats about 70 times per minute. If an average human being lives to the
age of 80 how many times does the average heart beat in a lifetime?
Solution
Lifetime to heart beat
Lifetime to heart beat

90. A Candy store cells chocolate for $7.70 per Pound. The piece you want to buy weighs
0.11 pound. How much will it cost to the nearest cent?
Solution
Student solution = 0.11 ÷ 7.70 = $0.014 = 1.4 wrong method
Correct solution = 0.11 × 7.70 = $0.85 right method

91. You ride your bike up a steep Mountain Road at 5 miles per hour. How far do you go in
3 hours?
Solution
Student solution = 5 miles per hour ÷ 3 hour = 1.7 wrong method
Correct solution = 5 miles per hour × 3 hour = 15 right method

92. You can buy a 50 pound bag of floor for $11 or you can buy a 1 pound bag for $0.39.
Compare the per pound cost for the large and small bags?
Solution
Student solution = 50 pound ÷ $11 = $4.55 per pound wrong method no sense
Correct solution = $11 ÷ 50 pound = $0.22 per pound right method

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93. The average person needs 1500 Calories per day. A can of Coke contains 140 calories.
How many cokes would you need to drink to fill your daily caloric needs?
Solution
Student solution wrong method

Correct solution right method

94. You can buy shampoo in a 6 ounce bottle for $3.99 or in a 14 ounce bottle for $9.49.
Which one is best deal?
Solution
6 ounce bottle; better deal
14 ounce bottle;

95. You can buy one dozen eggs for $2.30 or 30 eggs for $5.50. Which one is best deal?
Solution
12 eggs;

30 eggs; better deal

96. You can fill a 15 gallon tank of gas for $55.20 or buy gas for $3.60/gallon. Which one
is best deal?
Solution
15 gallon cost; . So $3.60/gallon is best deal.

97. You can rent a storage locker for $32 per yield square per month or for $2 per feet
square per week. Which one is best deal?
98. Solution
. /
Better deal

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99. You plan to take a 2000 Mile trip in your car which averages 32 miles per gallon. How
many gallons of gasoline should you expect to use? Would a car that has only half the
gas mileage (16 miles per gallon) require twice as much gasoline for the same trip?
Explain.
Solution
Gas needed =
Yes, a car that has half the gas mileage would need twice as much gas. Halving the
value of the denominator has the same effect as doubling the value of the fraction.

100. Two friends take a 3000 Mile cross country trip together, but they drive their own
cars. Car A has a 12 gallon gas tank and averages 40 miles per gallon, while Car B has a
20 gallon gas tank and average is 30 miles per gallon. Assume both drivers pay an
average of $3.90 per gallon of gas
a) What is the cost of one full tank of gas for Car A? for Car B?
b) How many tanks of gas do cars A and B each use for the trip?
c) How much tanks of gas do cars A and B each pay for gas for the trip?
Solution
a) Cost for one full tank of gas for car A

Cost for one full tank of gas for car B

b) Tank will used by car A

Tank will used by car B

c) Payment spent for car A

Payment spent for car B

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101. Gas Mileage actually varies slightly with the driving speed of a car (as well as with
highway versus city driving). Suppose your car averages 38 miles per gallons on the
highway if your average speed is 55 miles per hour and it averages 32 miles per gallon
on the highway if your average speed is 70 miles per hour.
a) What is the driving time for a 2000 mile trip if you drive at an average speed of 55
miles per hour what is the driving time at 70 miles per hour?
b) Assume a gasoline price of $3.90 per gallon. What is the gasoline cost for the 2000
mile trip if you drive at an average speed of 55 miles per the hour? What is the gasoline
cost at 70 miles per hour?
Solution
a) Driving time travelling at 55 miles per hour
Driving time travelling at 55 miles per hour
Driving time travelling at 70 miles per hour
Driving time travelling at 70 miles per hour
b) Cost for 38 miles trip at 55 mph
⁄

Cost for 32 miles trip at 70 mph

⁄

102. Suppose your car averages 32 miles per gallon on the highway if your average speed
is 60 miles per hour and averages 25 miles per gallon on the highway .If your average
speed is 75 miles per hour?
a) What is the driving time for a 1500 Mile trip if you drive at an average speed of 60
miles per hour? What is the driving time at 75 miles per hour?
b) Assuming a gasoline price of $3.90 per gallon. What is the gasoline cost for a 1500
Mile trip if you drive at an every speed of 60 miles per hour? What is the gasoline cast
at 75 miles per hour?
Solution
a) Driving time travelling at 60 miles per hour
Driving time travelling at 75 miles per hour
b) Cost for 32 miles trip at 60 mph
Cost for 25 miles trip at 75 mph

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103. The Greenland Ice Sheet contains about 3 million cubic kilometers of ice. If
completely melted, this ice would release about 2.5 million cubic kilometers of water,
which would spread out over Earth‘s 340 million square kilometers of ocean surface.
How much would sea level rise?
Solution
Sea level rise about 7 meters.

104. The greatest volcanic eruption in recorded history took place in 1815 on the
Indonesian island of Sumbawa, when the volcano Tambora expelled an estimated 100
cubic kilometers of molten rock. Suppose all of the ejected material fell on a region
with an area of 600 square kilometers. Find the average depth of the resulting layer of
ash and rock?
Solution
Average depth

105. Assume running consumes 100 Calories per mile. If you run 10 minutes miles. What
is your average power output in watts during a 1 hour run?
Solution
Power consumption

106. Assume that riding a bike burns 50 Calories per mile. If you ride at a speed of 15
miles per hour, what is your average power output in watts?
Solution
Power consumption

107. Assuming 365 day in a year. Your utility company charges 13¢ per kilowatt hour of
electricity. What is the daily cost of keeping it 75 watt light bulb for 12 hours each day?
How much will you save in a year if you replace the bulb with an LED bulb that
provide the same amount of light using only 15 watts of power?
Solution
75 watt bulb‘s one day cost

15 watt bulb‘s one day cost

Saving ( ) in one year

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108. Suppose you have a cloth dryer that uses 4000 watts of power and you run it for an
average of 1 hour each day. If you pay the utility company 14 cents per kilowatt hours
of electricity, what is the daily cost to run your dryer? How much would you save in a
year if you replace it with the more efficient model that uses only 2000 watts?
Solution
4000 watt daily average cost
2000 watt daily average cost
Saving ( ) in one year

109. A cube of wood measures 3 centimeters on a side and it weighs 20 grams? What is its
density? Will it float in water?
Solution
Density =
It will float in water because the density of the water is

110. At room temperature is 0.1 cubic centimetre sample of plutonium weigh 1.98 grams.
What is its density? Will it float in water?
Solution
Density =
It will sink in water because the density of water is

111. The land area of the United States is about 3.5 million square miles and the
population is about 306 million people? What is the average population density?
Solution
Density =

112. The country with the greatest population density in Monaco, where approximately
32,500 people live in an area of 1.95 square kilometers. What is a population density of
Monaco in people per square kilometers? Compare this density to that of the United
States which is approximately 31 people per square kilometer?
Solution
Monaco s Density =

Which is about or more than 500 times greater than that of United
States.

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113. New Jersey and Alaska have population of 8.7 million and 680,000 respectively.
There areas are 7417 and 571,951 square miles respectively. Compute the population
density of both States.
Solution
New Jersey s Density =
Alaska s Density =
Which is smaller than New Jersey's population density.

114. A standard DVD has a surface area of 134 square centimetres. Depending on
formatting, it holds either 4.7 or 8.5 gigabytes. Find the data density in both cases?
Solution
4.7GB Density =
8.5GB Density =

115. The antihistamine Benadryl is often prescribed for allergies. A typical dose for a
hundred pound person is 25 mg every 6 hours (a) Following this dosage how many 12.5
mg chewable tablets would be taken in a week? (b) Benadryl also comes in liquid form
with a concentration of 12.5mg / 5mL. Following the prescribe dosage, how much
liquid Benadryl should a 100-pound person take in a week?
Solution
a) 100 pound person dosage in a week
Chewable tablets taken in a week
b) A 100 pound person should take of liquid Benadryl.

116. Suppose a dose of 9000 units per kg of penicillin is prescribed every 6 hours for
treatment of a bacterial infection. For penicillin, 400,000 units is equal to 250 mg
a) Express the dose in mg per kg of body weight.
b) How milligrams of penicillin would a 20 kg child take in one?
Solution
a) The dose is
b) A child would take 4 doses in a day,
So a 20-kg child would receive

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117. Blood Alcohol Content: A typical glass of wine contains about 20 grams of alcohol.
Consider a 110 – pound women with approximately 4 litters (4000mL) of blood, who
drink two glasses of wine.
(a) If all alcohol were immediately absorbed into her bloodstream, what would her
blood alcohol content be? Explain why it is fortunate that, in reality, the alcohol is
not absorbed immediately?
(b) Again assume all the alcohol is absorbed immediately, but now assume her body
eliminates the alcohol (through metabolism) at a rate of 10 grams per hour. What is
her blood alcohol content 3 hours after drinking the wine? Is it safe for her to drive
at this time? Explain.

Solution
a) BAC is usually measured in units of grams of alcohol per 100 mL of blood. A
woman who drinks two glass of wine, each with 20 grams of alcohol, has consumed
40 grams of alcohol. If she has 4000 mL of blood, her BAC is as follows;
BAC
It is fortunate that alcohol is not absorbed immediately, because if it were, the woman
would most likely die. A BAC above is typically enough to induce comma or
death.
b) If alcohol is eliminated from the body at a rate of 10g per hour, then after 3 hours,
30g would have been eliminated. This leaves 10g in the woman‘s system, which
means her BAC is
BAC
This is well about the legal limit for driving, so it is not safe to drive. Of course this
solution assumes the woman survives 3 hours of lethal levels of alcohol in her body,
because we have assumed all the alcohol is absorbed immediately. In reality the
situation is somewhat more complicated.

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118. Blood Alcohol Content: Hard Liquor; 8 ounces of a hard liquor (such as whisky)
typically contain about 70 grams of alcohol. Consider a 200 pound man with
approximately 6L (6000mL) of blood, who quickly drinks 8 ounces of hard liquor.
(a) If all the alcohol were immediately absorbed into his blood stream, what would his
blood alcohol content be? Explain why it is fortunate that, in reality, the alcohol is not
absorbed immediately?
(b) Again assume all the alcohol is absorbed immediately, but now assume his body
eliminates the alcohol (through metabolism) at a rate of 15 grams per hour. What is his
blood alcohol content 4 hours after drinking the liquor? Is it safe for him to drive at this
time? Explain.

Solution
a) BAC is usually measured in units of grams of alcohol per 100 mL of blood. A man
who drinks 8 ounces of a hard liquor has consumed 70 grams of alcohol and with
6000 mL of blood, his BAC is as follows;
BAC
It is fortunate that alcohol is not absorbed immediately, because if it were, the man
would most likely die. A BAC above is typically enough to induce comma or
death.
b) If alcohol is eliminated from the body at a rate of 15g per hour, then after 4 hours,
60g would have been eliminated. This leaves 10g in the man‘s system, which means
his BAC is
BAC
This is well about the legal limit for driving, so it is not safe to drive. Of course this
solution assumes the man survives 4 hours of lethal levels of alcohol in his body,
because we have assumed all the alcohol is absorbed immediately. In reality the
situation is somewhat more complicated.

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Proportions
(Rates, ratio and percentage)
Ratios
A comparison of two numbers or quantities in the same units.

Ratios can be written as a fraction , with a colon , or as two numbers separated by a

the word to 2 to 3.‖
For example, the ratio of children to students in a music class could be written as 20:30,
which simplifies to 2:3. Also the fractional form of the ratio 12 to 5 is .

Rates
A comparison of two number or quantities in different units and a special type of ratio
where the two quantities are measured in different units.
For example, miles per hour are a rate that compares a number of miles in one hour. Rates
can be expressed as a number or a percentage, and can be equal to any value, including
negative numbers.
Unit Rate
A unit rate is a rate in which the number in the denominator is 1. To find a unit rate, divide
the number in the numerator of the rate by the number in the denominator of the rate. For
example, for the rate the unit rate is .

1. Calculate a Unit Rate

A dental hygienist earns $780 for working a 40-hour week. What is the hygienist‘s
hourly rate of pay?
Solution
The hygienist‘s rate of pay is
To find the hourly rate of pay, divide 780 by 40. i.e. 780 40 = 19.5

The hygienist‘s hourly rate of pay is $19.50 per hour.

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2. Solve an Application of Unit Rates

A teacher earns a salary of $34,200 per year. Currently the school year is 180 days.
If the school year were extended to 220 days, as is proposed in some states, what
annual salary should the teacher be paid if the salary is based on the number of days
worked per year?
Solution
Find the current salary per day.

Multiply the salary per day by the number of days in the proposed school year.

The teacher‘s annual salary should be $41,800.

3. Determine the more economical purchase

Which is the more economical purchase? An 18 ounce jar of peanut butter priced at
$3.49 or a 12 ounce jar of peanut butter priced $2.59?
Solution
Finding the unit price we have and that is
. The item with the lower unit price is the more economical
purchase. The more economical purchase is the 18 ounce jar of peanut butter priced
at $3.49.

4. Determine a ratio in simplest form

A survey revealed that, on average, eighth-graders watch approximately 21 hours of
television each week. Find the ratio, as a fraction in simplest form, of the number of
hours spent watching television to the total number of hours in a week.
Solution
1 week to hours

Required ratio

5. What does the rate given for Oklahoma mean?

Oklahoma‘s rate of 1.6 means that 1.6 out of every million people living in
Oklahoma die in bicycle accidents.

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6. Calculate the student–faculty ratio at Oregon State University. Round to the nearest
whole number. Write the ratio using the word to.

University Men Women Faculty

Oregon State University 7509 6478 1352
University of Oregon 6740 7710 798

Solution
Total number of students = 7509 + 6478 = 13,987
Required ratio
The ratio is approximately 10 to 1.
Proportions
A proportion is an equation that states that two ratios or rates are equal to each other or
Equality of two ratios or rates.
Proportions are often denoted using the symbol "::" or "=". The definition of a proportion
can be stated as follows: If and are equal ratios or rates, then is a proportion.
Each of the four members in a proportion is called a term. Each term is numbered as
shown below.

The second and third terms of the proportion are called the means and the first and fourth
terms are called the extremes.
For example, if a train travels 100 kilometers per hour, it would take 5 hours to travel 500
kilometers. The proportion would be written as 100km/hr = 500km/5hrs. Also the
proportion of 3 is to 5 as 12 is to 20 will be 3:5::12:20 or

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7. For the proportion

a. Name the first and third terms
b. Write the product of the means
c. Write the product of the extremes.
Solution
a. The first term is 5. The third term is 10. b. The product of the means is 8(10) = 8
c. The product of the extremes is 5(16) = 80.

Cross-Products Method of Solving a Proportion

If then .

8. Solve
Solution

9. Solve
Solution

10.If you travel 290 miles in your car on 15 gallons of gasoline, how far can you travel
in your car on 12 gallons of gasoline under similar driving conditions?
Solution

You can travel 232 miles on 12 gallons of gasoline.

11.On a map, a distance of 2 centimeters represents 15 kilometers. What is the distance

between two cities that are 7 centimeters apart on the map?
Solution

The distance between two cities kilometers.

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12.The table below shows three of the universities in the Big Ten Conference and their
student–faculty ratios. (Source: Barron‘s Profile of American Colleges, 26th edition,
c. 2005) There are approximately 31,100 full-time undergraduate students at
Michigan State University. Approximate the number of faculty at Michigan State
University.

University Student – Faculty Ratio

Michigan State University 13 to 1
University of Illinois 15 to 1
University of Iowa 11 to 1

Solution
Let F = the number of faculty members.
Write a proportion and then solve the proportion for F.

There are approximately 2392 faculty members at Michigan State University.

13.In the United States, the average annual number of deaths per million people aged 5
to 34 from asthma is 3.5. Approximately how many people aged 5 to 34 die from
asthma each year in this country? Use a figure of 150,000,000 for the number of
U.S. residents who are 5 to 34 years old.
Solution
Let D = the number of people aged 5 to 34 who die each year from asthma in the
United States. Write and solve a proportion. One rate is 3.5 deaths per million
people.

In the United States, approximately 525 people aged 5 to 34 die each year from
asthma.

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Earned Run Average

One measure of a pitcher‘s success is earned run average. Earned run average (ERA) is the
number of earned runs a pitcher gives up for every nine innings pitched.
14.During the 2005 baseball season, Pedro Martinez gave up 68 earned runs and
pitched 217 innings for the New York Mets. Calculate Pedro Martinez‘s ERA.
Solution
To calculate Pedro Martinez‘s ERA, let x equal the number of earned runs for every
nine innings pitched. Write a proportion and then solve it for x.

Pedro Martinez‘s ERA for the 2005 season was 2.82

15.A Machinist earns $490 for working a 35 hour week. What is the Machinist‘s hourly
rate of pay?
Solution
Machinist‘s hourly rate of pay

16.Each of the Space Shuttle's solid rocket motors burns 680,400 kilograms of
propellant in 2.5 minutes. How much propellant does each motor burn in 1 minute?
Solution
Motor burn in 1 minute kg

17. During filming, an IMAX camera uses 65 mm film at a rate of feet per second.
At what rate per minute does the camera go through film? How quickly does the
camera use a 500-foot roll of 65-mm film? Round to the nearest second.
Solution
IMAX camera rate sec
Rate per minute sec

18.Which is the more economical purchase, a 32 ounce jar of mayonnaise for $2.79, or
a 24 ounce jar of mayonnaise for $2.09?
Solution
First jar
Second jar more economical
That is approximately equal prices.

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19.Which is the more economical purchase, and 18 ounce box of corn flakes for $2.79,
or a 24 ounce box of corn flakes for $3.89?
Solution
First box
Second box more economical
That is

20.You have a choice of receiving a wage of $34,000 per year, $2840 per month, $650
per week or $16.50 per hour. Which pay choice would you take?
Assume a 40 hour work week and 52 weeks of work per year?
Solution
Let's calculate the total annual salary for each option:
$34,000 per year
No calculation needed, it's already an annual salary.
$2,840 per month
$2,840 12 months = $34,080 per year
$650 per week
$650 x 52 weeks = $33,800 per year
4. $16.50 per hour
$16.50 40 hours/week = $660/week
$660/week x 52 weeks = $34,320 per year
Based on these calculations, the best option would be the hourly wage of $16.50,
which translates to an annual salary of $34,320. This is slightly higher than the other
options.

21.Baseball statisticians calculate a hitter's at-bats per home run by dividing the number
of times the player has been at bat by the number of home runs the player has hit.
a) Calculate the at-bats per home run ratio for each player in the table on the
following page. Round to the nearest tenth.
b) Which player has the lowest rate of at-bats per home run? Which player has the
second lowest rate?
c) Why is this rate used for comparison rather than the number of home runs a
player has hit?

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Players with 50 or more Runs Per Season

Year Baseball Number of Number Number
Player Times at of of
Bat Home at –Bats
Runs Per
Hit Home
run

1921 Babe Ruth 540 59

1927 Babe Ruth 540 60
1930 Hack Wilson 585 56
1932 Jimmie Fox 585 58
1938 Hank Greenberg 556 58
1961 Roger Maris 590 61
1961 Mickey Mantle 514 54
1964 Willie Mays 558 52
1977 George Foster 615 52
1998 Mark McGwire 509 70
1998 Sammy Sosa 643 66
2001 Barry Bonds 476 73
2002 Alex Rodriguez 624 57

Solution

Which player has the lowest rate of at-bats per home run? Which player has
the second lowest rate?
Barry Bonds has the lowest rate of at-bats that is 6.52 per home run.
Mark McGwire has the second lowest rate of at-bats that is 7.27 per home run.
Why is this rate used for comparison rather than the number of home runs a
player has hit?
Average is more compatible than the number of home runs a player has hit.

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22.The table below shows the populations and areas of three countries. The population
density of a country is the number of people per square mile.
a) Which country has the lowest population density?
b) How many more people per square mile are there in India than in the United
States? Round to the nearest whole number.

Country Population Area (In square miles)

Australia 20,090,000 2,938,000
India 1,080,264,000 1,146,000
United States 295,734,000 3,535,000

Solution
Population density
Australia‘s Population density
India‘s Population density
Australia has the lowest population density.
859 more people per square mile are there in India than in the United States

23.Forrester Research, Inc., compiled the following estimates on consumer use of e-

mail in the United States.
a. Complete the last column of the table on the following page by calculating the
estimated number of messages per day that each user receives. Round to the
nearest tenth.
b. The predicted number of messages per person per day in 2005 is how many times
the estimated number in 1993?
Solution
Year Number of Messages Message per person
users per day(in per day
(in millions) millions)
1993 8 17 17/8 = 2.125%
1997 55 150 150/55 = 2.763%
2001 135 500 500/135 = 3.703%
2005 170 5000 5000/170 = 29.411%

The predicted number of messages per person per day in 2005 is 27.286% many
times the estimated number in 1993.

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24.Researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 5
million young people living today will die of tobacco-related diseases. Almost one-
third of children who become regular smokers will die of a smoking-related illness
such as heart disease or lung cancer. The table below shows, for eight states in our
nation, the numbers of children under 18 who are expected to become smokers and
the numbers who are projected to die of smoking-related illnesses.

Find the ratio of the projected number of smokers in each state listed to the projected
number of deaths, Round to the nearest thousandth. Write the ratio using the word do?
Solution

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25.Researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 5
million young people living today will die of tobacco-related diseases. Almost one-
third of children who become regular smokers will die of a smoking-related illness
such as heart disease or lung cancer. The table below shows, for eight states in our
nation, the numbers of children under 18 who are expected to become smokers and
the numbers who are projected to die of smoking-related illnesses.

a. Did the researchers calculate different possibilities of death from smoking related
illnesses for each state?
b. If the projected number of smokers in Florida is 928,464. What would you expect
the researcher's to project as a number of deaths from smoking related illnesses in
Florida?
Solution

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26.The table below shows the numbers of full-time men and women undergraduates
and the numbers of full-time faculty at universities in the Big East. Use this table for
Exercises 31 to 34. Round ratios to the nearest whole number.

a. Calculate the student faculty ratio at Syracuse University. Write the ratio using a
colon and using the word to. What does this ratio mean?
b. Which school listed has the lowest student faculty ratio?
c. Which school listed has the highest student faculty ratio?
d. Which schools listed have the same student faculty ratio?
Solution
a. Boston College = 6292 + 9756 = 16048 Ratio: 16048/1283 = 6299.6
Georgetown University = 2940 + 3386 = 6326 Ratio: 6326/655 = …
Syracuse University = 4722 + 6024 = 10746 Ratio: 10746/815 = 4729.3
University of Connecticut = 6762 + 7489 = 14251 Ratio: 14251/842 = 6770.9
West Virginia University = 8878 + 7665 = 16543 Ratio: 16543/1289 = 8883.9
b. Georgetown University listed the lowest student faculty ratio.
c. West Virginia University listed the highest student faculty ratio.
d. Boston College and University of Connecticut almost have the same student faculty
ratio.

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27.A bank uses the ratio of a borrower‘s total monthly debt to total monthly income to
determine eligibility for a loan. This ratio is called the debt–equity ratio. First
National Bank requires that a borrower have a debt–equity ratio that is less than .
Would the homeowner whose monthly income and debt are given below qualify for
a loan using these standards?

Solution
To determine if the borrower qualifies for a loan based on the debt-to-income ratio,
we need to calculate the total monthly debt and total monthly income first.
Total Monthly Income:
$3400 + $83 + $640 + $34 = $4157
Total Monthly Debt:
$1800 + $104 + $27 + $354 + $199 = $2484
Now, we can calculate the debt-to-income ratio:
Debt-to-Income Ratio = Total Monthly Debt / Total Monthly Income
Debt-to-Income Ratio = $2484 / $4157 ≈ 0.597
Since the debt-to-income ratio is approximately 0.597, which is less than 2/5 (0.4),
the borrower qualifies for a loan based on the bank's requirement of a debt-to-
income ratio less than 2/5.

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Percentage/Percent
The term percent means "per hundred, or hundredths". Percents are ratios that are often
used to represent parts of a whole, where the whole is considered as having 100 parts.
Percents can be converted to fractions or decimal equivalents.
Percent means ―for every 100.‖ Therefore, unemployment of 5% means that 5 out of every
100 people are unemployed. An increase in tuition of 10% means that tuition has gone up
$10 for every $100 it cost previously.
Examples
 1 percent means one part out of 100 parts. The fraction equivalent of 1 percent is
1/100, and the decimal equivalent is 0.01.
 32 percent means 32 parts out of 100 parts. The fraction equivalent of 32 percent is
32/100, and the decimal equivalent is 0.32.
 50 percent means 50 parts out of 100 parts. The fraction equivalent of 50 percent is
50/100, and the decimal equivalent is 0.50.
Note that in the fraction equivalent, the part is the numerator of the fraction and the whole
is the denominator. Percents are often written using the percent symbol, %, instead of the
word "percent ". Here are five example of percents written using the% symbol, along with
their fraction and decimal equivalents.
Examples Percent as a Fraction




 . /. /

Examples Fraction as a Percent





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Percent Problems: The Proportion Method

The proportion method of solving a percent problem is based on writing two ratios. One
ratio is the percent ratio, written The second ratio is the amount-to-base ratio,
written . These two ratios form the proportion used to solve percent problems. That
is

The proportion method can be illustrated by a diagram. The rectangle at the left is divided
into two parts. On the left, the whole rectangle is represented by 100 and the yellow part
by percent. On the right, the whole rectangle is represented by the base and the grey part
by the amount. The ratio of percent to 100 is equal to the ratio of the amount to the base.

When solving a percent problem, first identify the percent, the base, and the amount. It is
helpful to know that the base usually follows the phrase ―percent of.‖

28.In the statement ―15% of 40 is 6,‖ which number is the percent? Which number is
the base? Which number is the amount?
Solution
The percent is 15. The base is 40. (It follows the phrase ―percent of.‖) The amount is
6.

29.The average size of a house in 2003 was 2137 square feet. This is approximate
130% of the average size of a house in 1979. What was the average size of house in
1979? Round to the nearest whole number.
Solution

The average size of a house in 1979 was 1644 square feet.

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30.During 1996, Texas suffered through one of its longest droughts in history. Of the
$5 billion in losses caused by the drought, $1.1 billion was direct losses to ranchers.
What percent of the total losses was direct losses to ranchers?
Solution

Direct losses to ranchers represent 22% of the total losses.

31.In a recent year, Blockbuster Video customers rented 24% of the approximately 3.7
billion videos rented that year. How many million videos did Blockbuster Video
rent that year?
Solution

The number 0.888 is in billions. We need to convert it to millions.

0.888 billion = 888 million
Blockbuster Video rented approximately 888 million videos that year.

The Basic Percent Equation

where P is the percent, B is the base, and A is the amount.
Remark
When solving a percent problem using the proportion method, we first have to identify the
percent, the base, and the amount. The same is true when solving percent problems using
the basic percent equation. Remember that the base usually follows the phrase ―percent
of.‖ When using the basic percent equation, the percent must be written as a decimal or a
fraction.
32.A real estate broker receives a commission of 3% of the selling price of a house.
Find the amount the broker receives on the sale of a $275,000 home.
Solution
We want to answer the question ―3% of $275,000 is what number?‖ Use the basic
percent equation. The percent is 3% = 0.03. The base is 275,000. The amount is the
amount the broker receives on the sale of the home.
( )
The real estate broker receives a commission of $8250 on the sale.

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33.An investor received a payment of $480, which was 12% of the value of the
investment. Find the value of the investment.
Solution
We want to answer the question ―12% of what number is 480?‖ Use the basic
percent equation. The percent is 12% = 0.12. The amount is 480. The base is the
value of the investment.

The value of the investment is $4000.

34.If you answer 96 questions correctly on a 120-question exam, what percent of the
questions did you answer correctly?
Solution
We want to answer the question ―What percent of 120 questions is 96 questions?‖
Use the basic percent equation. The base is 120. The amount is 96. The percent is
unknown.

You answered 80% of the questions correctly.

35.Find the difference between the cost of adding an attic bedroom to your home and
the amount by which the addition increases the sale price of your home.

Solution
The cost of building the attic bedroom is $22,840, and the sale price increases by
84% of that amount. We need to find the difference between $22,840 and 84% of
$22,840. Use the basic percent equation to find 84% of $22,840. The percent is 84%
= 0.84. The base is 22,840. The amount is unknown.
( )

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Subtract 19,185.60 (the amount of the cost that is recouped when the home is sold)
from 22,840 (the cost of building the attic bedroom).
i.e. 22,840 19,185.60 = 3654.40
The difference between the cost of the addition and the increase in value of your
home is $3654.40.
Remember
 The percent used to determine the increase in the cost of living is a percent
increase. Percent increase is used to show how much a quantity has increased over
its original value.
 The percent used to measure the decrease in the federal deficit is a percent
decrease. Percent decrease is used to show how much a quantity has decreased from
its original value.
 The federal debt is the amount the government owes after borrowing the money it
needs to pay for its expenses. It is considered a good measure of how much of the
government‘s spending is financed by debt as opposed to taxation.
 The federal deficit is the amount by which government spending exceeds the
federal budget.

36.How much would a family in Denver, Colorado living on $55,000 per year need in
New York City to maintain a comparable lifestyle?

Solution
In New York City, the family would need $55,000(2.39) = $131,450 per year to
maintain a comparable lifestyle.

37.Find the percent increase in the federal debt respectively from

1980 to 1995. Round to the nearest tenth of a percent.
Solution
Calculate the amount of increase in the federal debt from 1980 to 1995.

( )
The percent increase in the federal debt from 1980 to 1995 was 446.2%.

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38.Find the federal deficit projected to decrease by from 2005 to 2006.

Solution
First find the amount of decrease in the deficit from 2005 to 2006.

We will use the basic percent equation to find the percent. The base is the deficit in
2005. The amount is the amount of decrease.
( )
The federal deficit is projected to decrease by 26.4% from 2005 to 2006.

39.In 1998, GM plants took an average of 32 hours to produce one vehicle. From 1998
to 2005, that time decreased 28.125%. Find the average time for GM to produce one
vehicle in 2005.
Solution
We will write and solve a proportion. (The basic percent equation could also be
used.) The percent is 28.125%. The base is 32. The amount is unknown.

Subtract the decrease in time from the 1998 time. i.e.

In 2005, GM plants took an average of 23 hours to produce one vehicle.

40.When adults were asked to name their favorite cookie, 52% said chocolate chip.
What does this statistic mean?
Solution
This statistic means that 52 out of every 100 people surveyed responded that their
favorite cookie was chocolate chip. (In the same survey, the following responses
were also given: oatmeal raisin, 10%; peanut butter, 9%; oatmeal, 7%; sugar, 4%;
molasses, 4%; chocolate chip oatmeal, 3%.)

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Finding a percent of a number

41.Find 34% of 450.

Solution
Here 34% is the rate and 450 is the base. Thus
Percentage = Base ×Rate% = 450×34% = 450×34/100 = 450×0.34 = 153

42.Find 25% of 1200.

Solution
Here 25% is the rate and RS.1200 is the base .Thus
Percentage = Base × Rate% = 1200 × 25% = 1200 × 25/100 = 1200 × 0.025 = 300

43.A shopkeeper sold am article at 20% more than its cost. What was the selling price
if the cost of the article was Rs.320?
Solution
Here 20% is the rate and 320 is the base.
Profit = Base × Rate% = 320 × 20% = 320 × 20/100 = 320 × 0.2 = Rs.64
Selling price = cost + profit = Rs.320 + Rs.64 = Rs.384.
Finding what percent one number is of another number

44.Find what percent Rs.45 is of Rs.250.

Solution
Rs.45 is the number for which percent (rate) is required on the base Rs.250
Rate % = Number /Base = 45/250 = 0.18 =18%

45.A business man on an incitement of Rs.10,000 made a profit of Rs.300. What

percent did he make on his investment?
Solution
Rs.300 is the number for which percent (rate) is required on the base Rs.10,000.
Rate = Number/base =300/10000= 3/100 = 0.03 = 3%

46.Find rate % on the cost of a chair, which is sold for Rs.560 and cost Rs.415.
Solution
Selling price= Rs.560, Cost price = Rs.415
Profit = selling - cost price = Rs.560-Rs.414 = Rs.145
Here, Rs.145 is the number for which percent (rate) is required on the basis of Rs.15
Rate = number/ base = 145/415 = 0.35 = 35%

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Finding a number when a certain percent of it is given

47.If 4% of the amount is Rs 80, what is the amount or base?

Solution
Amount = base, Rate% = 4%=0.04, percentage of number = Rs.80

48.The selling price of T.V. is Rs.8800 and the gross profit is 10% of the cost. What is
the cost?
Solution
The cost is the base from which gross profit is 10% has been calculated.
The given selling price= cost + gross profit = 100 + 10% =110% of cost
Since Rs.8800 is 110% of the cost, the cost is:

49.An increase of 12% in the price of a new car makes the price Rs.96320.
(i) What was the price of car before the increase?
(ii) What is the amount of increase?
Solution
(i) If 100% represents the price of car before increase, then 112% represents the
price of car after increase.
Price of car before increase =
(ii) The amount of increase = 12% of 86000 =

50.Mr. Ali gets 20% profit from his investment. His profit is Rs.6580. Find his amount
of incitement.
Solution
Rate of profit = 20 %
The investment is the base 100% from which profit of 20% has been calculated .His
total profit is Rs.6580.
Amount of investment

51.If the whole is 20 and the part is 13, find the percent.
Solution
Percentage

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52.What percent of 150 is 12.9?

Solution
Here the whole is 159 and the part is 12.9
Percentage

53.Find 30% of 350.

Solution
30% of 350 ( )( )

54.15 is 60 % of what number?

Solution
60% of x

55.A man spends $880 in a month. 26% out of this goes to rent .How much is his rent?
Solution
Rent

56.If a person salary increases from $ 200 per week to $ 234 per week, what is the
percent increase in the person‘s salary?
Solution
Percent increase

57.If an athlete weight decreases from 160 to 152 pound, what is the percent decrease
in the athlete weight?
Solution
Percent decrease

58.A Particular book is valued at $40 per share .If the value increases by 20 percent and
then decreases by 25 percent, what will be the value of the stock per share after the
decrease?
Solution
Price after increase by 20% = 20% × 40 = $ 8
Price after increase = $40 + $8 = $ 48
Now as per the second statement the 25% decrease can be calculated by multiplying
the NEW BASE (48$) with the decimal equivalent of 100% - 25% = 75% which is
0.75. Therefore
( )

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USES AND ABUSES OF PERCENTAGE

News reports frequently express quantitative information with percentages .Unfortunately,
while percentages themselves are rather basic- they are just an alternative form of fractions
- they are often used in very subtle ways. For example, consider the following quotes that
appeared in the front -page news article:
The rate of smoking eighth grader was up 44 percent, to 10.4 percent. The percentage in
this statement is used correctly, but the phrase ―up 44% to 10.4%‖ is not easy to interpret
correctly.
Three Ways of Using Percentage
Consider the following statements from new reports:
1. A total of 13000 newspaper employees, 2.6% of the newspaper work force, lost their
jobs.
2. Citigroup stock fell 15% last week, to $ 44.25.
3. The advanced battery lasts 125% longer than the standard one, but costs 200 more.
Using Percentages as Fraction
Percent is just a fancy way of saying "divided by 100," so P% simply means P/100. For
example, 10.4% means 10.4/100, or 0.104. Therefore if 10.4% of eighth -grader smoke
and there are 100,000 eighth grader, then the number who smoke is 10.4% of 100,000, or
10.4% × 100,000 = 0.104 × 100,000 = 10,400. Notice that the word of told us to multiply.
We've found that if 10.4% of 109,000 eighth graders smoke, there are 10,499 smokers.
Example
An opinion poll finds that 64% of 1069 people surveyed said that the president is doing a
good job .How many said that president is doing a good job?
Solution
Because of indicates multiplication, 64% of the 1069 respondents is

About 684 people said the president is doing a good job.

We rounded the answer to 684 to obtain a whole number of people.

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DATA HANDLILNG errors

(Small and Large Data, Absolute and relative Errors)

In statistics and data analysis, "large data" and "small data" refer to the size and scope of
the dataset being worked with. Here's what I mean by large and small data handling:
Large Data Handling
Deals with vast amounts of data (thousands, millions, or billions of rows and columns)
Often requires specialized techniques and tools to process and analyze
Examples: social media data, sensor data, customer transaction data, genomic data
Challenges: data storage, processing power, data quality, and noise
Techniques: data aggregation, sampling, data compression, distributed computing,
machine learning
Small Data Handling
Deals with limited or restricted data (dozens, hundreds, or thousands of rows and columns)
Often requires careful attention to detail and statistical precision
Examples: survey data, experimental data, clinical trial data, pilot study data
Challenges: data scarcity, sampling bias, measurement error
Techniques: data augmentation, non-parametric methods, Bayesian analysis, meta-analysis
In general, large data handling focuses on managing and extracting insights from vast
amounts of data, while small data handling focuses on making the most of limited data.
Some key differences between large and small data handling include
Data size: Large data involves massive datasets, while small data involves smaller, more
manageable datasets.
Data complexity: Large data often requires specialized tools and techniques to handle
complexity, while small data can be analyzed using traditional statistical methods.
Data quality: Large data may suffer from noise and data quality issues, while small data
requires careful attention to detail to ensure accuracy.

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Analysis goals: Large data often aims to identify patterns and trends, while small data
focuses on making precise estimates and inferences.
By understanding the differences between large and small data handling, analysts and
researchers can choose the right techniques and tools to extract valuable insights from their
data.
Here are some common methods for handling large and small data in statistics:
Large Data Handling
Sampling: Select a representative subset of data for analysis.
Example: Conducting a national survey with a random sample of 10,000 respondents.
Data Aggregation: Group data into categories to reduce its size.
Example: Analyzing website traffic by month instead of individual page views.
Data Compression: Reduce data size using algorithms or formats.
Example: Using lossless compression for image data.
Distributed Computing: Process data across multiple machines or nodes.
Example: Using Hadoop for big data analysis.
Resampling Methods: Use techniques like bootstrapping or jackknifing to analyze large
data.
Example: Estimating population parameters using bootstrapping.
Small Data Handling
Pilot Studies: Conduct small-scale studies to test hypotheses or refine methods.
Example: Conducting a pilot survey with 100 respondents before a larger study.
Data Augmentation: Increase data size using techniques like interpolation or
extrapolation.
Example: Using regression to fill missing values.
Non-Parametric Methods: Use methods that don't require large sample sizes.
Example: Using Wilcoxon rank-sum test for comparing two groups.

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Bayesian Analysis: Use prior knowledge to inform analysis of small data.

Example: Using Bayesian inference for estimating population parameters.
Meta-Analysis: Combine results from multiple small studies.
Example: Conducting a meta-analysis of clinical trials.
Example
Suppose we have a dataset of exam scores for 1000 students:
| Student ID | Score |
| --- | --- |
| 1 | 80 |
| 2 | 90 |
| ... | ... |
Large Data Handling
Sampling: Select a random sample of 100 students to analyze.
Data Aggregation: Calculate mean scores by school instead of individual students.
Small Data Handling
Pilot Study: Analyze data from a small pilot study of 20 students to refine methods.
Data Augmentation: Use interpolation to fill missing scores for 10 students.
Example
Suppose we have a dataset of customer purchases:
| Customer ID | Purchase Amount | Date |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 10.99 | 2022-01-01 |
| 2 | 5.99 | 2022-01-05 |
| ... | ... | ... |

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Large Data Handling:

Data Aggregation: Group by region, calculate total sales
Data Sampling: Analyze 1% of transactions (e.g., 1000 rows)
Small Data Handling:
Data Enrichment: Add customer demographics (e.g., age, location)
Data Normalization: Scale purchase amounts to a common range (e.g., 0-100)
By applying these methods, we can effectively handle large and small data sets to extract
valuable insights and inform business decisions.
Some statistical techniques for large and small data include:
Regression Analysis: For modeling relationships between variables.
Hypothesis Testing: For testing statistical significance.
Confidence Intervals: For estimating population parameters.
Time Series Analysis: For analyzing data with temporal dependencies.
By applying these methods, we can effectively handle large and small data sets to extract
valuable insights and inform decision-making.
Putting Numbers in Perspective
We hear numbers in the millions, billions, or trillions nearly every day, sometimes in the
context of government spending and sometimes in other contexts, such as memory storage
on phones and computers. Yet relatively few people understand what these large numbers
really mean. In this unit, we will study several techniques for putting large (or small)
numbers into a perspective that gives them real meaning.
Writing Large & Small Numbers
Working with large and small numbers is much easier when we write them in a special
format known as scientific notation. We express numbers in this format by writing a
number between} and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. (See the Brief Review of powers of
10.) For example, a billion is ten to the ninth power, or , so we write 6 billion in
scientific notation as . Similarly, we write 420 in scientific notation as 4 ,
and 0.67 as .

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Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a method for handling large and small numbers, making them easier
to work with and express. It's a way to represent very large or very small numbers in a
compact form, using powers of 10.
Scientific notation is a format in which a number is expressed as a number between 1 and
10 multiplied by a power of 10. For example 20 in scientific notation as 4 , and
0.67 as .
Scientific notation makes it easy to write numbers no matter how large or small. We must
be careful, however, not to let this ease of writing deceive us. For example, it‘s so easy to
write the number that we might think it‘s not all that big but it is larger than the total
number of atoms in the known universe.
Scientific notation is useful for
Large data: Representing extremely large numbers, such as astronomical distances or
population sizes.
Small data: Representing extremely small numbers, such as molecular sizes or probability
values.
Examples
Large data: 1,234,567,890 = 1.23456789 × 109
Small data: 0.000000123 = 1.23 ×
Scientific notation is a fundamental concept in mathematics, physics, and engineering,
making it easier to work with extreme values. So, it's both a large and small data handling
method!
Example
Rewrite each of the following statements using scientific notation. (a) Total spending in
the new federal budget is $3,900,000,000,000. (b) The diameter of a hydrogen nucleus is
about 0.000000000000001 meter.
Solution
(a) Total spending in the new federal budget is or $3.9 trillion.
(b) The diameter of a hydrogen nucleus is about meter.

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Example Convert 0.0006 in to scientific notation.

Solution
Example: Checking Answers with Approximations
You and a friend are doing a rough calculation of how much garbage New City residents
produce every day. You estimate that, on average, each of the 83 million residents
produces 1.8 pounds, or 0.0009 ton, of garbage each day. The total amount of garbage is

Your friend quickly presses calculator buttons and tells you that the answer is 225 tons.
Without using your calculator, determine whether this answer is reasonable.
Solution

Therefore, the product should be approximately:

Clearly, your friend‘s answer-of 225 tons is too small. This simple approximation
technique provided a useful check, even though it did not tell us the exact answer which
you confirm to be 7470 tons.
Examples: Convert into Standard Form
 My new music player has a capacity of 340 gigabytes.

 The diameter of a typical bacterium is about 0.000001 meter.

 A beam of light can travel the length of a football field in about 30 nanosecond.
Express your answer in seconds.

 The number of different eight character password that can be made with 26
letters and ten numerals is approximately 2.8 trillion.

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Error
Error is a term used to denote the amount by which an approximation fails to equal the
exact solution.

For example: is irrational and and a rational. And

then is accurate.

Note that the word error in statistics does not mean mistake it is a chance of inaccuracy
or change.
Absolute Error/Change

If the observed/reference value and true value are denoted by and respectively then
then absolute error is given as;

( )

Relative Error/Change

An absolute error divided by the true value is called the relative error.
( )

Biased Error

An error is said to be biased when the observed value is consistently and constantly higher
or lower than the true value. Also called cumulative or systematic errors.

Unbiased Error

An error is said to be unbiased when the deviation. i.e. the excesses and defects, from the
true value tend to occur equally often. Also called compensating or random/accidental
errors.

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Example
During a sixth month period, Xerox stock double in price from $7 to $14. What were the
absolute and relative changes in the stock price?
Solution
Reference value = $7; True value = $14
The absolute change is the difference between true and starting stock prices:

That is, the doubling of the stock price means a relative increase in value of 50%
Example
Estimated world population was 2.7 billion in 1953 and 7.1 billion in 2013. Describe the
absolute and relative change in world population over this 60 years period.
Solution
The reference value is the 1954 population of 2.7 billion, and the new/true value is the
2013 population of 7.1 billion.

World population increased by 4.4 billion people, or by 61.97%, from 1953 to 2013.

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Example
You bought a computer three years ago for $ 1000 .Today it is worth only $300. Describe
the absolute and relative change in computer's value.
Solution
Reference value = $1000
New value = $300

The negative sign tell us that the computer's current worth is $700 less than the price you
paid three years ago.

Again, the negative sign tells us that the computer is now worth 233% less than it was
three years ago.

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Financial indicator
Analysis and money
management
(Profit, loss, Tax, zakat and ushr, simple and compound interest)

Profit
If selling price of an article is greater than the cost price. Then the difference between them
is called the profit. That is

Loss
If selling price of an article is less than the cost price. Then the difference between them is
called the loss. That is

Marked Price
The price printed on the wrapper of article is called marked price.
List Price
The price of article given in the list provided by the factory is called list price.
Discount
A deduction of price offered by the seller on the marked price or list price is called
discount.

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Mathematical Relations regarding Discount

 ( )
 ( )


Partnership
An association of two or more persons who run a business to get profit is called
partnership. There are two types of partnership.
 Simple Partnership
When the partners invest capital for the same period of time, the partnership is
called simple partnership. In this case, profit or loss is distributed among partners in
the ratio of capital invested by each of them.
 Compound Partnership
When the different partners invest capital for the different period of time, the
partnership is called compound partnership. In this case, profit or loss is distributed
among partners in the ratio of products of capital and period of investment of each
partner.

1. A woman purchased a dress for Rs.4300. she sold it at a profit of 5%. Find the selling
price of the dress.
Solution
The cost price of the dress = Rs. 4300
Profit = 5% of Rs. 4300 = 5/100×4300 = Rs. 215
Selling Price = C.P. + Profit = 4300+215 = Rs. 4515
So, the selling price of the dress is Rs. 4515.

2. The marked price of an electric heater is Rs. 4800. A discount of 15% is announced on
sale. What is the amount of discount and its selling price?
Solution
Marked price of an electric heater = Rs.4800
Discount = 15% of Rs.4800 = = Rs.720
Selling price of the electric heater = marked price - discount amount
S.P. = 4800 – 720 = Rs. 4080
Hence, the Amount of discount is Rs. 720 and its selling price is Rs. 4080.

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3. Tom buys 10 units of a product at $20 each and sells them at $25 each. What is his total
profit?
Solution
Profit per unit = Selling Price - Cost Price = $25 - $20 = $5.
Total Profit = Profit per unit Number of units = $5 10 = $50

4. A bakery sells 200 loaves of bread at $2 each. The cost of ingredients and labor is
$300. What is the profit?
Solution
Total Revenue = Number of loaves Selling Price = 200 x $2 = $400.
Profit = Total Revenue - Total Cost = $400 - $300 = $100

5. A store buys a shipment of 50 units of a product at $30 each. They sell 30 units at $40
each and the remaining units at $35 each. What is the total profit?
Solution
Profit from first 30 units = (Selling Price - Cost Price) Number of units
Profit from first 30 units = ($40 - $30) 30 = $10 30 = $300.
Profit from remaining units = (Selling Price - Cost Price) Number of units
Profit from remaining units = ($35 - $30) 20 = $5 20 = $100.
Total Profit = $300 + $100 = $400

6. Two companies, A and B, sell the same product at the same price. Company A has a
cost price of $25 and Company B has a cost price of $30. If they both sell 100 units,
who makes more profit and by how much?
Solution
Company A's Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price = $40 - $25 = $15.
Company B's Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price = $40 - $30 = $10.
Company A makes more profit by $5 per unit,
so total difference in profit is $5 100 = $500

7. A company has two products, X and Y. Product X has a profit of $10 per unit and
Product Y has a profit of $20 per unit. If the company sells 50 units of Product X and
25 units of Product Y, what is the total profit?
Solution
Total Profit from Product X = Profit per unit Number of units = $10 50 = $500.
Total Profit from Product Y = Profit per unit Number of units = $20 25 = $500.
Total Profit = $500 + $500 = $1000

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8. If the cost price of an item is $50 and the selling price is $60, what is the profit
percentage?
Solution
Profit Percentage = (Profit / Cost Price) 100 = ($10 / $50) 100 = 20%

9. A company sells 100 units of a product at $25 each. The cost price is $20 each. What is
the profit percentage?
Solution
Total Revenue = Number of units Selling Price = 100 $25 = $2500.
Total Cost = Number of units Cost Price = 100 $20 = $2000.
Profit = Total Revenue - Total Cost = $2500 - $2000 = $500.
Profit Percentage = (Profit / Total Cost) 100 = ($500 / $2000) 100 = 25%

10.A store buys a product at $30 and sells it at $39. What is the profit percentage?
Solution
Profit Percentage = (Profit / Cost Price) 100 = ($9 / $30) 100 = 30%

11.Two companies, A and B, sell the same product at the same price. Company A has a
cost price of $25 and Company B has a cost price of $30. If they both sell 100 units,
who has a higher profit percentage and by how much?
Solution
Company A's Profit Percentage = (Profit / Cost Price) 100
Company A's Profit Percentage = ($15 / $25) 100 = 60%.
Company B's Profit Percentage = (Profit / Cost Price) 100
Company B's Profit Percentage = ($10 / $30) 100 = 33.3%.
Company A has a higher profit percentage by 26.7%

12.A company sells a product at a profit percentage of 30%. If the cost price is $50, what
is the selling price?
Solution
Selling Price = Cost Price + (Profit Percentage x Cost Price)
Selling Price = $50 + (30% $50) = $50 + $15 = $65

13.Tom buys a book for $20 and sells it for $15. What is his loss?
Solution
Loss = Cost Price - Selling Price = $20 - $15 = $5

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14.A store purchases 100 units of a product at $10 each and sells them at $8 each. What is
the total loss?
Solution
Loss per unit = Cost Price - Selling Price = $10 - $8 = $2.
Total Loss = Loss per unit Number of units = $2 100 = $200

15.A company produces 500 units of a product at a cost of $5 each. Due to market
conditions, they have to sell them at $4 each. What is the total loss?
Solution
Loss per unit = Cost Price - Selling Price = $5 - $4 = $1.
Total Loss = Loss per unit Number of units = $1 500 = $500

16.Sarah buys a dress for $30 and alters it for $10. She then sells it for $25.
What is her loss?
Solution
Total Cost = Cost Price + Alteration Cost = $30 + $10 = $40.
Loss = Total Cost - Selling Price = $40 - $25 = $15

17.A farmer grows wheat at a cost of $100 per acre and sells it at $80 per acre. If he grows
50 acres, what is his total loss?
Solution
Loss per acre = Cost Price - Selling Price = $100 - $80 = $20.
Total Loss = Loss per acre Number of acres = $20 50 = $1000

18.If the cost price of an item is $50 and the selling price is $40, what is the loss
percentage?
Solution
Loss Percentage = (Loss / Cost Price) 100 = ($10 / $50) 100 = 20%

19.A store sells a product at a loss of 15%. If the cost price is $60, what is the selling
price?
Solution
Selling Price = Cost Price - (Loss Percentage Cost Price)
Selling Price = $60 - (15% $60) = $60 - $9 = $51

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20.A company produces a product at a cost of $20 each and sells them at a loss of 25%.
What is the selling price?
Solution
Selling Price = Cost Price - (Loss Percentage Cost Price)
Selling Price = $20 - (25% $20) = $20 - $5
Selling Price = $15

21.Tom buys a bike for $100 and sells it at a loss of 10%.

If he also pays a commission of 5% on the selling price.
What is the total loss percentage?
Solution
Selling Price = Cost Price - (Loss Percentage Cost Price)
Selling Price = $100 - (10% $100) = $100 - $10 = $90.
Commission = 5% $90 = $4.5.
Total Loss = $10 + $4.5 = $14.5.
Total Loss Percentage = (Total Loss / Cost Price) 100
Total Loss Percentage = ($14.5 / $100) 100 = 14.5%

22.A retailer buys a product at $50 and sells it at a loss of 12%. If he sells 200 units, what
is the total loss amount?
Solution
Loss per unit = Cost Price Loss Percentage = $50 12% = $6.
Total Loss = Loss per unit x Number of units = $6 200 = $1200

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Tax
A tax is the amount that government imposes on public to give them facilities, like
education, health, security, justice, roads , electricity, etc. Tax is the most important source
of government income. Some taxes are paid directly and some indirectly by the public.
Direct tax
A tax in which the tax payer pays directly to the government. For example, income tax,
property tax etc. Direct tax different for everyone.
Indirect tax
In such taxes, taxes are charged on goods and services or on commodities. Indirect tax is
same for everyone.
23.Ahmad earns Rs. 80000 per month. Calculate the income tax on Ahmad's annual income.
Solution
Ahmad's monthly income = Rs. 80000 = 8000 × 12 = Rs. 960000
Exempted amount = Rs. 600000. (According to the given income slab)
Taxable income = Gross income - exempted amount = 960000 – 600000 = Rs. 360000
Rate of income tax = 2.5%. (According to the given taxable income slab)
Income tax = = Rs. 9000

Property Tax
Property tax is a tax imposed by government on the properties such as house, land and
shops. Government imposes property tax on the annual value of a property. The amount of
this tax depends on the location of the property and varies from location to location. The
value of the property is assessed by the government departments.
24.Ayyan owns a house of worth Rs. 4500000. Calculate the amount of property tax at the
rate of 4.5%.
Solution
Total value of the house = Rs. 4500000
Rate of tax = 4.5%
Amount of tax = = Rs. 202500

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25.Abdullah owns a property. If he has to pay property tax of Rs. 22000 at the rate of 2%.
Find the total worth of the property.
Solution
Let the rate of property = x
Amount of tax = Rs. 22000
Rate of tax = 2 %
2% of x = Rs. 22000
× x=Rs. 22000
x = Rs. 22000 × = Rs. 1100000
Hence, the total worth of the property is Rs. 1100000.

General sales Tax

When a customer purchases an item, he pays an extra amount in addition to the original
price of the item. This extra amount is called general sales tax. Usually, government
imposes this tax in expensive items. In Pakistan, rate of GST varies from 0% to 25%
depending on the type of item.
26.The price of motorcycle is Rs. 110000. Find the GST on it at the rate of 17%.
Solution
Price of motorcycle = Rs. 110000, Rate of GST= 17%
Amount of GST = = Rs. 18700
Hence the GST on this motorcycle is Rs. 18700.

27.The price of fan is Rs. 6000. Find the price of 10 fans including GST.
Solution
The price of one fan = Rs. 6000
Price of ten fan = 6000×10 = 60000
Rate of GST = 17%
Amount of GST = = Rs. 10200
Total price payable = 6000 + 10200 = Rs. 70200

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28.What does each of these statements imply about the precipitation during this year? Do the
two statements have the same meaning? Explain.
Solution
100% of normal would mean 100% × 90 = 90 inches
Normal 200% of normal would be 200% × 90 = 180 inches
Double normal 100% above normal would be 90 + 180 = 270 inches

29.You purchase a bicycle with a retail price of $760. The local sales tax rate is 7.6%.
What is the final cost?
Solution
Final cost

30. The final cost of your new shoes is $107.69. The local sales tax rate is 6.2% . What
was the retail price?
Solution
Price = (100 + 6.2)% = 106.2%
Label Cost

31. Between 2000 and 2010, the percentage of U.S. households with cordless phones
increased by 13.7% to 91%. What percentage of households had cordless phones in
2000?
Solution
It tells us that the new rate is 13.7% more than the previous rate which means it is
(100+13.7)% =113.7% of the previous rate.
New rate=113.7%× previous rate
Previous rate
80% of households had cordless phones in 2000.

32. Between 2000 and 2010, the percentage of fatal automobile accidents due to speeding
decreased by 34% to 16%. What percentage of fatal automobile accidents were due to
speeding in 2000?
Solution
It tells us that the new rate is 34% decrease the previous rate.
Which means it is ( ) of the previous rate.
New rate
Previous rate

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Commission
Commission is an amount of money which is paid by the seller or purchaser to the agent
for his services. In other words, commission is an amount of money paid to an employee
or agent by the seller or purchaser for selling or purchasing something.
Rate of commission: Commission = rate of commission × selling price
33.If a property dealer gets Rs.100000 as commission on the sale of a shop for Rs.
4000000. Find the rate of commission.
Solution
Selling price of a shop = Rs. 4000000
Amount of commission= Rs. 100000
Commission = rate of commission × selling price
100000 = rate of commission × 4000000
Rate of commission = = 0.025 = 2.5%

34.What is the commission if the rate of commission is 10% and the sale value is $100?
Solution
Commission = Rate of Commission Sale Value = 10% $100 = $10

35.If a salesperson earns a commission of $50 on a sale of $500, what is the rate of
commission?
Solution
Rate of Commission = Commission / Sale Value = $50 / $500 = 10%

36.A real estate agent sells a property for $200,000 and earns a commission of 5%. How
much is the commission?
Solution
Commission = Rate of Commission Sale Value = 5% $200,000 = $10,000

37.If a company pays a commission of 15% on all sales, and an employee makes a sale of
$800, how much is the commission?
Solution
Commission = Rate of Commission Sale Value = 15% $800 = $120

38.A salesperson earns a commission of $25 on a sale of $250. What is the rate of
commission?
Solution
Rate of Commission = Commission / Sale Value = $25 / $250 = 10%

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Zakat
There are 5 pillars of Islam. Zakat is one of the pillars of Islam. It imposes on those
Muslims who have certain amount of wealth the whole year. There are types of recipients
of Zakat. The purpose of Zakat is to help the poor and needy among the Muslims to create
a welfare Muslim state. The Muslims pay Zakat if their annual savings reaches a certain
level.
Nisaab of Zakat
Zakat is the minimum amount of annual savings on which Zakat has to be paid. Nisaab for
Zakat is 7.5 tola (8748 grams) gold or 52.5 tola (612.36 gram) silver or equivalent amount.
Rate of Zakat
The rate of Zakat is 2.5% of total wealth. The amount of Zakat is calculated by the
following formula.
Amount of Zakat = rate of Zakat × total amount
39.Khalid saved Rs. 2000000 for one year in his account. Calculate the amount of Zakat
Khalid has to pay.
Solution
Total amount = Rs. 2000000
Rate of Zakat = 2.5%
Amount of Zakat = rate of Zakat × total amount = = Rs.50000
Hence, Khalid has to pay Rs.50000 as a Zakat.

40. Saif paid Zakat of Rs.15000 on gold. Find the total price of the gold.
Solution
Amount of Zakat paired = Rs. 15000
Amount of Zakat = rate of Zakat × total amount
Rs. 150000 = 2.5%× total amount = × total amount
Total amount = = Rs. 600000
Hence, the total price of the gold is Rs. 600000

41. Calculate the amount of Zakat on an amount of Rs. 5,00,000.

Solution
Total amount = Rs. 5,00,000
Rate of Zakat = 2.5%
Amount of Zakat = rate of Zakat × total amount = = Rs.12500

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42. Amira has $1,000 in her savings account. What is the Zakat she needs to pay if the rate
is 2.5%?
Solution
Zakat = Total Amount Rate = $1,000 2.5% = $25

43.A business owner has a annual profit of $100,000. If he has already paid $20,000 in
taxes, what is the Zakat he needs to pay if the rate is 2.5%?
Solution
Zakat = (Total Profit - Taxes) Rate = ($100,000 - $20,000) 2.5%
Zakat = $80,000 2.5% = $2,000

44.A person has investments worth $500,000, but they are currently valued at $400,000
due to market fluctuations. What is the Zakat they need to pay if the rate is 2.5%?
Solution
Zakat = Current Value x Rate = $400,000 2.5% = $10,000

45.A company has a total asset value of $1,500,000, but $500,000 is exempt from Zakat. If
the rate is 2.5%, what is the Zakat they need to pay?
Solution
Zakat = (Total Assets - Exempt Amount) Rate
Zakat = ($1,500,000 - $500,000) 2.5%
Zakat = $1,000,000 2.5% = $25,000

46.A farmer has an annual harvest worth $200,000, but he has already paid $50,000 in
taxes and has $30,000 in expenses. What is the Zakat he needs to pay if the rate is
2.5%?
Solution
Zakat = (Total Harvest - Taxes - Expenses) Rate
Zakat = ($200,000 - $50,000 - $30,000) 2.5%
Zakat = $120,000 2.5% = $3,000

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Ushr
Ushr is paid at the rate of 10% from the agricultural products of the land which is irrigated
by natural resources. However the rate of Ushr is 5% on the agricultural products of the
land which is irrigated by artificial resources, that is canals, tube wells etc.
47. If the wheat crop is produced 40000kg by natural resources, calculate the amount of
ushr, if the price of wheat is Rs.950 per kg.
Solution
Weight of wheat = 40000kg
Price of 40kg wheat = Rs.950
Price of 1kg wheat = Rs.
Price of 40000kg wheat = Rs.
Amount of Ushr = = Rs.95000

48.Calculate amount of ushr on a rice crop of weight 3000kg produced by artificial

sources, if the price of 40 kg rice is Rs.2000.
Solution
Weight of rice crop = 3000kg
Price of 3000kg wheat = Rs.
Amount of Ushr = = Rs.7500

49.A landowner has 100 acres of agricultural land, and the annual produce is worth
$50,000. What is the Ushr they need to pay if the rate is 5%?
Solution
Ushr = Total Produce Rate = $50,000 5% = $2,500

50.A farmer has 50 acres of land, and the annual produce is worth $20,000. If they have
already paid $5,000 in taxes, what is the Ushr they need to pay if the rate is 5%?
Solution
Ushr = (Total Produce - Taxes) Rate
Ushr = ($20,000 - $5,000) 5%
Ushr = $15,000 5%
Ushr = $750

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51.A person owns 200 acres of land, but 50 acres are not cultivable. If the annual produce
from the remaining land is worth $100,000, what is the Ushr they need to pay if the rate
is 5%?
Solution
Ushr = Total Produce Rate
Ushr = $100,000 5%
Ushr = $5,000

52.A company owns 500 acres of agricultural land, and the annual produce is worth
$250,000. If they have already paid $50,000 in taxes and have $20,000 in expenses,
what is the Ushr they need to pay if the rate is 5%?
Solution
Ushr = (Total Produce - Taxes - Expenses) Rate
Ushr = ($250,000 - $50,000 - $20,000) 5%
Ushr = $180,000 5%
Ushr = $9,000

53.A farmer has 150 acres of land, and the annual produce is worth $75,000. If they have
already paid $15,000 in taxes and have $10,000 in expenses, what is the Ushr they need
to pay if the rate is 5%?
Solution
Ushr = (Total Produce - Taxes - Expenses) Rate
Ushr = ($75,000 - $15,000 - $10,000) 5%
Ushr = $50,000 5%
Ushr = $2,500

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Interest

When you deposit money in a bank for example, in a savings account you are permitting
the bank to use your money. The bank may lend the deposited money to customers to buy
cars or make renovations on their homes. The bank pays you for the privilege of using
your money. The amount paid to you is called interest. If you are the one borrowing
money from a bank, the amount you pay for the privilege of using that money is also
called inter

Principal

The amount deposited in a bank or borrowed from a bank.

Or the principal in financial formulas is the balance upon which interest is paid.

Interest Rate

The percent used to determine the amount of interest is called the interest rate. If you
deposit $1000 in a savings account paying 5% interest, $1000 is the principal and the
interest rate is 5%.

Simple Interest

Simple Interest is interest paid only on the original investment and not on any interest
added at later dates.

Simple Interest Formula

The simple interest formula is

Where I is the interest, P is the principal, r is the interest rate, and t is the time period.

54. Calculate the simple interest earned in 1 year on a deposit of $1000 if the interest rate
is 5%.
Solution
( )( )

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55. Calculate the simple interest due on a three-month loan of $2000 if the interest rate
is 6.5%.
Solution

( ). /

56. Calculate the simple interest due on a two-month loan of $500 if the interest rate is
1.5% per month.
Solution
Because the interest rate is per month, the time period of the loan is expressed as the
number of months:
( )( )

Simple Interest: Calculate the amount of money you will have in the following accounts
after 5 years, assuming that you earn simple interest.

57.You deposit $700 in an account with an annual interest rate of 4%

Solution
Simple interest for one year = 700 $ 4% = 28 $
Simple interest for five year = 28 × 5 $ = 140$
Amount of money after five year = 700 + 140 = 840 $

58.You deposit $1200 in an account with an annual interest rate of 3%

Solution
Simple interest for one year = 1200 $ 3% = 36 $
Simple interest for five year = 36 × 5$ = 180$
Amount of money after five year = 1200 + 180 = 1380 $

59.You deposit $3200 in an account with an annual interest rate of 3.5%

Solution
Simple interest for one year = 3200 $ 0.035 = 112 $
Simple interest for five year = 112 × 5 = 560$
Amount of money after five year = 3200 + 560 = 3760 $

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60.You deposit $1800 in an account with an annual interest rate of 3.8%

Solution
Simple interest for one year = 1800 $ 0.038 = 68.4 $
Simple interest for five year 68.4$×5=342$
Amount of money after five year=1800+342$=2142$

Remember
Remember that in the simple interest formula, time t is measured in the same period as
the interest rate. Therefore, if the time period of a loan with an annual interest rate is
given in days, it is necessary to convert the time period of the loan a fractional part of a
year. There are two methods for converting time from days to years: the exact method
and the ordinary method. Using the exact method, t number of days of the loan is
divided by 365, the number of days in a year.
Exact Method:
The ordinary method is based on there being an average of 30 days in a month and 12
months in a year ( ). Using this method, the number of days of the loan is
divided by 360.
Ordinary Method:
The ordinary method is used by most businesses. Therefore, unless otherwise stated,
the ordinary method will be used in this text.

61. Calculate the simple interest due on a 45-day loan of $3500 if the annual interest rate is
8%.
Solution
Because the interest rate is per month, the time period of the loan is expressed as the
number of months:
( ). /

62. The simple interest charged on a six-month loan of $3000 is $150. Find the simple
interest rate.
Solution

( ). /

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63. Savings Bond: While banks almost always pay compound i interest, bonds usually pay
simple interest. Suppose you invest $1000 in a savings bond that pays simple interest of
10% per year. How much total interest will you receive in 5 year? If the bond paid
compound interest, would you receive more or less total interest? Explain.
Solution
With simple interest, every year you receive the same interest payment of
, Therefore, you receive a total of $500 in interest over 5 years.
With compound interest, you receive more than $500 in interest because the interest each
year is calculated on your growing balance rather than on your original investment. For
example, because your first interest payment of $100 raises your balance to $1100, your
next compound interest payment is , which is more than the
simple interest payment of $100. For the same interest rate, compound interest always
raises your balance faster than simple interest.

Future Value or Maturity Value Formula for Simple Interest

The future value or maturity value formula for simple interest is
( )
Where A is the amount after the interest I has been added to the principal P.

64. Is the stated sum a maturity value or a future value?

a. The sum of the principal and the interest on an investment
b. The sum of the principal and the interest on a loan
Answer
a. Future value b. Maturity value

65. Calculate the maturity value of a simple interest, eight-month loan of $8000 if the
interest rate is 9.75%.
Solution
( ). /

The maturity value of the loan is $8520.

66. Calculate the maturity value of a simple interest, three-month loan of $3800. The
interest rate is 6%.
Solution
( ) ( . /)
The maturity value of the loan is $3857.

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67. Find the future value after 1 year of $850 in an account earning 8.2% simple interest.
Solution
( ) ( ( ))
The future value of the account after 1 year is $919.70.

68. The maturity value of a three-month loan of $4000 is $4085.What is the simple interest
rate?
Solution

Find the simple interest rate by solving the simple interest formula for r.
( ). /
The simple interest rate on the loan is 8.5%.
Compound Interest
Compound Interest is interest paid both on the original investment and on all interest that
has been added to the original investment.
Simple interest is generally used for loans of 1 year or less. For loans of more than 1 year,
the interest paid on the money borrowed is called compound interest. Compound interest
is interest calculated not only on the original principal, but also on any interest that has
already been earned.
Compounding Period
The frequency with which the interest is compounded is called the compounding period.
For example annually, semiannually (twice a year), quarterly (four times a year), monthly,
or daily.
The Compound Interest Formula (For Interest Paid Once a Year)
( )
A = Accumulated balance after Y years
P = Starting principal
APR = Annual percentage rate (as a decimal)
Y= Number of years
Notes
 The starting principal, P, is often called the present value (PV), because we usually
begin a calculation with the amount of money in an account at present.
 The accumulated balance, A, is often called the future value (FV), because it is the
amount that will be accumulated at some time in the future.
 When using this formula, you must express the APR as a decimal rather than as a
percentage.

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Compound Amount Formula

For the more general case in which the interest rate may not be set on an annual (APR)
basis, the compound interest formula is written
( )
Where i is the interest rate and N is the total number of compounding periods.

( )( )

69. What is the value of i when the interest rate is 6%, compounded monthly?
Answer

70.You deposit $500 in an account earning 6% interest, compounded semiannually. How

much is in the account at the end of 1 year?
Solution
The interest is compounded every 6 months. Calculate the amount in the account after
the first 6 months. i.e.

( ) ( . /)
Calculate the amount in the account after the second 6 months.
( ) ( . /)
The total amount in the account at the end of 1 year is $530.45.
Remember
In calculations that involve compound interest, the sum of the principal and the interest
that has been added to it is called the compound amount. In Example, the compound
amount is $530.45.

71. Calculate the compound amount when $10,000 is deposited in an account earning 8%
interest, compounded semiannually, for 4 years.
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
The compound amount after 4 years is approximately $13,685.69.

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72. Calculate the future value of $5000 earning 9% interest, compounded daily, for 3 years.
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
The future value after 3 years is approximately $6549.60.

73. How much interest is earned in 2 years on $4000 deposited in an account paying 6%
interest, compounded quarterly?
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
To Calculate the interest earned.

The amount of interest earned is approximately $505.97.

74. Mattresses Investment: Your grandfather put $100 under his mattress 50 years ago. If he
had instead invested it in a bank account paying 3.5% interest compounded yearly
(roughly the average U.S. rate of inflation during that period), how much would it be
worth now?
Solution

The starting principal is p= $100. The annual percentage rate is APR = 3.5% = 0.035. The
number of years is Y= 50. So the accumulated balance is

( ) ( )

Invested at a rate of 3.5%, the $100 would be worth over $550 today. Unfortunately, the
$100 was put under 4 mattresses, so it still has a face value of only $100.

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75.You invest $100 in two accounts that each pays an interest rate of 10% per year, but one
pays simple interest and the other pays compound interest. Make a table to show the
growth of each account over a 5-year period. Use the compound interest formula to verify
the result in the table for the compound interest case.
Solution
The simple interest is the same absolute amount each year: . The
compound interest grows from year to year, because it is paid on the accumulated interest
as well as on the starting principal. Table summarizes the calculations.
To verify the final entry in the table with the compound interest formula, we use a starting
principal P = $100 and an annual interest rate APR = 10% = 0.10 with interest paid for
Y= 5 years. The accumulated balance A is
( ) ( )
This result agrees with the one in the table. Overall, the account paying compound interest
builds to $161.05 while the simple interest account reaches only $150, even though both
pay at the same 10% rate. Although the 10% interest rate that we assumed here is quite
high compared to what most banks pay, the basic point should be clear: For the same
interest rate, compound interest is always better for the investor than simple interest.

Simple Interest Account Compound Interest Account

End Interest O.B+Int Int.Paid O.B+Int
of Paid = N.B = N.B
Year
1

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76. New College Debt at 2%: If the interest rate is 2%, calculate the amount due to New
College using a. Simple interest b. Compound interest
Solution
a) The following steps show the simple interest rate calculation for a starting principal
P = $224 and an annual interest rate of 2%
1) The simple interest due each year is 2% of the starting principal:

2) Over 535 years, the total interest due is

3) The total due after 535 years is the starting principal plus the interest

With simple interest, the payoff amount after 535 years is $2620.80.
b) To find the amount due with compound interest, we set the annual interest rate to
APR = 2% = 0.02 and the number of years to Y= 535. Then we use the formula for
compound interest paid once a year:
( ) ( )

The amount due with compound interest is about $8.94 million—far higher than the
amount due with simple interest.

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Simple versus Compound Interest: Complete the following tables, which show the
performance of two investments over a 5 year period. Round all figures to the nearest
dollar.
77.Suzanne deposits 53000 in an account that earns simple interest at an annual rate of
2.5%. Derek deposits $3000 in an account that earns compound interest at an annual
rate of 2.5%.
Solution

Simple Interest Compound Interest

Year
Suzanne’s Derek’s

Annual Balance Annual Balance

Interest Interest

1 3000 2.5% = $75 3000 75 = $3075 3000 2.5% = $75 3000 75 = $3075

2 3000 2.5% = $75 3075 75 = $3150 3075 2.5% = $77 3075 77 = $3152

3 3000 2.5% = $75 3150 75 = $3225 3152 2.5% = $79 3152 79 = $3231

4 3000 2.5% = $75 3225 75 = $3300 3231 2.5% = $81 3231 81 = $3312

5 3000 2.5% = $75 3300 75 = $3375 3312 2.5% = $83 3312 83 = $3395

78.Ariel deposits 55000 in an account that earns simple interest at an annual rate of 3%.
Travis deposits 55000 in an account that earns compound interest at an annual rate of
3%.
Solution
Simple Interest Compound Interest
Year
Ariel Travis

Annual Balance Annual Balance

Interest Interest

1 5000 3% = $150 5000 150 = 5150 5000 3% = $150 5000 150 = 5150

2 5000 3% = $150 5150 150 = 5300 5150 3% = $154.5 5150 154.5 =

5304.5
3 5000 3% = $150 5300 150= 5450 5304.5 3% = $159 5304 159= 5463

4 5000 3% = $150 5450 150= 5600 5463 3% = $163 5463 163= 5626

5 5000 3% = $150 5600 150 = 5750 5626 3% = $168 5626 168= 5794

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Compound Interest: Use the compound interest formula to compute the balance in the
following accounts after the stated period of time, assuming interest is compounded
annually.

79. $10,000 is invested at an APR of 4% for 10 years.

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

80. $10,000 is invested at an APR of 2.5% for 20 years.

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

81. $15,000 is invested at an APR of 3.2% for 25 years.

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

82. $3000 is invested at an APR of 1.8% for 12 years

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

83. 5000$ is invested at an APR of 3.1% for 12 years

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

84. $40,000 is invested at an APR of 2.8% for 30 years.

Solution
( ) ( ) ( )

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The Compound Interest Formula (For Interest Paid more than Once a Year)
( )
. /
A = Accumulated balance after Y years
P.= Starting principal
APR = Annual percentage rate (as a decimal)
n= Number of compounding periods per year
Y= Number of years.
Note that Y is not necessarily an integer; for example
4 calculations for six months would have Y= 0.5.

85. Monthly Compounding at 3%: You deposit $5000 in a bank account that pays an APR
of 3% and compounds interest monthly. How much money will you have after 5 years?
Compare this amount to the amount you‘d have if interest were paid only once each year.

Solution

Monthly compounding means that interest is paid n = 12 times a year and we are
considering a period of Y = 5 years.
( )
Accumulated Balance . /

( )
Accumulated Balance . /

Accumulated Balance once a year ( )

Accumulated Balance once a year ( )

After 5 years, monthly compounding gives you a balance of while annual

compounding gives you a balance of . That is monthly compounding earns
more even though the APR is the same in both cases.

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Use the appropriate compound interest formula to compute the balance in the following
accounts after the stated period of time.

86. $10,000 is invested for 10 years with an APR of 2% and quarterly compounding.
Solution
. / . /
( )

87. $2000 is invested for 5 years with an APR of 3% and daily compounding.
Solution
. /

. /

88. $25,000 is invested for 5 years with an APR of 3% and daily compounding.
Solution
. /

. / ( )

89. $10,000 is invested for 5 years with an APR of 2.75% and monthly compounding.
Solution
. /

. / ( )

90. $2000 is invested for 15 years with an APR of 5% and monthly compounding.
Solution
. /

. / ( )

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91. $30,000 is invested for 15 years with an APR of 4.5% and daily compounding.
Solution
. /

. /
( )

92. $25,000 is invested for 30 years with an APR of 3.7% and quarterly compounding.
Solution
. /

. /
( )

93. $15,000 is invested for 15 years with an APR of 4.2% and monthly compounding.
Solution
. /

. /
( )
( )

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Annual Percentage Yield (APY)

The annual percentage yield (APY) also called the effective yield or simply the yield is the
actual percentage by which a balance increases in one year. It is equal to the APR if
interest is compounded annually. It is greater than the APR if interest is compounded more
than once a year.

Banks usually list both the annual percentage rate (APR) and the annual percentage yield
(APY). However, the APY is what your money really earns and is the more important
number when you are comparing interest rates. Banks are required by law to state the APY
on interest-bearing accounts.

94. More Compounding means a higher Yield: You deposit $1000 into an investment with
APR = 8%. Find the annual percentage yield with monthly compounding and with daily
compounding.
Solution
( )
Monthly Compounding . / . /

Your balance increases by so the annual percent yield is

APY (more that APR)

( )
Daily Compounding . / . /

Your balance increases by so the annual percent yield is

APY

APY (slightly higher than APR)

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Find the annual percentage yield (to the nearest 0.01%) in the following situations.
95. A bank offers an APR of 3.1% compounded daily.
Solution
,( ) - ,( ) -

96. A bank offers an APR of 3.2% compounded monthly

Solution
,( ) - ,( ) -

97. A bank offers an APR of 1.23% compounded monthly.

Solution
,( ) - ,( ) -

98. A bank offers an APR of 2.25% compounded quarterly.

Solution
,( ) - ,( ) -

Continuous Compounding

Compounding infinitely many times per year is called Continuous Compounding. It

represents the best possible compounding for a particular APR. With continuous
compounding, the compound interest formula takes the following special form.

A = accumulated balance after Y years

P = Starting principal

APR = annual percentage rate (as a decimal)

Y = number of years

The number e is a special irrational number with a value of 8.

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99. Continuous Compounding: You deposit $100 in an account with an APR 8% and
continuous compounding. How much will you have after 10 years?
Solution

100. Suppose you put money in an investment with an interest rate of APR = 3%
compounded monthly and leave it there for the next 18 years. How much would you have
to deposit now to realize $100,000 after 18 years?
Solution
( )
. /

( ) ( )
. / . /

Depositing now will yield the desire $100,000 in 18 years, assuming that the
3% APR does not change and that you make no withdrawals or additional deposits.

Present Value

The present value of an investment is the original principal invested, or the value of the
investment before it earns any interest. Therefore, it is the principal (P) in the compound
amount formula. Present value is used to determine how much money must be invested
today in order for an investment to have a specific value at a future date.

The present value formula is ( )

Where P is the original principal invested at an interest rate of i per compounding period
for N compounding periods, and A is the compound amount.

101. How much money should be invested in an account that earns 8% interest,
compounded quarterly, in order to have $30,000 in 5 years?
Solution
( )

( ) ( )
To Calculate the interest earned.

$20,189.14 should be invested in the account in order to have $30,000 in 5 years.

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Effective Interest Rate

When interest is compounded, the annual rate of interest is called the nominal rate. The
effective rate is the simple interest rate that would yield the same amount of interest after 1
year. When a bank advertises a ―7% annual interest rate compounded daily and yielding
7.25%,‖ the nominal interest rate is 7% and the effective rate is 7.25%.
102. A bank offers a savings account that pays 2.75% annual interest, compounded daily
and yielding 2.79%.What is the effective rate on this account? What is the nominal
rate?
Answer
The effective rate is 2.79%. The nominal rate is 2.75%.

103. A credit union offers a certificate of deposit at an annual interest rate of 3%,
compounded monthly. Find the effective rate. Round to the nearest hundredth of a
percent.
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
To Find the interest earned on the $100.

The effective interest rate is 3.04%.

104. One bank advertises an interest rate of 5.5%, compounded quarterly, on a certificate
of deposit. Another bank advertises an interest rate of 5.25%, compounded monthly.
Which investment has the higher annual yield?
Solution
Calculate ( ) for each investment
( )
( ) . /
Also
( )
( ) . /
Compare the two compound amounts.

An investment of 5.5% compounded quarterly has a higher annual yield than an

investment that earns 5.25% compounded monthly.

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Numbers
(Sequence and Series)
Sequences also called Progressions, are used to represent ordered lists of numbers. As the
members of a sequence are in a definite order, so a correspondence can be established by
matching them one by one with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,..... For example, if the sequence is
1, 4, 7, 10, ...., nth member, then such a correspondence can be set up as shown in the
diagram below:

Sequence
An arrangement of numbers in any specific order is called sequence or progression.
Or A sequence is a function whose domain is a subset of the set of natural numbers.
A sequence is a special type of a function from a subset of N to R or C. Sometimes, the
domain of a sequence is taken to be a subset of the set {0, 1, 2, 3,...}, i.e., the set of non-
negative integers. If all members of a sequence are real numbers, then it is called a real
sequence.
Sequences are usually named with letters a, b, c etc., and n is used instead of x as a
variable. If a natural number n belongs to the domain of a sequence a, the corresponding
element in its range is denoted by an. For convenience, a special notation an is adopted for
a(n)and the symbol {an} or a1, a2, a3,....,an ,...is used to represent the sequence a. The
elements in the range of the sequence {an} are called its terms; that is, a1 is the first term,
a2 the second term and an the nth term or the general term.
Types of Sequence
 Arithmetic Sequence (Progression)
 Geometric Sequence (Progression)
 Harmonic Sequence (Progression)

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If the domain of a sequence is a finite set, then the sequence is called a finite sequence
otherwise, an infinite sequence.
An infinite sequence has no last term.
Some examples of sequences are;
i) 1, 4, 9,...,121
ii) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,...,21
iii) 1, 2, 4,...
iv) 1, 3, 7, 15, 31,...
v) 1, 6, 20, 56,...
The sequences (i) and (ii) are finite whereas the sequences (iii) to (v) are infinite.

1. Write first two, 21st and 26th terms of the sequence whose general term ( ) is.
Solution
Given that ( )
For getting required terms, we put n = 1, 2, 21 and 26.
( )
( )
( )
( )

2. Write first five terms of the sequence if .

Solution
Given that
For getting required terms, we put n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

Arithmetic Progression (A.P)

A sequence {an} is an Arithmetic Sequence or Arithmetic progression (A.P), if
is the same number for all n N and n > 1. The diference (n > 1) i.e., the
difference of two consecutive terms of an A.P., is called the common difference and is
usually denoted by d.
Its general formula is ( )

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3. Find 7th term of the sequence

Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )( )

4. Find the general term and the eleventh term of the A.P. whose first term and the
common difference are 2 and -3 respectively. Also write its first four terms.
Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )( )

General Term
th
For getting 11 term, we put n = 11
( )
For getting next terms, we put n = 2, 3, 4
( )
( )
( )
Hence the first four terms of the sequence are:

5. If the 5th term of an A.P. is 13 and 17th term is 49, find an and a13.
Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( ) ……….. ( )
( ) ……….. ( )
Solving ( ) and ( ) we have

Thus
( )
( )

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6. Find the number of terms in the A.P. if; a1 = 3, d = 7 and an =59.

Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )
( )

Thus the terms in the A.P. are 9.

7. If , find the nth term of the sequence.

Solution
Putting n = 3, 4, 5 in we have

Thus using
( )
( )

8. Find the missing value

Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )( )

9. If the nth term of A.P. is , find A.P

Solution
Given that
For getting required terms, we put n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Required A.P. is

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10. Which term of A.P. is ?

Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )( )

so is 31st term.

11.Find the nth term of the sequence . / . / . /

Solution
. / . / . /

Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )

So . /

12.If and are in A.P. then show that

Solution
Given that are in A.P. so
Given that

13.If and are in A.P. then show that common difference is

Solution
Given that are in A.P. so
………. ( )
………. ( )
adding both

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Series
The sum of an indicated number of terms in a sequence is called a series.
For example, the sum of the first seven terms of the sequence {n2} is the series,
1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49.
The above series is also named as the 7th partial sum of the sequence {n2}. If the number
of terms in a series is finite, then the series is called a finite series, while a series consisting
of an unlimited number of terms is termed as an infinite series.
Sum of first n terms of an arithmetic series

 ( )
 , ( ) -

1. Find the 19th term and the partial sum of 19 terms of the arithmetic series:

Solution
Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )
Using formula: ( )
( )

2. Find the sum of following series

upto n terms
Solution
Given that
Using formula: , ( ) ( ) -
, -
( )

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3. How many terms of the series amount to 66?

Solution
Given that
Using formula: , ( ) -
, ( ) ( ) - , -
, - ( )
But n cannot be negative in this case, so n = 11, that is, the sum of eleven terms
amount to 66.

4. Find the arithmetic series if its fifth term is 19 and .

Solution
Given that
………. ( )
Also
, ( ) -

………. ( )
Using ( ) in ( ) we have ( )
From ( ) using we have
Thus the series is

5. Find the sum of all the integral multiple of 3 between 4 and 97.
Solution

Given that
Using formula: ( )
( )
Using formula: ( )
( )

6. If ( ) then find the series.

Solution
Given that ( )
For getting required terms, we put n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
( ( ) )
( ( ) )
( ( ) )
Required series

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Geometric Progression (G.P)

A sequence {an} is a geometric sequence or geometric progression if is the same non-
zero number for all and . It is the sequence of numbers in which every term
after the first is obtain from the preceding term by multiplying it with a constant number.
The quotient is usually denoted by r and is called common ratio of the G.P .It is
Clear that r is the ratio of any term of the G.P., to its predecessor. The common ratio
is defined only if , i.e., no term of the geometric sequence is zero.

Remember for nth term of a G.P

 is the general form of a G.P.
 Each term after the first term is an r multiple of its preceding term.
 is the general term of a G.P.

1. Find the 5th term of the G.P.,

Solution
Given that
Using for n = 5

2. Find if and of a G.P.

Solution
To find we have to find and r.
Using
……….. ( )
……….. ( )

() . /

Thus ( ). / ( )( ) . /
( ) . /

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3. Find nth term of G.P., if

Solution
Using . / . /

4. Find the geometric progression for which

First term = 2, Second term = ,n=5
Solution
Given that
Using
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
So the progression is

5. Find the missing term if

Solution
Using
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

6. Find the missing term if

Solution
Using
. / . / . / . /

7. If and are in G.P. then show that common ratio is √

Solution
Given that are in G.P. so
………. ( ) and ………. ( )
multiplying both

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Sum of first n term of a G.P Sum of infinite terms of a G.P

( ) 𝐚
 if  𝐒∞ if
𝟏 𝐫
( )
 if

1. Find the sum of the series to 20th term.

Solution
Given that
( )
Using
[ . / ]

2. Find the sum of the series

Solution
Given that
( )
Using
,( ) -

( )

3. Find the sum of the given information

Solution
Given that
Using
( )
( )
Using
[( ) ]

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4. Find the sum of infinite G.P. 2, √ ,1,...

Solution
√
Given that
√
Using ∞
√ √ (√ ) √
∞ √ (√ )(√ )
√

∞ √

5. Find the sum of the given information

Solution
Given that
Using ∞

6. Convert the recurring decimal ̈ into an equivalent common fraction (vulgur

fraction).
Solution
Given that ̈
̈ ( )
Here
Using ∞

̈ [ ] 0 1
̈

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Harmonic Progression (H.P)

Reciprocal of Arithmetic Sequence/Progression is called Harmonic Sequence/Progression.

1. Find 9th term of the sequence

Solution
Given that in H.P.
Then in A.P.

Using formula: ( )
( )( )
in A.P.
in H.P.

2. If the first term of an H.P is and the fifth term is . Find its 9th term.
Solution
Given that in H.P.
Then Given that in A.P.
Using formula: ( )

Again using formula: ( )

( )

( )( )
in A.P.
in H.P.

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Statistics
(Descriptive Statistics, Scales of Measurements)
The word ―Statistics‖ is derived from the Latin word Status or the Italian word Statista or
the German word Statistik or the French word Statistique meaning ―a political state‖ or ―the
state – man‘s art‖. It is the discipline that includes procedures or techniques used to collect
process, analyzes numerical data to inferences and to reach decision in the face of
uncertainty. It is the science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
numerical data.

According to this definition, there are four stages.

 Collection of data
 Presentation of data
 Analysis of data
 Interpretation

Use/Importance of Statistical Information

 To inform general public

 To explain things that have happened
 To justify a claim
 To provide general comparison
 To estimate the unknown quantities

Limitations of Statistical Information

 Deals with aggregates and not with individuals.

 Deals with numerically specified characteristics.

Types of Statistics

 Descriptive/Deductive Statistics: Branch which deals with concepts and methods

concerned with summarization and description of the important aspects of numerical
data. In it no conclusion is drawn about the population.
 Inferential/Inductive Statistics: Branch which deals with drawing inferences about
the population on the basis of sample information.

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Below are some important terminologies we will be using in statistical data analysis.

 Data is the collection of all observations for a particular variable or variables, from
one more people or things.
 The branch of mathematics that covers the methods and procedures in analyzing data is
called Statistics. Statistics includes methods for planning studies and experiments,
obtaining data, and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting,
and drawing conclusions.
 A Population is the collection of all individuals or items under consideration in a
study. e.g. Total number of absent students, number of colour TV sets, Monthly
salaries of all employies, number of computers sold out. Total number of objects in a
population is called population size.
 A Sample is the part of a population from which information is actually collected. e.g.
wheat yield per acre for 5 pieces of land. Total number of objects in a sample is called
sample size.
 Sample Survey is the collection of information from a representative part of the
population. It is carried out by an experimental design.
 A Census is information (data) obtained from the entire population.
 A Parameter is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a
population.
Examples: The average starting salary of elementary school teachers in Georgia is
$33,673.
The average for the whole United States is $35,763.
 A Statistic is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a sample.
Example: A survey of ten job postings for elementary school teachers in the Atlanta
area, had an average starting salary of $38,541.
 Variable: A Variable is a general type characteristic (or type of status), which can be
different for each person or thing. It is a characteristic that varies with an individual or
an object.
 Constant: Quantities which do not vary from individual to individual, place to place
or time to time. e.g. , 10 etc.

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Some Facts about Data

 Observation: It is a fact or figure; we collect about a given variable. It can be

expressed as a number or as a quality.
 Data: The collection of raw fact and figures is called data.
 Data Set: The collection of observations on one or more variables.
 Cross Section Data: Data collected on different elements at the same point in time or
for the same period of time are called cross section data.
 Time Series Data: Data collected on the same element for the same variable at
different points in time or for different periods of time are called time series data.
 Discrete Data: A data which is generated by a discrete variable is called discrete data.
 Continuous Data: A data which is generated by a continuous variable is called
continuous data.
 Datum: A single numerical fact is datum.
 There are two types of data: Primary data and Secondary data.
 Primary Data: The data that have been initially collected and have not undergone any
statistical treatment are called primary data.
 Source of Primary Data:
Direct personal investigation.
Indirect investigation or interviews.
Collection through questionnaires.
Collection through local sources.
Through internet.
Experimental research.
 Secondary Data: The data which has undergone any statistical treatment at least once
is called primary data.
 Source of Secondary Data:
 Official: Using the publications of statistical divisions, ministry of finance, the
federal and provincial bureau of statistics, ministries of food, agriculture and
industry etc.
 Semi Official: State Bank of Pakistan, Railway Board, Central Cotton
Committee, Board of Economic Inquiry, District Councils, Municipalities etc.
 Publications of Trade Association, Chamber of Commerce etc.
 Technical and Trade Journals and newspapers.
 Research organizations such as universities and other institutions.

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Presentation of Data

The device of gathering data often results in a massive volume of statical data which are in
the form of individual measurement of counts. These are as follows;

 Classification: The process of dividing a set of observations or objects into classes or

groups. It is the sorting of data into homogeneous classes or groups according to their
being alike or not.
 Tabulation: A systematic presentation of data classified under suitable heads and
subheads and placed in columns and rows. It is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows.
 Graphical Display: The visual display of statical data in the form of point lines, areas
and other geometrical forms and symbols is in the most general term called graphical
display. Such graphical representation divided into graphs and diagrams.

Data handling

Data handling is the process of securing the research data is gathered, archived or disposed of
in a protected and safe way during and after the completion of the analysis process. Data
handling means collecting the set of data and presenting in a different form.

Data Handling Steps

The steps involved in the data handling process are as follows:

 Problem Identification
 Data Collection
 Data Presentation
 Graphical Representation
 Data Analysis
 Conclusion
From the analysis of the data, we can derive the solution to our problem statement. The
data can be usually represented in any one of the following ways. They are:
Bar Graph, Line Graphs, Histograms, Stem and Leaf Plot, Dot Plots, Frequency
Distribution, Cumulative Tables and Graphs

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Sampling

A Variable is a general type characteristic (or type of status), which can be different for each
person or thing. It is a characteristic that varies with an individual or an object. Some
variables are: name, height, color, texture, mood, wingspan, density, anxiety level, etc. The
given set of all possible values from which the variable takes on a values is called its domain.
There are two main types of variables.

 Qualitative Variables are variables which have values that are words, symbols, or
categories. They can also be numbers that have no absolute measure, order or units.
Example: gender, job title, letter grade, eye – colours, poverty etc. These are also
called attributes. These also referred to as Categorical Variables.
 Quantitative Variables are variables which have values that are numerical values
with a specific order and units. They represent counts or measures. Examples: age,
weight, income, height, weight temperature, number of siblings, hours of sleep, etc.
The discrete data can take only certain values such as whole numbers. The
continuous data can take a value within the provided range.
 Qualitative Data: Data which is generated by qualitative variables is called qualitative
data. It cannot be measured numerically.
 Quantitative Data: Data which is generated by quantitative variables is called
quantitative data. It can be measured numerically.

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Scale of Variables/ Measurement:

In statistics, there are few scales of measurements which are used in order to measure
the statistical variables. Each of these measurements scales does measure a certain type
of variable. Each measurement scales have some fundamental property by which they
can be classified.

Properties

Every scale of measurement has few or all of the following properties explained below:

 Each and every value on a measurement scale does have a unique identity or meaning
 These values usually have some magnitude or an ordered relationship with one another.
We may say that some of the values are smaller, while some are bigger.
 The intervals of the values (data points) on scales are equal to one another.
 A minimum value of zero. A minimum value of zero means that scale has a true zero
point

Types of Measuring Variable Scales:

 Nominal Scale: Variables with categories or labels without any order or hierarchy.
Example: Gender (male/female), Color (red/green/blue), Brands of vehicles (BMW,
Honda, Toyota, Hyundai), Types of seasons (Summer, Winter, Autumn, Spring),
Triangle, Right triangle, Parallelogram, Square, etc.
 Ordinal Scale: Variables with categories or ranks in a specific order, but without
equal intervals between them.
Example: Education level (dropout, high school, college), Socioeconomic status (low,
middle, high), Grades (A, B, C, D), Positions (1st, 2nd, 3rd), Ranking of players
 Interval Scale: Variables with equal intervals between categories, but without a true
zero point.
Example: Temperature (°C or °F), IQ scores, Digital watches display 00:00 as the time
at 12 AM, Kids' clothing sizes, where a zero size does not imply that a size does not
exist., Pass and fail, where failing does not imply that the student received no credit.
 Ratio Scale: Variables with equal intervals, a true zero point, and a meaningful ratio
between categories.
Example: Height, Weight, Blood pressure, Age, Time, Salary, Distance

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1. Examples of Measurement Scales

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Gender Grades Temperature Age
Eye Colour Positions IQ score Weight
Religion Rankings Height
Specialization Ratings Time
Socio – SAT score Salary
Economic Status ………………………
Nationality Distance

2. Identify Types of Variables and at which type of Scale following variables fall

Variable Name Type of Variable Scale of Variable

Person‘s CNIC number Qualitative as well Nominal Scale
as Quantitative
Review of a product by giving Quantitative Ordinal Scale
number of Stars
Number of shirts of players Qualitative as well Nominal Scale
as Quantitative
Mobile phone sim slot sizes Quantitative Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
(for Celsius and
Temperature Quantitative Fahrenheit scales)
Ratio Scale
(for Kelvin scale)

Number of product sale on Quantitative Ratio Scale

different days of week
Growth rate of countries Quantitative Ratio Scale
Colors of flowers Qualitative Nominal Scale
Speed of vehicles Quantitative Ratio Scale
Ratio of different metals in an alloy Quantitative Ratio Scale

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Write the Procedure to get summary statistics of a variable in MS Excel:

1. Select the entire range of data for the variable you want to analyze.
2. Click on the "Data" tab in the ribbon.
3. In the "Data Tools" group, click on "Data Analysis".
4. In the "Data Analysis" dialog box, select "Summary Statistics" and click OK.
5. Select the output options you want, such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation,
variance, and range.
6. Click OK to generate the summary statistics.
7. The summary statistics will be displayed in a new worksheet or in a dialog box,
depending on your output options.
Alternatively, you can also use functions to calculate summary statistics:
 Mean: = AVERAGE(range)
 Median: = MEDIAN(range)
 Mode: = MODE(range)
 Standard Deviation: = STDEV(range)
 Variance: = VAR(range)
 Range: = MAX(range)-MIN(range)
Replace "range" with the actual range of data you want to analyze.

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Distributions
 A listing of all classes of the data and their frequencies is called a Frequency
distribution. It is a tabular arrangement for classifying data into different groups and
the number of observations falling in each group corresponds to the respective group.
On the basis of type of variables, it has two types;
Discrete frequency distribution
Continuous frequency distribution
 The data presented in the form of frequency distribution is called Grouped Data.
 A listing of all classes and their relative frequencies is called a Relative Frequency
distribution. Most distributions show frequencies as well as relative frequencies.
3. Discrete Frequency Table by using a Tally Column:
20 coins are tossed 5 times and the number of heads recorded at each toss are given below;
3,4,2,3,3,5,2,2,2,1,1,2,1,4,2,2,3,3,4,2.
Make frequency distribution of number of heads observed.
Solution: Let X = number of heads. The frequency distribution is given below;
X Tally Marks frequency ( )
1 ǀǀǀ 3
2 ǀǀǀǀ ǀǀǀ 8
3 ǀǀǀǀ 5
4 ǀǀǀ 3
5 ǀ 1
4. Continuous Frequency Table by listing Actual Values:
For data given below;
51,55,32,41,22,30,35,53,30,60,59,15,7,18,40,49,40,25,14,18,19,2,43,22,39,26,34,19,10,17,
47,38,13,30,34,54,10,21,51,52.
Make frequency distribution with a class interval of size 10.
Solution:
Class/Groups Observations frequency ( )
0–9 2,7 2
10 – 19 10,10,13,14,15,17,18,18,19,19 10
20 – 29 21,22,22,25,26 5
30 – 39 30,30,30,32,34,34,35,38,39 9
40 – 49 40,40,41,43,47,49 6
50 – 59 51,51,52,53,54,55,59 7
60 – 69 60 1

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5. Continuous Frequency Table:

Bradley worked a summer job to earn money for college. His weekly hours over a 12 week
period were 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35, 36.
The Distribution would be as follows:

Remember;
 Class Limits: The minimum and the maximum values defined for a class or
group are called Class Limits. The minimum value is called the lower class limit
and maximum value is called the upper class limit of the class.
 Class Boundaries: The real class limits of a class are called class boundaries. A
class boundary is obtained by adding two successive class limits and dividing the
sum by 2. The value so obtained is taken as upper class boundary for the
previous class and lower class boundary for the next class.
 Mid – Point/ Class Mark: For a given class the average of that class obtained by
dividing the sum of upper and lower class by 2, is called the mid – point of class
mark of that class.
 Interval/ Class Width: Difference between the class boundaries.
 Cumulative Frequency: The total of frequency up to an upper class limit or
boundary is called the cumulative frequency.
Classes Frequency Class Mid Cumulative
( ) Boundaries Point Frequency
10 – 14 5 9.5 – 14.5 12 5
15 – 19 12 14.5 – 19.5 17 5 + 12 = 17
20 – 24 30 19.5 – 24.5 22 17 + 30 = 47
25 – 29 25 24.5 – 29.5 27 47 + 25 = 72
30 – 34 6 29.5 – 34.5 32 72 + 6 = 78

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Measures of Center/Averages
The Round-Off Rule: Round all calculations to one more decimal place than is present in
the data. Round only the final answer, not the steps along the way. For example, if the data
set has values that are go out to 2 decimal places, then all calculated statistics should be
reported showing 3 decimal places.
Measures of Center (or measures of central tendency) are descriptive measures that
indicate where the center or most typical value of a data set lies. Some of the specific
measures of center are shown below.
Types of Averages
 Mathematical Averages
 Mean / Arithmetic Mean
 Geometric Mean
 Harmonic Mean
 Positional Averages
 Median
 Mode
Arithmetic Mean / Mean
The Mean is sum of all the values of the observations, divided by the number of
observations. The mean is also more commonly just called average.
The Sample mean for ungrouped data is represented by the symbol ̅ , which is called ‘X-
∑
bar‘: ̅ , where n is the number of values in the sample.
The Mean of Frequency Table/ Sample mean for grouped data is represented by the
∑
symbol ̅ , which is called ‘X-bar‘: ̅ , where f is the frequency in the sample.
∑
∑
The Population mean is represented by the symbol , which is called ‘mu‘: , Where
N is the number of values in the population.
Example
For Bradley‘s weekly hours at a summer job: 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35, 36.
Find the mean (average) hours he worked in a week.
Solution
∑

Which we will report, according to the round off rule, as 28.0 hours worked in an average
week.

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6. ( )
Calculate mean for ungrouped data; 2,3,5,7,4,1.
̅ ∑
7. ( )
Calculate mean for ungrouped data; 1,4,8,4,3,5,1,2,6,3.
∑

8. Calculate mean for grouped data;

Classes Frequency ( ) Mid Point ( )
20 – 24 5 22 110
25 – 29 8 27 216
30 – 34 13 32 416
35 – 39 22 37 814
40 – 44 15 42 630
45 – 49 10 47 470
50 – 54 8 52 416
∑ ∑

∑
̅
∑
9. Calculate mean for grouped data;
Classes Frequency ( ) Mid Point ( )
1–3 2 2 4
4–6 5 5 25
7–9 7 8 56
10 – 12 5 11 55
13 – 15 6 14 84
5 17 85
16 – 18
∑ ∑

∑
̅
∑
10. Six friends in a biology class received test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and 90. Find the
mean of these test scores.
̅ ∑

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11. Estimate the mean of the following frequency distribution.

Solution: The midpoints of the classes ( ) are: 4.5; 12.5; 20.5; 28.5; 36.5.
Then the formula would be
∑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑

12.Compute the overall semester GPA for a college student who earned the following grades.

Solution: here we are looking for the average grade points, so the data values are grade
(quality) points. The credit amounts are the weights.
∑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑

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13.Find the mean of the data in Table.

Solution
The numbers in the right-hand column of Table are the frequencies f of the numbers in the
first column. The sum of all the frequencies is 40.
∑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

The mean number of cable connections per household for the homes in the sub-division is
1.975.

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Outlier
An outlier in a data set is a data value that is much higher or much lower than almost all
other values. An outlier can change the mean of a data set but does not affect the median or
mode.

14. Calculate effect of outlier on mean for ungrouped data;

245670, 176200, 360280, 272440, 450394, 310160, 393610, 3874480
Mean without Outlier
Mean without Outlier
Mean with Outlier
Mean with Outlier

15. Calculate effect of outlier on mean for ungrouped data;

0.8161, 0.8194, 0.8165, 0.8176, 0.7901, 0.8143, 0.8126
Mean without Outlier
Mean without Outlier
Mean with Outlier
Mean with Outlier

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Geometric Mean
When we have the data in grades, ratio and percentage form, then we apply geometric
mean. Geometric Mean of a variable X is the nth positive root of the product of the
observations. In symbol we write; ( )
For ungrouped data
∑
Geometric Mean . /, where n is the number of values in the sample.
For grouped data
∑
Geometric Mean . ∑
/

16.Calculate geometric mean for ungrouped data; 8,40,175,1209,2000.

Solution

X logX
8 0.91
∑
40 1.61 Geometric Mean . /
175 2.24
1209 3.08
2000 3.30

17.Calculate geometric mean for ungrouped data; 3,13,11,15,5,4,2.

Solution

X logX
3 0.477
13 1.113
11 1.041
∑
15 1.176 Geometric Mean . /
5 0.698
4 0.602
2 0.301

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18.Calculate geometric mean for grouped data;

Classes Frequency ( )
15 – 19 5
20 – 24 3
25 – 29 8
30 – 34 2
35 – 39 4

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Mid Point ( )

15 – 19 5 17 1.23 6.15
20 – 24 3 22 1.34 4.02
25 – 29 8 27 1.43 11.44
30 – 34 2 32 1.50 3
35 – 39 4 37 1.56 6.24
∑ ∑

∑
Geometric Mean . ∑
/ . /

19.Calculate geometric mean for grouped data;

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Mid Point ( )

60 – 80 5 70 1.84 9.2
80 - 100 14 90 1.95 27.3
100 - 120 17 110 2.04 34.68
120 - 140 10 130 2.11 21.1
140 - 160 1 150 2.17 2.17
160 - 180 0 170 2.23 0
180 - 200 2 190 2.27 4.54
∑ ∑

∑
Geometric Mean . ∑
/ . /

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Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of mean and the reciprocal of the values. This
type of average is also used as grades, ratio and percentage form of data.
 For ungrouped data
Harmonic Mean , where n is sample size.
∑. /

 For grouped data

∑
Harmonic Mean
∑. /

20.Calculate Harmonic mean for ungrouped data; 13.2,14.2,14.8,15.2,16.1.

Solution

X logX
13.2 0.07
14.2 0.07 Harmonic Mean
∑. /
14.8 0.06
15.2 0.06
16.1 0.06

21.Calculate Harmonic mean for grouped data;

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Mid Point ( )

15 – 19 5 17 0.29
20 – 24 3 22 0.13
25 – 29 2 27 0.07
30 – 34 4 32 0.125
35 – 39 2 37 0.05
∑

∑
Harmonic Mean
∑. /

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Median
It is the middle most value of the observations arranged in ascending and descending order
of magnitude.
To find the median, first arrange the data in increasing order. If there are an odd number of
observations, the median is the middle value in order. If there is an even number of
observations, the median is the average of two middle values in order.
Example
 Odd data: 1,2,3,4,5 here median is 3.
 Even data: 1,2,3,4,5,6 here median is .

Formulae
 For Ungroup Data
. / for Odd data

[. / . / ] [. / . / ] for Even data

 For Group Data
∑
. / . / we may write ∑
Lower class boundary of median class
Class interval
Frequency of median class
Cumulative Preceding frequency

22.Find the median of Bradley‘s summer weekly hours 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16,
35, 36.
Solution
First we must put the values in order from lowest to highest: 12, 16, 18, 25, 28, 30, 32, 32,
35, 36, 36, 36. There are two values in the middle, 30 and 32, with five values below and
above. The average of the two middle values is 31, which is the median.

23.Find the median of 45,32,21,65,36,53,48,76,27.

Solution
. / . / . /

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24.Find the median of 45,32,21,65,36,53,48,27.

Solution
[. / . / ] [ ]

25.Calculate Median for grouped data;

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Class Boundaries Cumulative Frequency

10 – 14 5 9.5 – 14.5 5
15 – 19 12 14.5 – 19.5 5 + 12 = 17
20 – 24 30 19.5 – 24.5 17 + 30 = 47
25 – 29 25 24.5 – 29.5 47 + 25 = 72
30 – 34 6 29.5 – 34.5 72 + 6 = 78
∑

∑
. / . /

26. Find the median for the data in each of the following lists.
a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
Solution
a. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21. The middle
number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.
b. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives 23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108. The two
middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean of 77 and 89 is 83. Thus 83 is the median of
the data.

27. The median of the ranked list 3, 4, 7, 11, 17, 29, 37 is 11. If the maximum value 37 is
increased to 55, what effect will this have on the median?
Answer
The median will remain the same because 11 will still be the middle number in the ranked
list.

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Mode
The French word Mode mean ‗Fashion‘ has been adopted to convey the idea of most
frequent. The Mode is the value that has the most number of observations (frequency), but
must occur more than once. Most occurring value of the data set is called mode.
Remember for Ungrouped Data
 A distribution having a single mode called unimodel mode. e.g. 2,1,7,2,6,4,2 has a
unimodel mode that is 2.
 A distribution having two modes called bimodel mode. e.g. 2,5,3,2,4,3,2,3 has a
bimodel mode that is 2 and 3.
 A distribution having more than two modes called multimodel mode. e.g.
4,1,2,3,6,4,5,2,3,4,2,1,3 has a multimodel mode that is 2,3 and 4.

28.Find the mode of Bradley‘s summer weekly hours 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35,
36.
Solution
Having the values in order makes this easier: 12, 16, 18, 25, 28, 30, 32, 32,
35, 36, 36, 36. The values that occurs the most often is 36, which is the only mode here.
Remember for Grouped Data
( )
Mode ( ) ( )
Lower class boundary of maximum frequency
Class interval
Maximum frequency
Preceding frequency of Maximum frequency
Following frequency of Maximum frequency

29.Calculate Median for grouped data;

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Class Boundaries

15 – 19 5 14.5 – 19.5
20 – 24 10 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 4 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 3 34.5 – 39.5

( ) ( )
Mode ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

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30. Find the mode of the data in each of the following lists.
a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21 b. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23
Solution
a. In the list 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21, the number 15 occurs more often than the other
numbers. Thus 15 is the mode.
b. Each number in the list 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23 occurs only once. Because no number
occurs more often than the others, there is no mode.

Empirical Relation between Mean, Median and Mode

In a single – peaked frequency distribution, the values of the mean, median and mode
coincide if the frequency distribution is absolutely symmetrical. But if these values differ,
the frequency distribution is said to be skewed or asymmetrical.

Experience tells us that in a unimodal curve of moderate skewness, the median is usually
sandwiched between the mean and the mode and between them the following approximate
relation hold good.
( )
Or
This empirical relation does not hold in case of a J – Shaped or an extremely skewed
distribution.

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Comparative Properties of the Mean, the Median, and the Mode

The mean of a set of data:
■ is the most sensitive of the averages. A change in any of the numbers changes the mean.
■ can be different from each of the numbers in the set.
■ can be changed drastically by changing an extreme value.
The median of a set of data:
■ is usually not changed by changing an extreme value.
■ is generally easy to compute.
The mode of a set of data:
■ may not exist, and when it does exist it may not be unique.
■ is one of the numbers in the set, provided a mode exists.
■ is generally not changed by changing an extreme value.
■ is generally easy to compute.

Note
In the following example, we compare the mean, the median, and the mode of the salaries of
five employees of a small company.
Salaries: $370,000 $60,000 $32,000 $16,000 $16,000
The sum of the five salaries is $494,000. Hence the mean is
The median is the middle number, $32,000. Because the $16,000 salary occurs the most, the
mode is $16,000. The data contain one extreme value that is much larger than the other
values. This extreme value makes the mean considerably larger than the median. Most of
the employees of this company would probably agree that the median of $32,000 better
represents the average of the salaries than does either the mean or the mode.

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Measure of Dispersion/ Deviation

Deviation: A Deviation is defined as ‗a difference of any value of the variable from any
constant‘.
Dispersion: The word dispersion has a technical meaning in statistics. It means the spread
or scatterness of observations in a data set. The measures that are used to determine the
degree or extent of variation in a data set are called measure of dispersion. If observations
are closed to the centre we say that dispersion is small. If observations are spread away from
the centre we say that dispersion is large. These include Range, Variance, Standard
Deviation, Mean Deviation and Quartile Deviation. These are as follows;
 Absolute Measure of Dispersion
Dispersion expressed in terms of original data.
These always in same unit.
We can‘t change these units.
These are restricted measures.
We can‘t compare the values of data.
These provide actual values.
 Relative Measure of Dispersion
Relative measure of dispersion is used to calculate the comparison of dispersion in
two or more than two sets of observations.
These are unit free.
These are unrestricted.
We can compare the values of data.
These provide data in ratio or percentage form.

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Variance and Standard Deviation

Variance: Variance is defined as the mean of the squared deviation of ( )
observations from their arithmetic mean.
Standard Deviation: Standard Deviation is defined as positive square root of the mean of
the squared deviation of ( ) observations from their arithmetic mean
Standard Deviation is the measure of how far, on average, the data is from the mean.
Another related measure, is the Variance which is standard deviation squared.
The standard deviation and variance for a SAMPLE are calculated by the following
symbols and formulas:
∑( ̅)
 for ungroup data
∑ ( ̅)
 ∑
for group data
∑( ̅)
 √ for ungroup data
∑ ( ̅)
 √ ∑
for group data
The standard deviation and variance for a POPULATION are calculated by the following
symbols and formulas:
∑( )

∑( )
 √
Computational formulae of Variance and Standard Deviation:
∑ ∑
 . / for ungroup data
∑ ∑
 ∑
.∑ / for group data

 √∑ .
∑
/ for ungroup data
∑ ∑
 √ .∑ / for group data
∑

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31.The following numbers were obtained by sampling a population.

2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the standard deviation of the sample.

Solution
∑
̅

∑( ̅)

∑( ̅)
√ √

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32.The marks of six students in Mathematics are as follows. Determine variance and
standard deviation.
Student No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Marks 60 70 30 90 80 42
Solution

Let X = marks of a student.

̅ ∑
X ̅ ( ̅)
60 3600 –2 4
70 4900 8 64
30 900 – 32 1024
90 8100 28 784
80 6400 18 324
42 1764 – 20 400
∑ ∑ ∑( ̅) ∑( ̅)

∑( ̅)

∑ ∑
. /
∑( ̅)
√

√∑ ∑
. /

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33.For the following data showing weights of toffee boxes in gm. Determine variance and
standard deviation.

X 4.5 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5

f 2 10 5 9 6 7 1
Solution

Let X = marks of a student.

̅ ∑
∑
X ̅ ( ̅) ( ̅)
4.5 2 – 28 784 1568 9 40.5
14.5 10 -18 324 3240 145 2102.5
24.5 5 –8 64 320 122.5 3001.5
34.5 9 2 4 36 310.5 10712.25
44.5 6 12 144 864 267 11881.5
54.5 7 22 484 3388 381.5 20791.75
64.5 1 32 1024 1024 64.5 4160.25

∑ ( ̅)
∑

∑ ∑
∑
.∑ / . /
√

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34. A consumer group has tested a sample of eight size D batteries from each of three
companies. The results of the tests are shown in the following table. According to these
tests, which company produces batteries for which the values representing hours of
constant use have the smallest standard deviation?

Solution
The mean for each sample of batteries is 7 hours.

The batteries from Ever So Bright have a standard deviation of

∑( ̅)
√ √

The batteries from Dependable have a standard deviation of

∑( ̅)
√ √

The batteries from Beacon have a standard deviation of

∑( ̅)
√ √
The batteries from Dependable have the smallest standard deviation. According to these
results, the Dependable company produces the most consistent batteries with regard to life
expectancy under constant use.

35. Can the variance of a data set be smaller than the standard deviation of the data set?
Answer
Yes. The variance is smaller than the standard deviation whenever the standard deviation is
less than 1.

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Range
Measures of Variation (or measures of spread) are descriptive measures that indicate how
much variation is in the data or how spreads out the data values are from each other.
 The Minimum (Min) is the lowest value in the data set.
 The Maximum (Max) is the highest value in the data set.
The Range is the difference between Minimum and Maximum values. It is the difference
between largest and smallest values of a data set.
Range
Coefficient of Range

36.Find the min, max, and range of Bradley‘s summer weekly hours.
Solution
Having the values in order makes this easier as well: 12, 16, 18, 25, 28, 30, 32, 32, 35, 36,
36, 36. Here min = 12, max = 36, and Range = 36 12 = 24 hours. We could also say the
range is from 12 to 36 hours.

37.Calculate range for 2,12,15,4,7,10,13.

Solution
Range
Coefficient of Range

38.Calculate Range for grouped data;

Solution

Classes Frequency ( ) Class Boundaries

15 – 19 5 14.5 – 19.5
20 – 24 3 19.5 – 24.5
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 4 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 2 34.5 – 39.5

Range
Coefficient of Range

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Mean Deviation/ the Average Deviation

A defect of range is that it is based on only two extreme observations. The mean deviation
does take into consideration based on all values. The mean of absolute deviation of
observations from mean is called mean deviation.
Formulae
 For Ungroup Data
∑| ̅|

Coefficient of M.D ̅
or Coefficient of M.D
 For group Data
∑ | ̅|
∑

39.Find MD of 2,5,6,6,8,9,12,13,10,23.
Solution
̅ ∑

X ̅ | ̅|
2 -8 8
5 -5 5
6 -4 4
6 -4 4
8 -2 2
9 -1 1
12 2 2
13 3 3
16 6 6
23 13 13

∑| ̅|

Coefficient of M.D ̅

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40.Find MD of the following frequency distribution table;

Weight 65-84 85-104 105-124 125-144 145-164 165-184 185-204

Frequency 9 10 17 10 5 4 5

Solution

Weight X X ̅ | ̅|
65 - 84 9 74.5 670.5 -48.0 432.0
85-104 10 94.5 945.0 -28.0 280.0
105-124 17 114.5 1946.5 -8.0 136.0
125-144 10 134.5 1345.0 12.0 120.0
145-164 5 154.5 772.5 32.0 160.0
165-184 4 174.5 698.0 52.0 208.0
185-204 5 194.5 972.5 72.0 360.0
Total 60 … 7350.0 … 1696.0

∑
̅
∑

∑ | ̅|
∑

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Quartiles
Quartiles are the values of the variate that divide a set of data into four equal parts after
arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.
Deciles
Deciles are the values of the variate that divide a set of data into ten equal parts after
arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.
Percentiles
Percentiles are the values of the variate that divide a set of data into one hundred equal parts
after arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.

Quartile Deviation/ Semi Inter – Quartile Range

It is also called semi inter – quartile range. The SIQR is the measure of dispersion defined
by the difference between third quartile and the first quartile and half of the range is called
quartile deviation. The QD is also an absolute measure of dispersion. Its relative measure
called coefficient of quartile deviation.
Formulae

( )
Where . / and . /
Coefficient of Q.D

41.Find QD of 45,32,21,65,36,53,48,76,27.
Solution
Arrange: 21,27,32,36,45,48,53,65,76
. / . / . / ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
. / . / . / . / ( )

Coefficient of Q.D

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42. Use Medians to Find the Quartiles of a Data Set

The following table lists the calories per 100 milliliters of 25 popular beers. Find the
quartiles of the data.
Calories, per 100 Milliliters, of Selected Beer

Solution
Step 1: Rank the data, as shown in the following table.

Step 2: The median of these 25 data values has a rank of 13. Thus the median is 43. The
second quartile is the median of the data, so

Step 3: There are 12 data values less than the median and 12 data values greater than the
median. The first quartile is the median of the data values less than the median. Thus is
the mean of the data values with ranks of 6 and 7.

The third quartile is the median of the data values greater than the median. Thus is the
mean of the data values with ranks of 19 and 20.

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Coefficient of Variation
For comparing two very different data sets we will use a special measure called the
Coefficient of Variation (or CV). It is equal to the standard deviation divided by the mean,
converted into a percent. It has no units, it is only a ratio as percent. The formulas are
slightly different, depending upon the data set being from a sample or a population. The CV
states how big the standard deviation is, relative to the average size of the data.
For a sample: CV = ̅ where s is standard deviation.
For a population: CV = where is standard deviation.

43.Which data set is more spread out, the weight of elephants in a herd: s = 1,175 pounds and
̅ 12,342 pounds, or the price of regular unleaded gasoline in a US: s = $0.26 and
̅ $3.73?
Solution
For the elephant weights, CV = ̅
For the gas prices, CV =
The weights of elephants are a more spread out set of data than US gas prices. This is NOT
because the values are larger. Another set of large values could have a lower CV than gas
prices.

44.Without graph judge shape of following data set. Also find Coefficient of Variation for the
following data.
daily sales of laptops: 5,3,7,8,9,8,7,6,1,0,2,10,9,8,8,8,9,9,10,12,7
Solution
Based on the data, without graphing, we can observe the following:
 The data is not uniformly distributed, with a few low values (0, 1, 2) and a few high
values (10, 12).
 The data appears to be skewed to the right, with more values concentrated on the
higher side.
 There is a possible outlier (0) which is significantly lower than the other values.
To calculate the Coefficient of Variation (CV), we need to calculate the mean and standard
deviation of the data:
Mean = (sum of all values) / (total number of values)
Mean = (5 + 3 + ... + 12 + 7) / 21 = 146 / 21 = 6.95
∑( ̅)
√ √
CV = ̅

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RULES OF COUNTING
(multiplication rule, factorial, permutation, combination)

Combinatorics
The study of counting the different results of a task is a branch of mathematics called
combinatorics.
Experiment
In combinatorics, an activity with an observable outcome is called an experiment. For
example, if a coin is flipped, the side facing upward will be a head or a tail. The two
possible outcomes can be listed as {H,T}. If a regular six-sided die is rolled, the possible
outcomes can be listed as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

1. Suppose we roll two standard six-sided dice, first one colored green followed by a
second one colored red. How many different results are possible?
Solution
There are 36 different possibilities.
Remember
Rolling two dice, as shown in Example 1, is an example of a multistage experiment.
(This experiment involved two stages; first one die was rolled, then a second die
was rolled.)

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Arrangements with repetition

The type of counting problems in which we repeatedly select from the same group of
choices is called Arrangements with repetition.
Arrangements with repetition, also known as permutations with repetition, are
arrangements of objects where some items are identical. The presence of identical items
in permutations reduces the number of unique arrangements.
If we make r selections from a group of n choices, a total of different
arrangements are possible.
Here are some examples of arrangements with repetition:
 Ordering boys and girls without distinguishing between students of the same grade
 Ordering cars of certain colors without distinguishing between cars of the same
color
 Selecting ice cream flavors where one flavor can be selected multiple times

2. How many seven symbol license plates are possible if both numerals and
uppercase letters can be used in any order?

3. How many six character passwords can be made by combining lower case
letters, upper case letters, numerals and the characters and ?
Each password character can be selected from the set of 26 lower case letters, 26
upper case letters, 10 numerals and 3 symbols, making a total of 65 characters to
choose from.

4. Suppose you coach a team of 4 swimmers. How many different ways can you
put together a four – persons relay team?
You can choose any of the four swimmers for the first leg. Once you‘ve chosen the
first swimmer, you have three swimmers left to choose from for the second leg.
Therefore the number of possible choices for the first two legs combined is
. You then have two swimmers to choose from for the third leg, and
only one choice for the last leg. The total number of possible arrangements for the
relay is .

Fundamental Principle of Counting

Let E be a multistage experiment. If are the numbers of possible
outcomes of each of the r stages of E, then there are possible outcomes
for E.

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5. In horse racing, a trifecta consists of choosing the exact order of the first three
horses across the finish line. If there are eight horses in the race, how many trifectas
are possible, assuming there are no ties?
Solution
Any one of the eight horses can be first, so . Since a horse cannot finish both
first and second, there are seven horses that can finish second; thus .
Similarly, there are six horses that can finish third; . By the counting
principle, there are possible trifectas.

n factorial
n factorial is the product of the natural numbers 1 through n and is symbolized by n!.
i.e. ( )( )

6. Evaluate Factorial Expressions

 ( ) ( )


7. How many arrangements of the letter PAKPATTAN can be made?

Total letters
P repeated time
A repeated time
K repeated time
T repeated time
N repeated time
Total arrangements

Circular Permutations
The permutation of things which can be represented by the points on a circle.
( )
Circular Permutation

8. In how many ways can 4 keys be arranged on a circular key ring?

( ) ( )
Possible arrangement

9. How many necklaces can be made from 6 beads of different colours?

( ) ( )
Possible arrangement

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Permutations
An ordering arrangement of n objects is called Permutation.
Or A permutation is an arrangement of distinct objects in a definite order. The
counting principle can be used to determine the total number of possible permutations
of a group of objects.
Remember
 ( )
( )
 ( )( ) ( )
( )

10.A university tennis team consists of six players who are ranked from 1 through 6. If
a tennis coach has 10 players from which to choose, how many different tennis
teams can the coach select?
Solution
Because the players on the tennis team are ranked from 1 through 6, a team with
player A in position 1 would be different from a team with player A in position 2.
Therefore, the number of different teams is the number of permutations of 10
players selected six at a time.
( )
( )
11.Class Schedule: A middle school principal needs to schedule 6 different classes.
Algebra, English, history, Spanish, Science and gym in 6 different time periods.
How many different class schedules are possible?
Solution
Number of possible schedules
The principal can schedule the 6 classes in 720 different ways.

12.Leadership Election: A city has 12 candidates running for three leadership

positions. The top vote getter will become the mayor, the second vote getter will
become the deputy mayor and the third vote getter will become the treasurer. How
many outcomes are possible for the three leadership positions?
Solution
( )

13. Batting Orders: A little league manager has 15 children on her team. How many
ways can she form a 9 player batting order?
Solution
( )

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Combinations
An arrangement of n objects without caring of order. A combination is a collection of
objects for which the order is not important. The three-letter sequences acb and bca are
different permutations but the same combination.
( )
( )
( )

14. A basketball team consists of 11 players.

a. How many different ways can a coach choose the starting five players, assuming
the position of a player is not considered?
b. How many different ways can a coach choose the starting five players if the
positions of the players are considered?
Solution
a) ( )
( )
There are 462 possible five-player starting teams.
b) ( )
( )
There are 55,440 permutations.

Remark
Some counting problems require the use of more than one counting technique to
determine the total number of possible outcomes.

15. A committee of five professors is to be chosen from five mathematicians and six
economists. How many different committees are possible if the committee must
include two mathematicians and three economists?
Solution
By using counting principle,
( ) ( )
There are 200 possible committees consisting of two mathematicians and three
economists.

16.How many diagonal can be formed by 6 sided polygon?

Solution
Number of diagonals ( )

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17. From a standard deck of playing cards, a hand of five cards is chosen.
a. How many different five-card hands are possible?
b. How many different five-card hands consist of two kings and three queens?
(This hand is an example of a ―full house‖ in the game of poker.)
c. How many different hands consist of five cards of the same suit? (This is a
―flush‖ in poker.)
Solution
a) ( )
b) ( )( )
c) ( )

18. Ice Cream Combinations: Suppose that you select 3 different flavors of ice cream
in a shop that carries 12 flavors. How many flavor combinations are possible?
Solution
( )

19. Poker Hands: How many different five card poker hands can be dealt from a
standard deck of 52 cards? What is the probability of one particular hand, such a
royal flush of hearts (a hand consisting of a king, queen, Jack and 10 of hearts)?
Solution
( )

20. (Not) Winning the Lottery: Suppose you play a lottery in which the winner is
chosen by drawing 6 balls at random from a drum containing 52 numbered balls
(number 1 through 52). What is the probability that your 6 numbers will match the 6
winning numbers?
Solution
( )

21. Birthday Coincidence: Suppose there are 25 students in your class and find each
of the following probabilities. Assume that there are 365 days in a year.
Solution
( )

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22. Prove that

Proof
( ) ( )

23.Prove that
Proof
( ) ( ) ( )

24.Prove that
Proof
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
0 ( )
1
( )
( ) ( )
0 ( )
1
( )
( ) ( )
0 ( )
1
( )
( ) ( )( )

( )

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PROBABILITY
Probability
Numerical evaluation of a chance that a particular event would occur. Or measurement of
uncertainty is called probability.
Sample Space
The set S consisting of all possible outcome of a given experiment is called a sample space.
Event
An event is a subset of a sample space.
Experiments
Experiments are activities with observable outcomes. Here are some examples of
experiments:
 Flip a coin and observe the outcome as heads or tails.
 Select a company and observe its annual profit.
 Record the time a person spends at the checkout line in a supermarket.

1. A single die is rolled once. What is the sample space for this experiment?
Solution
The sample space is all possible outcomes of the experiment.

Note
An event is a subset of a sample space. Using the sample space of above Example,
here are some possible events:
 There are an even number of pips (dots) on the upward face. The event is

 The number of pips on the upward face is greater than 4. The event is

 The number of pips on the upward face is less than 20. The event is

Because the number of pips on the upward face is always less than 20, this
event will always occur. The event and the sample space are the same.
 The number of pips on the upward face is greater than 15. The event is
the empty set. This is an impossible event, because it is not possible
for the number facing up to be greater than 15.

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Basic Probability Formula

For an experiment with sample space S of equally likely outcomes, the probability
P(E) of an event E is given by
( )
( )
( )
Where n(E) is the number of elements in the event and n(S) is the number of elements in the
sample space.

2. A fair coin, one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss of the coin, is tossed three times. What is the probability that two heads and one tail
are tossed?
Solution
* +
* +
( )
( )
( )

3. Is it possible that the probability of some event could be 1.23?

Answer
No. All probabilities must be between 0 and 1, inclusive.

4. Two fair dice are tossed once. What is the probability that the sum of the pips on the
upward faces of the two dice equals 8?
Solution
( )
( )
( )

5. A five-card hand is dealt from a standard 52-card deck of playing cards. What is the
probability that the hand has five cards of the same suit?
Solution
Let E be the event of drawing five cards of the same suit. The total number of outcomes
for E is ( ) , so ( ) . The sample space is the total number of
different five-card hands, which is given by ( ) .Thus
( ) . The probability of is E
( )
( )
( )
There is only about a 0.2% chance of being dealt five cards of the same suit.

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6. Two dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting same number on upper face
when two dice are rolled once
Solution
There are 6 possible outcomes for each die, and since there are two dice, there are a total
of 6 6 = 36 possible outcomes.
The outcomes where the two dice show the same number are:
(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)
There are 6 outcomes where the two dice show the same number.
So, the probability of getting the same number on both dice is:
6 (favorable outcomes) / 36 (total outcomes) = 1/6
Therefore, the probability of getting the same number on both dice is 1/6 or
approximately 0.17 (rounded to two decimal places).

7. In a refrigerator 5 Sprite, 4 Fanta and 3 Dew. 5 bottles are selected at random. Find the
probability that 3 are Fanta and 2 are Dew.
Solution
Let's use the combination formula to find the total number of ways to select 5 bottles
from the total:
C(16, 5) = 16! / (5! 11!) = 4368
Now, let's find the number of ways to select 3 Fanta and 2 Dew:
C(4, 3) = 4! / (3! 1!) = 4 (ways to select 3 Fanta)
C(7, 2) = 7! / (2! 5!) = 21 (ways to select 2 Dew)
Multiply the number of ways to select 3 Fanta and 2 Dew:
4 21 = 84
Now, divide the favorable outcomes (84) by the total outcomes (4368):
84 / 4368 = 1/52
So, the probability of selecting 3 Fanta and 2 Dew is 1/52 or approximately 0.019.

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Experimental/Empirical Probability
When a probability is based on data gathered from an experiment, it is called an
experimental probability or an empirical probability.
Example
For instance, if we tossed a thumbtack 100 times and recorded
the number of times it landed ―point up,‖ the results might be
as shown in the table at the left. From this, the empirical
probability of ―point up‖ is
( )

8. A survey of the registrar of voters office in a city showed the following information on
the ages and party affiliations of registered voters. If one voter is chosen from this
survey, what is the probability that the voter is a Republican? Round to the nearest
hundredth.

Solution
Let R be the event that a Republican is selected. Then
( )
The probability that the selected person is a Republican is 0.32.

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Odds and odds Ratio

 Odds are simply the ratio of something happening to something not happening.
 odds are also defined as the probability of an event occurring divided by the
probability of the event not occurring.
 An odds ratio is the odds of the event in one group (e.g. exposed group), divided by
the odds in another group (not exposed).
Odds in Favor
The odds in favor of an event is the ratio of the number of favorable outcomes of an
experiment to the number of unfavorable outcomes.
Odds vs Probability

9. What are the odds that you will roll an odd number on the die?

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10. You have a sack of 10 tootsie rolls, 20 Jolly Ranchers, and 10 gumballs. What are the
odds that you will stick your hand in the bag and pull out a tootsie roll?

11.A fair coin, one for which it is equally likely that heads or tails will result from a single
toss of the coin, is tossed three times. Find the odds in favor of two heads and one tail.
Solution
* +
* +
* +
( )
( )

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Odds Against
The odds against an event are the ratio of the number of unfavorable outcomes of an
experiment to the number of favorable outcomes.
Example
For instance, in horse racing, the odds against a horse winning a race are posted. Odds
posted as 7 to 2 mean that ( ) in races, the horse is estimated to lose 7 times and win
2 times.

12.A charity sells 100 raffle tickets. There is one grand prize and four smaller prizes. What
are the odds in favor of winning a prize?
Solution
There are five favorable outcomes and 95 unfavorable outcomes. The odds in favor of
winning a prize are . The odds in favor of winning a prize are 1 to 19.

Mutually Exclusive Events

Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
That is, A and B are mutually exclusive when .
Example
Suppose we draw a single card from a standard deck of playing cards. The sample space S
is the 52 cards of the deck. Therefore ( ) , Now consider the events
E1 = A 4 is drawn = * +
E2 = A spade is drawn = * +
It is possible, on one draw, to satisfy the conditions of both events: The ♠4 could be drawn.
This card is an element of both E1 and E2.
Now compare the events
E3 = A 5 is drawn = * +
E4 = A king is drawn = * +
In this case, it is not possible to draw one card that satisfies the conditions of both events.
Two events that cannot both occur at the same time are called mutually exclusive events.
Thus, the events E3 and E4 are mutually exclusive events, whereas E1 and E2 are not.

Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then the probability of A or B written
( ), occurring is given by ( ) ( ) ( ).

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13. Suppose a single card is drawn from a standard deck of playing cards. Find the
probability of drawing a 5 or a king.
Solution
Let A = { 5, ♠5, 5, ♦5} and B = { Κ, ♠Κ, Κ, ♦Κ}. There are 52 cards in a standard
deck of playing cards; thus ( ) . Because the events are mutually exclusive, we
can use the formula for the probability of mutually exclusive events.
( ) ( ) ( )

The Addition Rule for Probabilities

Let A and B be two events in a sample space S. Then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
14.Single Roll of two Dice
If ( ) ( ) ( ) then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
On a single roll of two dice, the probability of rolling a sum of 8 or a double is .

Conditional Probability
The probability of an event B occurring based on knowing that event A has already
occurred is called a conditional probability, and is denoted by ( | ).
Conditional Probability Formula
Let A and B be two events in a sample space S. Then the conditional probability of
B given that A has occurred is
( )
( | )
( )
The symbol ( | ) is read ―the probability of B given A.‖
15.
S = {all people participating in the test}
F = {people contracting the flu}
V = {people who were vaccinated}
( )
( | )
( )

( | )

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16. The data in the table below show the results of a survey for determining the numbers of
adults who have had financial help from their parents for certain purchases.

If one person is selected from this survey, what is the probability that the person
received financial help for purchasing a home given that the person is between the ages
of 29 and 39?
Solution
A = {adults between 29 and 39}
B = {adults receiving financial help for a home purchase}
( )
( | )
( )
( | )
The conditional probability of B given A is 0.392.

Product Rule for Probabilities

If A and B are two events from the sample space S, then
( ) ( ) ( | )

17. Here is the possible outcomes of drawing two cards from a deck. Find the probability of
drawing an ace on both the first and second draws.
Solution
On the first draw, there are four aces in the deck of 52 cards. Therefore ( ) ,
On the second draw, there are only 51 card remaining and only three aces (an ace was
drawn on the first draw). Therefore ( | ) . Putting these calculations
together, we have
( ) ( ) ( | )

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Probability of Successive Events

The probability of two or more events occurring in succession is the product of the
conditional probabilities of the individual events.

18. A box contains four red, three white, and five green balls. Suppose three balls are
randomly selected from the box in succession without replacement.
a. What is the probability that first a red, then a white, and then a green ball are
selected?
b. What is the probability that two white balls followed by one green ball are selected?
Solution
a) Let
A = {a red ball is selected first}
B = {a white ball is selected second}
C = {a green ball is selected third}
( ) ( ) ( | ) ( | )
b) Let
A = {a white ball is selected first}
B = {a white ball is selected second}
C = {a green ball is selected third}
( ) ( ) ( | ) ( | )

Independent Events
If A and B are two events in a sample space and ( | ) ( ) then A and B are called
independent events.

19. Consider tossing a coin twice. Compute the probability that the second toss comes up
heads, given that the first coin toss came up heads.
Solution
A = event of a head on the first toss = {HH, HT}
B = {= event of a head on the second toss = {HH, TH}
S = sample space = {HH, H, TH, TT}
( | ) the probability of a head on the second toss given a head on the first toss
( )
( | )
( )
( )
However ( )
( )
Therefore ( | ) ( ), and the events are independent.

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In general, this allows us to simplify the product rule when two events are independent; the
probability of two independent events occurring in succession is simply the product of the
probabilities of the individual events.

Product Rule for Independent Events

If A and B are two independent events from the sample space S, then
( ) ( ) ( )

20. A pair of dice are tossed twice. What is the probability that the first roll is a sum of 7
and the second roll is a sum of 11?
Solution
The rolls of a pair of dice are independent; the probability of a sum of 11 on the second
roll does not depend on the outcome of the first roll. Let A = {sum of 7 on the first roll}
and let B = {sum of 11 on the second roll}. Then
( ) ( ) ( )

21. Suppose that a company claims that it has a test that is 95% effective in determining
whether an athlete is using a steroid. That is, if an athlete is using a steroid, the test will
be positive 95% of the time. In the case of a negative result, the company says its test is
97% accurate. That is, even if an athlete is not using steroids, it is possible that the test
will be positive in 3% of the cases. Suppose this test is given to a group of athletes in
which 10% of the athletes are using steroids. What is the probability that a randomly
chosen athlete actually uses steroids given that the athlete‘s test is positive?
Solution
Let S be the event that an athlete uses steroids and let T be the event that the test is
positive. Then
( ) ( ) ( )
( | )
( ) ( )
Given that an athlete tests positive, the probability that the athlete actually uses steroids
is approximately 77.9%.

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22. A child will have cystic fibrosis if the child inherits the recessive gene from both
parents. Using F for the normal allele and f for the mutant allele, suppose a parent who
is Ff (said to be a carrier) and a parent who is FF (does not have the mutant allele)
decide to have a child.
a. What is the probability that the child will have cystic fibrosis? To have the disease,
the child must be ff.
b. What is the probability that the child will be a carrier?
Solution
Make a Punnett square.

a. To have the disease, the child must be ff. From the table, there is no combination of
the alleles that will produce ff. Therefore, the child cannot have the disease, and the
probability is 0.
b. To be a carrier, one allele must be f. From the table, there are two cases out of four
in which the child will have one f. The probability that the child will be a carrier is
.

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Sets Expressions
(Venn Diagram, Algebraic Expressions)
Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. It is a collection of unique objects,
known as elements or members, that can be anything (numbers, letters, people, etc.).
There are three different ways of describing a set
i. The Descriptive Method: A set may be described in words. For instance, the set of
all vowels of the English alphabets.
ii. The Tabular Method: A set may be described by listing its elements within
brackets. If A is the set mentioned above, then we may write: A = {a,e,i,o,u}.
iii. Set-builder method: It is sometimes more convenient or useful to employ the
method of set-builder notation in specifying sets. This is done by using a symbol or
letter for an arbitrary member of the set and stating the property common to all the
members. Thus the above set may be written as:
A = {x | x is a vowel of the English alphabet}
This is read as A is the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet.
1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, what is the cardinality of A?
Solution
The cardinality of A is 5, since there are 5 elements in the set.

2. Can a set have no elements? If so, what is it called?

Solution
Yes, a set with no elements is called the empty set, denoted by {} or ∅.
Union of Sets
The union of two or more sets is a set that contains all the elements from each set, without
duplicates.

3. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}, what is A B?

Solution
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

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4. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, what is A B?

Solution
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

5. What is the union of {a, b, c} and {d, e, f}?

Solution
{a, b, c, d, e, f}
Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two or more sets is a set that contains only the elements that are
common to each set.
6. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, what is A ∩ B?
Solution
A ∩ B = {3}

7. What is the intersection of {a, b, c} and {d, e, f}?

Solution
{} (the empty set), since there are no common elements.
Complement of Sets
The complement of a set A is a set that contains all the elements that are not in A.
8. If A = {1, 2, 3}, what is A' (the complement of A)?
Solution
A' = {all elements not in A}, e.g. {4, 5, 6, ...}

9. Can the complement of a set be empty?

Solution
Yes, if the set being complemented is the universal set, the result will be an empty set.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in depicting visually the basic concepts of sets and
relationships between sets. They were first used by an English logician and
mathematician John Venn (1834 to 1883 A.D).
In a Venn diagram, a rectangular region represents the universal set and regions
bounded by simple closed curves represent other sets, which are subsets of the
universal set. For the sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular
regions.

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In the adjoining figures, the shaded circular region represents a set A and the remaining
portion of rectangle representing the universal set U represents or U - A.

Below are given some more diagrams illustrating basic operations on two sets in
different cases (lined region represents the result of the relevant operation in each case
given below).

The above diagram suggests the following results: -

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Practical scenarios involving algebraic expressions: linear and quadratic

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Recommended Texts
1. Akar, G. K., Zembat, İ. Ö., Arslan, S., & Thompson, P. W. (2023). Quantitative
Reasoning in Mathematics and Science Education. 1st Ed., Springer, USA.
2. Peck, R., Olsen, C., & Devore, J. L. (2015). Introduction to statistics and data
analysis. 5th Ed Brooks Cole, USA.
3. Devlin, K. J. (2012). Introduction to mathematical thinking. Palo Alto, CA: Keith
Devlin.

Suggested Readings

1. Triola, M. F., Goodman, W. M., Law, R., & Labute, G. (2006). Elementary
statistics. Reading, MA Pearson/Addison-Wesley.
2. Blitzer, R., & White, J. (2005). Thinking mathematically. Pearson Prentice Hall.

For video lectures

@ You tube visit
Learning with Usman Hamid
visit facebook page “usman hamid”
or contact: 0323 – 6032785

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‫کچربمن‪121‬امشیل(وگدےھواال)رسوگداھ‬

‫‪UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA‬‬

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