UNIT 10 CULTURAL DIVERSITIES

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Aims and Objectives
10.2 India and its Cultural Diversity
10.3 Gandhi on Religion and Cultural Diversity
10.4 Inter-Faith Dialogues
10.5 Assimilation of Cultures
10.6 Unity in Diversity
10.7 Summary
10.8 Terminal Questions
Suggested Readings

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The need to have a stable identity, a cultural belonging and at the same time the desire
to maintain difference lies at the core of human culture. The link between identity and
recognition and the distinction between uniformity and diversity is the defining
feature of cultural diversity.

The meaningful exercise of human choices depends crucially upon a cultural context.
It has been argued that people must have the right to develop and bolster the culture
on which human capacities and their distinctly human identity depends (Bhargava,
1991).

Evaluation of what constitutes the essence of identity and difference in relation to the
other varies, however, not only from one culture to another, but also at different
points of time in the same society. Such shifting cultural concerns are reflected in
nuanced discourses on cultural relativism, cultural pluralism, or multiculturalism.
Recognition and acknowledgement of the worth of many ways of life, not one, is an
affirmation and acceptance of the values of each culture and this underlies the social
discipline that comes of mutual respect for differences. ‘Pluralism is the conception
that there are many different ends that men may seek and still be fully rational, fully
men, capable of understanding each other and sympathising and deriving light from
each other. Intercommunication between cultures in time and space is possible only
because what makes men human is common to them, and acts as a bridge between
them’ (Isaiah Berlin, quoted in Madan)

Aims and Objectives

After reading this Unit, you would be able to understand

· The concept and meaning of cultural diversity

· India’s cultural diversity
· How Inter-faith dialogues and assimilation are linked to diversity.
10.2 INDIA AND ITS CULTURAL DIVERSITY
There is hardly any country in the world today which is not marked by cultural
diversity. India is among the most diverse societies with a plurality and diversity of
cultures which marks it out as perhaps the largest multicultural society in the world.
People from all the major religions in the world—Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs,
Buddhists, Jains and Zoroastrians (Parsis) constitute its vast population. Although
Hindus constitute the majority of the population, India is home to the second-largest
population of Muslims in the world. The diversity is coupled with enormous cultural
diversity that is based on such factors like language, caste, and ethnicity. According to
the 1991 census, there are 114 spoken languages in this country; of these, 22 were
spoken by more than one million people. The state lists 630 communities as
Scheduled Tribes. There is diversity even among these groups and many of the
identified communities are said to be internally heterogeneous, comprising several
smaller different tribes. But the issue of identifying these groups is far from complete
and many other smaller groups continue to be included from time to time. There is a
vast religious and cultural diversity in the country. When India attained independence
in 1947, the political leadership and the framers of the Constitution kept this diversity
in view while deliberating a framework that would provide for an amalgamated yet
culturally a diverse nation-state that is based on the principle of unity in diversity.

The multi-religious and multicultural character of the Indian society is deeply rooted
in history from the pre-independence period. The Independence movement against a
colonial regime sought to unite the nation through its culturally diverse people
together towards a nationalist goal. It was a struggle for acquiring a national identity;
it sought to unify the groups belonging to various religious and cultural groups within
a nationalist fold. Though, during the course of the nationalist struggle many
culturally diverse groups were jointly and gradually consolidated on a nationalist
platform, there emerged sharp differences between the Hindus and Muslims that
increasingly got projected as antithetic. Quite often the issues of religious identity and
the politics of difference between the two communities came to the fore; the other
cultural differences of various groups were active but not so sharply projected.
During the course of the nationalist movement, it was one of the challenges that
Gandhi was perennially engaged with. The problem of the Hindu-Muslim unity was
one issue that he foresaw as the main area of extremely divisive implications which
needed both short-term and long-term Redressal. Inspite of herculean efforts, this
issue remained unsettled and the heart-rending partition of the country signalled the
difficulty of unifying both these communities. Gandhi’s unifying project was thus
relegated to the background and the challenges, even after independence, continue to
face the Indian polity and society.

It was not religion alone that captured India’s attention. There were other issues like
caste, language, tribe that proved to be equally challenging. Gandhi engaged himself
with the question of mitigating differences based on caste and removal of
untouchability which he unfalteringly opposed and the eradication of which he
ardently pleaded. Nevertheless, these issues still continue to throw as many challenges
that test the cultural diversity and multiculturalism in the post-independent India.
10.3 GANDHI ON RELIGION AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Gandhi considered religion as an integral part of the cultural structures of society.

Religious diversity, therefore, is not incompatible with cultural diversity in other
domains of society. Gandhi often used religious idioms for conveying his social and
political messages as these made sense to most Indians to whom a language of
modernity remained as foreign as the English tongue. Gandhi’s ideas showed the way
in which deep genuine religious beliefs could be combined with genuine belief in
cultural diversity and multicultural democracy (Bagchi, 1999 in Bhargava, p.226).

Gandhi firmly believed that every religion has its full and equal place. This could be
said of culture also. His view of the composite religion and culture accorded a full and
equal place for each and respect for the other. This in his view characterised the
compositeness of religion or culture. “We are all leaves of a majestic tree whose trunk
cannot be shaken off its roots which are deep down in the bowels of the earth”
(quoted in Parel, 1997).

Gandhi believed that pluralism and cultural diversity based on such equality of space
for each culture leads to composite oneness which is the test of composite culture. But
such composite oneness is symbiotic rather than relativist. It does not mean the
inclusion or acknowledgement of cultures in a hierarchical order. Such a hierarchical
accommodation of other cultures would only result in benign insularity based on
respect for cultural distance, or an empirical togetherness that would not stand the test
of tenacity under pressure (Madan).

Gandhi understood the logic of religious pluralism better than anyone. He stated in
Hind Swaraj that India cannot cease to be one nation because people belonging to
different religions live in it. Himself a staunch Hindu, he believed that different
faiths represented different paths towards Truth. He believed that religions are
different roads converging on the same point. He however described Hinduism as the
‘most tolerant of all religions’ because it enables one ‘to admire and assimilate
whatever may be good in other faiths.’ Who is to judge such ‘goodness’? Gandhi
rejected the authority of tradition even when it is regarded as revealed as might be
claimed by different religious groups. Ultimately, the only guide is moral reason or
the inner voice, or to be true to one’s ‘eternal self’. Gandhi maintained that the
religion that he considered the source of value was not Hinduism or any other known
religion, but one that transcended them all, that of Truth, Reason and Morality. He did
not name it, but one could describe it as universal, spiritual and humanistic.

As a sincere believer in the worth of all religions, Gandhi acknowledged the

enormous influence of the moral content of Christianity as depicted in the Sermon on
the Mount on his own thinking in which, he declared, ‘Jesus has given a definition of
perfect dharma.’ Similarly, he considered Islam as having been supremely influential
in the making of ‘India’s national culture’ through its emphasis upon the ‘oneness of
God’ and ‘the brotherhood of man’. His moral sensibilities were deeply influenced by
the tenets of Jainism which is well documented in the biographies and other studies.
Thus the key idea in Gandhi’s religious thought is ‘participatory pluralism’, and it
overcomes the limitations of the hierarchical model. (Madan). This idea found vivid
expression when he stated in Noakhali in 1946 when he told one of the small
gatherings: ‘I am a Hindu, a Muslim, a Sikh... and so are you all’. He tirelessly called
for a Hindu-Muslim-Sikh-Christian unity based on a pluralistic theism that was tied to
the concept of Truth as ultimate and one. Rationality of thought was paramount for
Gandhi. He envisioned a non-violent society in which all decisions ‘were based on
consensus, arrived at by rational discussion in which each strove to look at the subject
in question from the standpoint of others.’

10.4 INTER-FAITH DIALOGUES

Gandhi’s inclusive philosophy was not a passive acceptance of religious and cultural
diversity, but a well reasoned and active engagement with it. Gandhi always examined
and made a critical reflection about other positions, critical self-reflection of his own
position involving normative evaluations and judgements. The Gandhian
philosophical orientation provides the possibility of keeping the dialogue open,
possibilities of reaching out to the others, and cooperation through critiques,
judgements, interventions, resistance, presenting constructive alternatives and many
other ways towards transformation. Thus Gandhi’s activist philosophy integrated both
theory and practice with a high relevance for the concerns of the contemporary times.

In his focus on religious conflict arising from his chief concern of Hindu-Muslim
unity, Gandhi was perennially engaged with the quest of how to achieve inter
religious dialogue in a multi religious setting as in India. Inter religious transformative
dialogue is possible only with goodwill and respect for other religions which is an
essential feature of religious pluralism. The acceptance of freedom to interpret one’s
own truths while accepting the possibility of the truths of others underlies such
pluralism and it challenges the position of dominant religions in the early 21 st Century
(Allen, 2008, p.xiii).

Gandhi was convinced that inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue helps to get to
know the other better and fosters mutual understanding making it possible for
working together giving each an insight into how others think. Gandhi earnestly tried
to promote the spirit of inter-religious dialogue in both thought and action. Gandhi
acknowledged that religion provokes opposite passions which get articulated
divisively but he was certain that this is not inherent in religion and it can be
reformed. Whatever form the religious belief in the divine power might take, it is
subject to the test of reason and experience. For Gandhi there is truth in every religion
but none represents the Absolute Truth. All religions represent relative truth. This is
because Gandhi held that the culture remains the point of reference for every religious
belief and this influences their points of view. They remain embedded in culture and
their experiences and insights are articulated in local cultural idioms which are
inherently spatially limited. Every religion has an inescapable, local, historical and
cultural basis. This is because they occur in an inherently imperfect human language
which can never fully express transcendental truths.

All religions therefore represent the relative truth, presenting a particular point of
view which, for that reason, is necessarily limited. Since no religion or culture is
perfect in representing the truth, it benefits from a dialogue with others. Such dialogue
gives us access to the great treasures of other religions and cultures, deepens our
understanding of God and human life, and facilitates a less relative and more
universal religion and culture. It sensitises us to the very different ways in which
human beings seek to make sense of the world and thus to the rich diversity of human
thought and practice.

To Gandhi, truly religious persons hold all religions dear for three important religious
reasons: their love of God whose grace has made all religions possible and whose
expressions they are; their love of their fellow human beings to whom their respective
religions mean much; and because other religions contribute to their own spiritual
growth (Parekh, 2008, p.8). For Gandhi religious plurality is based not merely on
tolerance or respect for other religions out of a feeling of resignation or condescension
from a distance and relative indifference but is based on ‘sadbhava’ or goodwill
towards them and is based on a genuine feeling for them to flourish. A truly religious
person, therefore, delights in religious plurality as an important ingredient in one’s
own spiritual growth. Similarly, a culturally diverse society is an expression of the
acceptance of the literary and artistic creations of other cultures based on sadbhava or
goodwill and not merely tolerance.

Gandhi also stressed the need for freedom and integrity within religious and cultural
groups. Every religious community should respect and accommodate within itself
unresolved differences for the sake of freedom and integrity. Every religion should
have the freedom to interpret its central truths and borrow what is valuable in others.
Since no religion represents the whole truth about God, it should be open to a
transformative dialogue with others in a sense of genuine humility failing which it has
the danger of becoming dogmatic and self-righteous. This, in turn, arrests its own
growth, breeds intolerance and violence. A religion that encourages violence against
others is guilty of ‘sin against God’. The greater the scope for compassion as a way of
life, the more religion it has. This is not just a moral and political necessity but also a
religious requirement. This will enable all religions to see each other as partners in a
shared spiritual quest with the ability to live in peace and goodwill towards each other
and help them to cope with misguided religious rivalries and conflicts.

Every religion should be open to the acid test of reason and universal justice if it is to
have universal assent. Gandhi rejected any religious doctrine that did not appeal to
reason and was in conflict with morality.

Thus Gandhi’s plea for inter-religious dialogue, understanding, and goodwill was
socially oriented and stood on pluralist grounds which is made possible because of the
common concerns of different religions and which is necessary because they represent
particular and limited visions of God which will benefit from a creative interaction.
This is because all interpretations are humanly mediated, and communicated in
inherently inadequate human languages articulated in particular historical and cultural
contexts which are bound to be partial and limited. Religions and cultures are thus not
rivals but partners sharing fundamental interests. Gandhi’s religious pluralism
respects both the individuality of each religion and creates deeper bonds between
them. “Just as preservation of one’s own culture does not mean contempt for that of
others, but requires assimilation of the best that there may be in all the other cultures,
even so should be the case with religion” (Iyer, 1987, Vol.1, p.451).

Such composite thinking was reflected for instance in Gandhi’s stand on the national
language issue involving the controversy on Hindi, Hindustani and Urdu when he
stated that “It cannot be Persianised Urdu or Sanskritised Hindi. It must be a beautiful
blend of the simple forms written in either script.” (Gandhi quoted in Krishna Kumar,
1991). His plea for Hindustani however did not sustain and faded out from the affairs
of the state in the years following independence (Krishna Kumar, 1991, pp.188-189).

10.5 ASSIMILATION OF CULTURES

Gandhi stated that no culture can live, if it attempts to be exclusive. What is important
is that cultures should blend with each other with utmost freedom and benefit from
interaction with each other. Preservation of one’s culture should not mean contempt
or destruction of the other. As in the case of religion, so is the case with culture.
Different cultures are like so many leaves of the tree. Cultural diversity and their
growth enrich human existence. Hence cultures should rejoice in each other’s
presence and progress. In his autobiography, Gandhi stated “I do not want my house
to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be stuffed. I want the cultures of all
lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off
my feet by any” (Gandhi, The Story of My experiments with Truth).

Gandhi also relentlessly worked for the uplift of the dalits, adivasis, and poor peasants
with his life long concern for ensuring dignity and fairplay to these communities.
However, his views and political practice in this sphere have been somewhat
controversial. Particularly his fight against untouchability and his attempts to reform
Hinduism from within, on the caste system front has not been without controversy. He
staunchly and unconditionally opposed untouchability. His views and political
practice on this issue left no doubt about Gandhi’s stand. However, those in the dalit
movements had their reservations on Gandhi’s viewpoint. The contours of these
discontents were projected in the growing distance between Gandhi and Ambedkar
during the course of the national movement though it never became too pronounced
openly then (Nagraj, 1993, p.2). His use of the term ‘Harijan’ for the ‘untouchables’
has been subjected to severe criticism in the post-independence period. His use of the
religious idiom and symbols of Hinduism during the course of the struggle for
independence likewise have been quite controversial (Hardiman, 2003, pp.123-155).

Gandhi’s post modern vision of nationhood is one based on decentralized local

control, assimilation and tolerance of cultural differences and above all non-violence.
(Nicholas F.Gier, 2008 in Allen, p.126). Gandhi showed that the existence of deep
religious beliefs is not incompatible with cultural diversity and multicultural
democracy.

The quest for self identity was an important component of the vision of independent
India and this was expressed in both progressive and sometimes regressive ways. An
identity as such is not something sacred, a value in itself – its real life situation may
have all kinds of negative, ugly features within that limit or diminish human beings
struggle against which has to be a part of the larger struggle without (Randhir Singh,
1991, p.116).

While on the one hand Gandhi spearheaded the movement for independence bringing
together diverse streams of thought and binding together the culturally diverse groups,
the very same quest for self-identity and cultural diversity found expressions in the
negative features of the revivalist movements during the course of the national
movement. The events of independence and partition brought a near-complete
marginalization of Gandhi and Gandhism (Omvedt, 1994, p.226).

10.6 UNITY IN DIVERSITY: INDIA’S APPROACH

India’s experiment with creating political unity out of unequal and diverse social
order has not been without problems. The establishment of a democratic political
order in India after independence was indeed a major achievement and it was
premised on inclusion of all and exclusion of none. But it was accommodative rather
than homogenising and assimilative seeking to reconcile the identity of the new nation
state with the culturally diverse groups constituting an overarching national identity.
Moreover the perceived gap between formal democracy and substantial democracy
due to the glaring inequalities in society has increasingly led to unrest and tension in
society in general. The spread and deepening of democracy is not considered as
uniform for all the groups and communities with the resulting erosion of faith in
institutions of the state (Kumar Suresh, 2005, p.33).

In the post-independence period the identities of language, religion, caste and tribe
have been used and appealed to increasingly for the mobilization of political support
so much so that these diversities have acquired a sharp political presence and have
become instruments of adversarial politics (Beteille, 2000, pp.161-165). In order to
make a political claim, cultural identities have often been created or revived while
drawing on cultural traits of an earlier historical phase but assuming specific forms.
The changing contours of cultural assertion articulated in the political arena have
often led to what could be characterised as the ‘politics of cultural diversity’
(Mahajan, 1995, p.361).

Historically the community identities are prior to our identity as political citizens of
India. It is pointed out that Indians see themselves first and foremost as members of a
caste, tribe, village, and religion. These community identities constitute people’s self-
understanding and shape their social and political choices. Even after so many years
of independence, social and political conflicts around the issues of religion, caste and
tribe based community identities have not diminished. On the other hand, social
conflicts have increased and so have incidents of communal violence. Ethnic, regional
and linguistic identities have asserted themselves pro-actively and caste continues to
be the most important variable covertly and overtly. There is a demand for caste
census and caste-based Khap Panchayats are active in some states. All these pose
tremendous challenges to our polity and society.

10.7 SUMMARY

It is to be noted that the above-mentioned developments, however, do not in any way

diminish the legacy, relevance and influence of Gandhi. Gandhi’s thought and actions
are significant, relevant and urgently needed for addressing problems of the twenty
first century (Allen, 2008, p.viii). Gandhian philosophical orientation relates to major
twenty-first century concerns, of the need to empathise with and understand the
religious, philosophical, ethical, cultural, economic and political views of others
including those considered as irrational, immoral, enemies, threats, terrorists or evil
elements. Gandhi’s philosophical approach such as pluralism, inclusiveness,
tolerance, empathy, compassion, non-violence, and respect for the diverse approaches
and views of other philosophical, religious, political and cultural orientations are seen
as remarkable, relevant and urgently needed characteristics for possible solutions in
the conflict ridden present day world. The contemporary world is besieged by
dominant, religious, political, economic and cultural divisions defined by their
absolute anti-pluralist, exclusivist, intolerance of others’ views, lack of empathy and
compassion, justification of endless violence and ethnocentric lack of respect or
contempt for the diverse approaches of others. Gandhi, and Gandhian ideas and
political practice show the way but call for a resolute commitment to the cause of
truth and the readiness to face the challenges therein.

10.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the characteristics of cultural diversity? Has India been able to tread on
this path successfully?

2. Elaborate your views on Gandhi’s thoughts on religion and cultural diversity.

3. How important are inter-faith dialogues to maintain the cultural diversity of a

nation?

SUGGESTED READINGS

Allen, Douglas., (Ed.), The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi for the Twenty First
Century, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2008 ( p.viii, p.xiii)

Bagchi, Amiya Kumar., Multiculturalism, Governance and the Indian Bourgeoisie, in

Bhargava, Rajeev Et al, Ed., Multiculturalism, Liberalism and Democracy, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 1999

Baxi, Upendra, and Parekh, Bhikhu., (Ed.), Crisis and Change in Contemporary India,
Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1995

Betteille, Andre., Chronicles of Our time, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000

Bhargava, Rajeev., Et al., (Ed), Multiculturalism, Liberalism and Democracy, Oxford

University Press, New Delhi, 1999

Bhargava, Rajeev., The Right to Culture, in Panikkar, K.N., (Ed), Communalism in

India, Manohar, New Delhi, 1991

Chandoke, Neera., Religion, Culture and the State, in Shakir, Moin., (Ed), Religion,
State and Politics, Ajanta, Delhi, 1989.

Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, Vol.77, 1958

Gier, Nicholas F., Non violence as a Civic Virtue in Allen, Douglas, (Ed), The
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi for the Twenty First Century, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2008.
Hardiman, David., Dalit and Adivasi Assertion in Gandhi in His Time and Ours,
Permanent Black, Delhi, 2003.

Hardiman, David., Gandhi in His Time and Ours, Permanent Black, Delhi, 2003

http://www.india-seminar.com/1999/484/484%20madan.htm, date of access:14 May

2010

Iliah, Kancha., Why I am Not a Hindu: A Sudra Critique of Hindutva Philosophy,

Culture and Political Economy, Samya,2005

Iyer, Raghavan., (Ed), The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1987, Vol.I.

Karlekar, Hiranmayi., (Ed), Independent India: The First Fifty Years, Oxford
University Press, 1998

Krishna Kumar., Hindu Revivalism and Education in North – Central India, in

Panikkar, K.M., (Ed), Communalism in India: History, Politics and Culture, Manohar,
New Delhi, 1991

Kumar, Suresh., Multi Cultural Imperatives of Good Governance, in Majeed Akhtar,

(Ed), Federal India: A Design for Good Governance, Manak Publications, New Delhi,
2005

Madan T.N., Perspectives on pluralism http://www.india-

seminar.com/1999/484/484%20madan.htm(Date of access: 14 May 2010)

Mahajan Gurpreet., Negotiating Cultural Diversity and Minority Rights in India

http://www.idea.int/publications/dchs/upload/dchs_vol2_sec3_4.pdf, (Date of access:
10 May 2010)

Mahajan, Gurpreet., Cultural Embodiment and Histories: Towards Construction of

Self, in Baxi, Upendra and Parekh, Bhikhu, (Ed), Crisis and Change in Contemporary
India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1995.

Majeed Akhtar., (Ed), Federal India: A Design for Good Governance, Manak
Publications, New Delhi, 2005

Nagraj, D.R., The Flaming Feet: A Study of the Dalit Movement in India, South
Forum Press, Bangalore, 1993

Nanda, B.R., Gandhi and His Critics, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1985

Omvedt, Gail., Dalits and Democratic Revolution: Dr. Ambedkar and the Dalit
Movement in Colonial India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1994.

Panikkar, K.M., (Ed), Communalism in India: History, Politics and Culture, Manohar,
New Delhi, 1991
Parekh, Bhikhu, and Pantham, Thomas., Political Discourse: Explorations in Indian
and Western Political Thought, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1987

Parekh, Bhikhu., Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi’s

Political Discourse, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1989

Parekh, Bhikhu., Gandhi and Inter religious Dialogue, in Allen, Douglas., (Ed), The
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi for the Twenty First Century, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2008

Parekh, Bhikhu., Gandhi’s Political Philosophy, London, Macmillan, 1989

Parel, Anthony J., (Ed), M.K.Gandhi: Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, Cambridge
University Press, (Foundation Books) New Delhi, 1997.

Randhir Singh., Communalism and the Struggle against Communalism, in Panikkar,

K.N., Communalism in India, Manohar, New Delhi, 1991.

Roy, Ramashray., Gandhi: Soundings in Political Philosophy, Chanakya Publications,

Delhi, 1984

Roy, Ramashray., Self and Society: A Study in Gandhian Thought, Sage Publications,
New Delhi, 1984

Rudolph, Loyd.I, and Rudolph, Susan,H., Post Modern Gandhi and Other Essays,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006

Shakir, Moin., (Ed), Religion, State and Politics, Ajanta, Delhi, 1989