r pASCAL’S LAW Consider an arbitrary uid elem the element is unity and Pp and BC respectively Total forces acting on the element are |. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces 2 Weight of element in the vertical direction Force onthe face AB = = Px x Area of face AB | Pressur = Px x dy x1 Force on the faceAC = = Py x dy x1 Force on the face BC = Pz x ds x1 1 Weight of element ra x ABx BC x1lxy Resolving the forces in X-direction, Px dyx1 -(Pz x dsx1)sin (90° -0)=0 Px x dy x 1-Pz x ds x \xcos0=0 From the fluid element figure, ds cos0 = AB=dy Px x dx x 1-Pz x dy x1=0 Px = Pz @5) By the same way, by resolving in y~ Py = Pz direction, we find that Qo)192 8, 3.3 3.4 le Mechanical Engineering From eqns. (3.5) and (3.6), Px = Py = Pz From the result, we conclude that the pressure or intensity of pressy, Satie Muid is equal in all directions. This is known as Pare 1°S law oF hydeye: POM = BUOYANCY Buoyaney isan uy PPOseS the weight ipward force exerted by a fluid that oj Sa result of 1 object. In a column of uid, pressure inereases with depth overlying fluid, Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is gr ‘op of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submergeq ater than at the top of the object. This pressure difference results in a S on the object. The magnitude of that force exerted ig Proportional to thay difference, and (as explained by Archimedes’ principle) is equivalent to the weight orgs fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fiyig % Buoyancy is nothing but the Weight of displaced fluid DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEADS (OR ENERGIES) OF A LIQUID 1 MOTION There are three types of energies or heads of flowing L Potential head or potential energy This is due to configuration or position above Velocity head or kinetic energy This is due to velocity of flowing liquid and is measured as v/2¢ where vis the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity, iquids : They are as follows some suitable datum line. It is denoted byz, Pressure head or pressure energy This is due to the pressure of liquid and is d wis the weight density, Specific or total head/energy Total head of a fluid particle which is in motion is the sum of its Potential head, kinetic head and pressure head. Mathematically, lenoted as p/w where P is the pressure and vp r c al =Z+——+— mofliquid Total Head, H = z+ Be +), mofliq G7) vp Total energy, F = 2+ 2e + w Nni/kg of liquid an‘ ayy ont hi % \ pares Ina pipe of 90 mm diameter pressure of 350 kN/m’. Dern 7 Introduction to Fluid Meck and Heat Transfer 193 water is flow ing with a mean mine the total head, if th et friction. Pipe is 8 meters at go.uTION I Diameter of the pipe = 90 mm f Pressure, p = 350 kN/m? Velocity of water, Datum head, z = 8 m Specific weight of water, w= 9.81 kN/m* Total head of water, 43.88m. 50, poe 2x981 9.81 ©4g5 FORCES ACTING ON FLUID IN MOTION According to Newton’s second law of motion, the net force F, acting on a fluid ele Lig in the direction of.vis equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied by the a a, in the x-direction, Thus mathematically, ig F, =m, a, In the fluid flow, the forces present are (i gravity force, F (ii) pressure force, F, (iii) force due to viscosity, F (iv) force due to compressibility, F, (v) force due to turbulence F, This eqn. (3.9) becomes Fy= (Fy), + (F), +). + (Fede + Ea), +s In most problems, the F, and F,, are not significant and can be neglected. So, F, = (Fe), + (Hp), + Had + Fo and the equation of motions are called Reynold’s equations of motion For laminar and viscous flow the turbulent forces are less significant and can be neglected. f i Wy ® equ f motions are called Navier - So, 7. =(F,) ( ) +(F,), and the equation of motio Stokes equation of motion When the viscous forces are little significant and for real fluid when viscosity is small then F, and can be neglected. So, for ideal fluid =(F,), +(F,)_ and the equation of494 _ Basic Mechanical Engineering notion are known as Kuter’s equacions of ration THE CqUIVAIERE fopyy 6— equation of motion is OP yy dervdv=0 p the direction of flow, p is the density of the fuig where P is the pressure in ; acceleration due to gravity, vis the velocity ofthe fluid motion, a5 ; fF, 3.6 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM Ag Fora perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total energy, Fe ime. while the particle moves from one point to another 3.7 particle remains the This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to frie, the pipe. Mathematically, 57 t= =Constant pg 2g af where = is the potential energy, v?/2g is the kinetic energy, P/pg is the press P energy. PIPE FLOW A pipe is a closed conduit (generally of a circular section) which is used for e fluids under pressure. The flow is known as pipe flow when the fluid completely fills ” cross-section and there is no free surface of fluid. When the pipe is running parialy 3 (atmospheric pressure exists inside the pipe) behaves like an open channel. This pipe flow is used to convey substances such as fluids (liquids and gases), slurries, and masses of small solids. It can also be used for structural applications, hollow pipei far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. 3.7.1 Loss of Energy (or Head) in Pipes When water flows in a pipe, it experiences some resistance to its motion, due to whi velocity and the head of water available is reduced. The Loss of energy is classified as follows: Major Energy Losses This loss is due to friction. In fluid flow, friction loss (or skin friction) is pressure or “head” that occurs in pipe or duct flow due to the effect of viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct.Introductio roduction to Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer 195 It is often neces bere iations ca be ua nine the head loss, h, that occur in a pipe flow so that . ed in the analysis of pipe flow problems. The overall head hy theen \ Joss for the pipe tem consists of the head loss due t if ffect: th ty ht $ due to viscous effects in the straigl pipes, termed the major loss and is denoted (/,) Mathematically, = (4) -£ Pe aod the length of the pipe, vis the velocity of the flow. d is where fis the friction factor, / the diameter of the pipe. i The above equation is called the Darcy. H e Darcy-Weisbach equation, It is valid for any fully developed, steady, incompressible pipe flow, whether the pipe is horizontal or on, hill Minor Energy Losses These losses are due to Sudden enlargement of pipe, sudden contraction of pipe, bend of pipe, an obstruction in pipe and pipe fittings, ete. Mathematically, Vv (Fi ndnor = 2 «where (h,),,,,, is the minor loss, K;, isthe loss coeifficient, vis the velocity of the flow and gis the acceleration due to gravity. 3.8 HYDRAULIC TURBINES Hydraulic turbines may be defined as prime movers that transform the kinetic energy of the felling water into mechanical energy of rotation and whose primary function is to drive an electric generator. Hydraulic turbines transfer the energy froma flowing fluid to a rotating shaft. A turbine is something that rotates or spins. Hydraulic Turbines have a row of blades fitted to the rotating shaft or a rotating plate. Flowing liquid, mostly water, when pass through the hydraulic turbine it strikes the he shaft rotate. While flowing through the hydraulic blades of the turbine and makes t turbine the velocity and pressure of the liquid reduce, result in the development of torque and rotation of the turbine shaft. There are different forms of hydraulic turbines in use depending on the operational requirements. For every specific use a particular type of hydraulic turbine provides the optimum output196 siete eat eee Basic Mechanical Engineering 3.8.1 Class ‘cation of Hydraulic Turbines y at inlet to the turbine etic form, For example, Pelton whee}, 4 (l) Based on type of energ) Impulse Turbine : The energy 16 in kins wheel, kinetic and pressure form. For exa n Turbine : The energy is in both Reactio: rr, Francis turbine. Tubular, Bulb, Propellat (\l) Based on direction of flow of water through the runner Water flows in a direction tangential to path of rotational, Tangential flow : perpendicular to both axial and radial directions. Radial outward flow : Forneyron. turbine. of the turbine. For example, Girard, Joy Axial flow : Water flows parallel to the axis Kalpan turbine. Mixed flow : Water enters radially at outer periphery and leaves axially. For e: Modern Francis turbine. (lil) Based on the head under which turbine works High head, impulse turbine : For example, Pelton turbine. Medium head,reaction turbine : For example, Francis turbine. Low head, reaction turbine : For example, Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine. (IV) Based on the specific speed of the turbine Low specific speed, impulse turbine : For example, Pelton wheel. Medium specific speed, reaction turbine ; For example, Francis wheel. High specific speed, reaction turbine : For example, Kaplan and Propellersi No. 1 10. ve 2. 13. 14, Impulse Turbine In impulse turbine all hydraulic e is converted into kinetic enerpy tgy by : nozzle and itis the jet so precieey which strikes the runner blades. The velocity of jet which changes the pressure throughout remain maining atmosphere . Water-tight casing is not necessary. Casing has no hydraulic function to perform. It only serves to prevent splashing and guide water to the tail race. Water is admitted only in the form of jets. There may be one or more jets striking equal number of buckets simultaneously. ‘The turbine doesn’t run full and air has a free access to the bucket. The turbine is always installed above the tail race and there is no draft tube used. Flow regulation is done by means of a needle valve fitted into the nozzle. Example: Pelton wheel Propeller turbine, Deriaz turbine, Impulse turbines have more hydraulic efficiency. Impulse turbine operates at high water heads. Water flow is tangential direction to the turbine wheel. Needs low discharge of water. Degree of reaction is zero. Impulse turbine involves less maintenance work. —_ Introduction ae duction to Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer 197 * between Impulse and Reaction Turbines Reaction Turbine reaction turbine only some amount of of the available energy is converted into kinetic energy before the fluid enters the Both pressure and elocity changes a fluid passes through a runner. Pressur inlet is much higher thanat outlet The runner must be enclosed within a watertight casing Water is admitted over the entire circumference of the runner. Water completely fills at the passages between the blades and while flowin: between inlet and outlet sections does work on the blades. Reaction turbine are generally connected to the tail race through a draft tube which is a gradually expanding passage. It may be installed below or above the tail race. ‘The flow regulation in reaction turbine is carried out by means ofa guide-vane assembly. Other component parts are scroll casing, stay ring runner and the draft tub. Examples: Francis turbine, Kaplan and Tubuler turbine, ete. Reaction turbine have relatively less efficiency. Reaction turbine operates at low and medium heads. Water flows in radial and axial direction to turbine wheel Needs medium and high discharge of water, Degree of reaction is more than zero and less than or equal to one. Reaction turbine involves more maintenance work.“fs 4198 _ Basic Mechanical Engines? ng pé Pe heel f ans Fen icive turbine used mainly for high head hydro elec, Sage sel is an impulsive a Pelton wheel he . Nozzle ‘ie Runner and buckets é = Casing " . Breaking Jet ; "i Nozzle 3 Nozzle of a pelton wheel is a circular guide mechanism which guides the water gq, lozzle 0 ; , at the desired directions ? Ir also regulates the flow of water. A conical or spear needle operates inside 4 nozzle in axial direction. The main purpose of the nozzle is to regulate the flow Of Water - through nozzle. ‘ When the needle is pushed forward into the nozzle, it reduces area of jet. As areal 2 the quantity of water through the jet is also reduced. Similarly if the spear is pushed back su! of nozzle, it increases the area of nozzle and discharge increases. The movement of spear is regulated by hand or by automatic governing arrangement. Sometimes it is very essential to close the nozzle suddenly. It is necessary when shere is a sudden decrease of load on turbine. To close the nozzle, if we use spear then will cause the pipe to burst due to high pressure generation. In order to avoid sucha »ushap, an additional nozzle is provided through which the water can pass without striking the buckets. This needle is known as bypass needle. 4 plate known as deflector plate is often provided to the nozzle, which is used to jeflect water jet Runner and buckets Kunner ofa pelton wheel consists of circulating disc fixed with horizontal shaft. On the periphery of the runner, a number of buckets are fixed at a uniform distance Hucket 1s a hemispherical cup or bowl with a divider in the middle. This divider is know” as splitter It splits the water jet in two equal parts, The surface of the bucket is made very smooth, For low heads, the buckets made of cast iron, For high heads, buckets are made of stainless eel bronze or alloys. For impure water, buckets are made of special alloys, The buckets are bolted to the runner disc. Sometimes the buckets and disc, are cast as a sing!Introduc luction to Fluid Mech: anics and Heat Transf casing gieel coverings provided over th vray any hydraulic function Bulbs pr the Following functions ISS of pelton wheel SSATY 10 provide is known as casing. Itc the runne It prevents accidents, nner against accident Minimizes the wind losses Stops splashing of water 1 2 3. 4, Facilitates to collect water. 5, Transmission of water to the tail race The casing is generally ally made of cast or fi or fabricated parts Braking jet Whenever the turbin Beer oction Ee to be brought to rest the nozzle is complete! a cae eevolving custo eer. To beng he ames sah : pear ne brin d the back of buckets. a proses In sucka fey test wie et : It acts as a brake for reducing the speed of the eee ath s ne runner. Fig. 3.8.1 Pelton Wheel 3.8.4 Reaction Turbines portion of the pres’ its entire circumference rbine of same power in the rotating whee! sure loss takes pt s inaction. So i's rotor needs t0 In reaction turbine major Fluid entering the rotor aroun be large as compared to the impulse Ww Inreaction turbine, water enters the whe the water, flowing over the vanes, 'S under pressure, therefor full and may be submerged. The pressure head of water, while converted into velocity head and is finally reduced to the atmospheric pr leaving the wheel. el under pressure and flow over vanes. As heel of the turbine runs ew anes, 1S flowing over the V essure, belore200 _ Basic Mechanical Engineering Construction stion turbine are The maih components ofs reaction tutbin Spiral Casing The easing of reaction turbine is designed i” sucha way tht its F085 sectional arg c casing of reac ere on reducing uniformly around the cireumferenice. The cross sect onal areas maxim {the tip. Due to this, the casing wi be of spiral sh at the entrance and minimum 4 1 : , The water froma pipeline is distri 4d spiral casing or scroll casin That is why it is calle« around the guide ring in a casing. depends upon the head of water Ifhead is upto 30 meter 100 meter then welded rolled steel plate The material of the casing then concrete should be used. If head is upto 100 meter then cast steel should be used for casing should be used. If it 1s more than Guide Mechanism This is the arrangement of blades and vanes which will guide the water to move towards runner.The guide vanes are fixed between the two rings in the form of a wheel. This wheel is fixes in the spiral casing. The functions of guide vanes are: water to enter the runner without shock. Guide vanes keep tangential to the vane angle and thus results in the water to flow over them without forming nter the turbine. This is done by (i) Guide vanes allow the relative velocity at inlet of the runner, entering of water without shock. (ii) Allow eddies. (iii) Allow the required quantity of water to é adjusting the vanes. cir respective pivots. Pivots are connected to All the guide vanes can rotate about the the guided ring or regulating ring. This ring is connected to the regulating shaft by means of two regulating rods. Guide vanes may be closed or opened by rotating the regulating flow. The regulating shaft is operated, shaft, thus allowing required quantity of water to by a governor whose function is to govern the turbine. Governor function is to keep the speed constant at varying loads. Guide vanes are generally made of cast steel. Turbine Runner ‘The rotating wheel of the reaction turbine is known as runner. Runner consists of curved plates welded with circular discs, For small diameter they are casted as. units. The runner is keyed to a shaft, which may be vertical or horizontal, If the vertical, itis called a vertical turbine. Similarly if shaft is horizontal, it is called as turbine, P vam The ns of the runner is made very smooth to minimize frictional \ unner may be cast in one piece or may be made of separate steel plates am together.