the mirror. This willbe equal to the rough focal lengtk of the mirror.

EXPERIMENTS
Oject: To find values of vfor different values of uin case of aconcave mirror and find the focal length.
pparatus : An optical bench with three up rights, two needles, a concave mirror, knitting needle, meter scale.
Deory : In a concave mirror, the reflecting surface faces towards the centre of the sphere, of which the mirror is a
part (Fig. 77().
The focal length of concave mirror is given by
1
f orf= R

where u = Distance of object from the mirror.

V = Distance of image from the mirror.

Procedure: Fig. 7 ()
1 Find the rough focal length of concave mirror by getting a clear image of some distant object on screen (Refer to
art. 7.09).
2. Mount the mirror and the two needles in uprights, mark one upright as O and the other as I and place them on
the optical bench (Fig. 7(g).
3. Adjust the heights of the needles such that the centre of the mirror is in line with the tips of the two needles.
4. Place the object needle between focus and centre of curvature (nearly 15 times the obtained rough focal length
of the mirror) and look for inverted real image.
5. Now put second needle on the principal axis of a mirror on the same side behind O(Fig. 7 (8).
6. Remove the parallax between the image of the object needle and second needle (Refer to art. 7.06). The second
needle thus, locates the positions of the image of the object,
7, Read and note the positions of the mirror and two heedles on the bench scale.
8. Find the index correction for the distance between pale of mirror and tip of the object needle and also for
distance between pole of mirror and tip of the image needle Refer to art. 7.08.1].
9. Repeat the experiment by changing the position of 0.
Dinesh Practical Physics-XI| 49
PRC 49
 Aunlusuluulonbnluulubabulusln

Fig. 7 (g)
M

Fig. 7 (h)
9bservations :
Rough focal length of concave mirror =.... cm

Length of the knitting needle, x =........ Cm

Observed distance between P and O, y =....... cm

Observed distance between P and I, z =.... cm

Index correction for distance u =( -y) = t..... cm

Index correction for distance v = ( - y) = t.... cm

111
Position of Obseryed Corected (on)
distances distances
(cm)
irror P Object Image = 0Pp- PI u(em) (enm)
needle needle
(Cm 0 (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

cm-!
Mean
Cm

aph : The graphs between u and v and 1 1

as as shown in figures 7() and 7 ().
() u-v graph : Draw a line OP bisecting the
perpendicular on X and angle
Yaxes respectively, For pointP, X'OY and cutting the graph at point Q. Draw
point P are (-2f, -2). the values of u and v are same, Thus the Peor the
coordinates
i.e., u=y= - 2f =R
50
PRC 50 Dinesh Practical Physics-XIl
 0Q Cm

f2 OR
.4. CM
Also
.. Mean value of f=-.... cm
1 and B respectively.
(i) and graph : The straight line cuts the two axes Xand Yat an angle of 45° at points A
Measure the distance OA and OB.

f= OA OB
A cm
X X

Cm-l
P R

Scale
Scale X-axis 1 div =..
X-axis ldiy Y-axis 1 div =...
Y-axis 1div =... B
Graph ofuv/s v Graph of vs
Y'
Y

Fig. 7 (i) Fig. 7 (5)

Rest : Focal length of concave mirror

cm
() fromu and v graph, f = -
1 1 cm
(ii) from and

Precamtions :
1 Parallex should be remnoved tip to tip.
axis of the concave mírror must be horizontal and parallel to scale on the optical bench.
2. Principal
up to the pole of the mirror.
3. The height of the needles should be
applied.
4. The index correction should be
from the tip of image needle.
5. Eye should lie at least 40 cm away

EXPERIMENT 0
find focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens. a half
Object : To
uprights, a convex mirror, a convex lens, two needles, a knitting needle,
Apparatus : An optical bench with four
meter scale. centre of the
mirror, the reflecting surface faces away from the
Theory: In a convex
part (Fig. 7 (). R
 6. Between F and O. On the same side as object Highly magnified Virtual and erect

EXPERIMENT I
Objt: To find the focal length of aconvex lens by plotting graphs between u andy or -and
2
Apartis : An optical bench with three uprights, two needles, convex lens, knitting needle, meter scale.
Theory : Convex lens is alsoknown as convergent lens. The focal length of a convex lens is given by

where v =Distance of image fromn the optical centre of lens

u = Distance of object from the optical centre of the lens.
Procedare :
1 Find the rough focal length of convex lens by getting a clear image of some distant object on screen (Refer to
art. 7.09.
2. Mark the needle upright, as O and I. Place the needle uprights on the optical bench with the lens upright in
between as shown in Fig. 8 (h).

Fig. 8 (h)
3, Arrange the tips-of the needles at the same height as the centre of the lens.
4. Place the needle O between Fand2F, (nearly 1·5 times the obtained focal length of the convex lens) and look for
its real, inverted image from the other side.
5. Move the needle I, remove the parallax between the needle I, (the image needle) and needle O, (the object
needle) [Refer to art. 7.06].
6. Note the positions of O, I and C and find the observed distançes u and v.
7. Find the index correction for the distance between optical centre oflens and the tip of the object needle and als0
for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the image needle.
Dinesh PracticalPhysicsXI| 57
PRC- 57
 8& Repeat the experiment by changing the position of 0.
Plot the graphs between u andv and
1 and
9. Apply index corrections to uand y.
g6servations :
Rough focal length convex lens =.... Cm

Length of knitting needle =X =..... Cm

Observed distance between C and 0, y =... cm

=...... cm
Observed distance between C and I, 2
=......... cm
Index correction for u, -y
Index correction for v, y -Z =....... Cm
Observed distances Corrected dlistances
Pasition of 11
u= CO = CI u (cm) v (cm) (cm) (em-f)
S. Object Image Lens (C)
No. needleneedle I (cm) (cm) (cm) (em)
0 (cn) (cm)

1.
2.
3

4.
5
1
Means cm-!
f
f= Cm
Y
1 1
PEraph: (i) Plot a graphbetween and by taking 1u along X-axis and 1/lv
along Y-axis. The graph will be a straight line as shown in Fig. 8 (i). The
straight line cuts the two axes OX'and OY' at an angle of 45° atpoints Aand B igmat
respectively and making equal intercepts on the axes. Measure the distancensl lepot
OA and OB.
(cm)
1 1
Then the focal length =f= OA OB (cm).
(i) Plot a graph between u and v by taking u along X-axis and v along Y
axis. The graph will be hyperbolic curve as shown in Fig. 8(), From O
draw a line OP bisecting YOX and meeting the curve at P. Draw PA X A
perpendicular to OX' and PB perpendicular to OY. Y
Then OA = 0B = 2f Fig. 8 ()
Y
OA OB

Meap f=. Cm,

Result :The focal length of the given convex lens is
() from 1 1 graph [Fig. 8 ()] is ......cm a v (cm)

(ü)Arom u, v, graph [Fig, 8 ()] is

1ecautions
1. Parallex should be removed tip by tip. 450
2. Uprights should be vertical. olt A
X

3. The principal axis should be parallel to the bench -- ulcmn)

scale.
4. The index correction should be Fig. 8 ()
applied.
5. Eye should lie at least 40 cm away from the tip of image
needle.
58 Dinesh Practical Physics-XI
PRC 58
 EXPERIMENT l3
odfect : To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidemce and angle of deviation.
Apparatus : A glass prism, drawing board, a white sheet, drawing pins, pins, a sharp pencil.
Thar': Aprism is aportion of refracting medium bounded by the planes inclined to each oher at an angle called the
efracting angle of prism.
When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium towards a denser medium, it bends towards the normal. If the ray of
light goes from a denser medium towards a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
The refractive index u of the material of the prism is given by Angle of prism
A
Atom L
sin 2 Nr N,
D
A
sin
2 e
Incident
ray
A = Angle of prism,

Emergnt ray
where
On = angle of minimum deviation.
B C
Procedure : Fig. 9(a)
1, Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board.
2. Place the prism on the paper and mark its boundary as shown in Fig. 9(a).
3. Remove the prism and draw a normal NI at the point I on the side AB.
4. Draw a line PI making an angle 30° with NI. Fix pins on the line PI at (P and ) not less than 10 cm separation.
5. Place the prism on its position.
6. Look through face AÇ for image of pins P and Q. Fix pins R and S so that they appear in line with the images of
the pins P and Q.
7. Remove the prism and join RS to give emergent ray.
8. Produce RS backward so as to meet PQ in point D, when produced forward.
9. Measure angle of emergence, and deviation angle.
10. Also measure angle BAC (angle of prism A) in the boundary of the prism.
11. Find the angle of deviation for different valuès of the angle of incidence.
12. Draw a graph between i and Z6. Also measure th angle of prism A.
Observations :
The angle of prism A =..... onivol tont
No. Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation
1. 30°
2. 35°
3. 40°
4. 45°
5 50°
6. 55°

Calculnons : Plot a graph between iand 6by taking i along X-axis and 8 along Y-axis. From graph note the value of
Sngle of minimum deviation S [Fig. 9(b)].

Dinesh Practical Physics-XII 63

PRC- 63
 Y

sin A tÓm ()
deviation
sin
2 Scale
of deviation is of X-axis 1 div,
Resalt : The graph between angle of incidence and angle Angle
Y-axis 1 div.
shown in Fig. 9%).
Sm
Preca1ons :
The pins must be fixed vertically.
The distance between two pins must be at least 10 cm. 3TEbn
2.
X
3. The value of angle of deviation must be between 30° to 60°.0 0 lo Angle of incidence i
4. The eye should be kept at least 30 cm fromthe nearest pin. Fig. 9(6)
should be marked on the prism.
5. The refracting edge of the prism should remain same and it
6. The pins should have sharp tips.
VIVA VOCE
Q. 1. What isa prism ?
rectangular surfaces
Ans. Itis a transparent medium bounded by three
Q. 2. Define angle of deviation.
Ans. It is the angle by which an incident ray turns from its path on passing through a prism.
divisions on the vernier scale, which coincide with 49 main scale divisions and hence the vernier constant can be calculated
as below:
50 V.S.D. = 49 M.S.D.
49
or 1V.S.D. = M.S.D.
50
V.C. = IM.S.D. - 1V.S.D.
49 1
= 1M.S.D. M.S.D. = M.S.D.
50 50
But 1M.S.D. =0:5 mm
1
V.C. = x 0-5 mm = 0-01 mm
50
or V.C. = 0:001 cm.

EXPERIMENTl4
object ; determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
aatus; Atravelling microscope, aglass slab, Iycopodium powder.
Theo When a ray of light passes from one medium to the other, it either bends towards or away from the normal.
Tais phenomenon is called refraction of light.
Dinesh Practical Physics-XIl 67
PRC 67
Reiractive index is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium,
i.e.

where C= speed of light in vacuum

and V= speed of light in medium.
When the object is placed at the bottom of the medium of refractive index , 1t appears to be raised, when w
obliquely [Fig. 10 (d)]. The actual depth of the object is known as real depth and the appeared depth is ko
apparent depth.

Hence =
Real depth
Apparent depth
Procedure :
1. Firstly find the vernier constant of the vertical scale of travelling microscope and set the travelling micrnseae

Setting of the travelling microscope.

() Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross-wires are clearly visible.
) Test the horizontal and vertical settings of the microscopé with the spirit level by rotating the levelling Screws.
2. Mark a spot (cross-mark) with ink on the platform of a travellingsd Gmio
microscope [Fig. 10 (e)].
3. Adjust the position of microscope so that the spot is sharp in focus in
the field of view of microscope.
4. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings on the vertical vi -Microscope
scale of the microscope (*).
5. Place the glass slab on the spot and again adjust the position of
microscope so that the spot is sharp in focus.
6. Note the main scale and the veinier scale radings on the vertical
scale of the microscope (*2). - -2

7. Spread some lycopodium powder on the surface of slab and

again
focus the microscope to view the particles clearly visible.
8. Note the main scale and the vernier scale Fig. 10 (e)
readings on the vertical
scale of the microscope (x3).
9. Répeat the above experiment for different slabs.
Observation : See next page.
Rest:
Real depth =
Apparent depth xXCm
F 3 - X = .... cm

Tecautions:
Refractive index =H3
1, The backlash error with the microscope should be
avoided by always turning the Sorewin the same direction.
2. The mnicroscope should be
3. The observation should be
balanced rotating the levelling screwS,
by
taken when the spot is clearly
4. The glass slab must be
cleaned and visible.oaaE
should be optically worked.
o
S. Only thin layer of lycopodium powder should be
spread on the top of slab: n UH
68
Dinesh Practical Physics-XII
PRC 68
 Obsations :
ermjer constant of microscope = ......... cm
V'erticsl scale reacding of the microscope Real Apparent Refractive
S.No.
1Witheat stab 1With siab With lycopodium thicknessthickness Iadexr
powder
(cm) (em)
AE.S.R lenier MS.R Vernie
=n M.SR Verner
scale
scale 1(nx V.C)
(em reing (cm) (Cm) reading n (Cm)

2
3.
4
5.

Mean =

EXPERIMENTI5(A)I
ojective To find refractive index of a liquid by using concave mirror.
. Aparatus : Concave mirror of large focal length, an optical needle, a plumb line, a clamp stand, a meter scale,
diferent transparent liquids such as water, alcohol, glycerine etc.xove: so tiol
Theory : Same as experiment 14.
Procedure : N
1. 'odthe rough focal length of concave mirror (Ref. to article 7.09].
2 Nowplace it on horizontal surface [Fig. 100].
3. Mount the optical needle with clamp stand so that it becomes parallel to
surface of iquid and tip (c) should lie above the pole P at nearly twice the
rough focal lensh of mirror (Fig. 10 ()].
4 Look for its inverted image. Move a needle a little up and down so as to
remove parallax between needle and its image. P

5. Measure the distance PC wih meter scale.

again remove
6 Pour a small amount of water g the concave mirror. NoW N'
parallax by lowering upto C.
Fig. 10 ()
7. Measure the distance PC' with meter scae.
different liquids.
& Repeat the above experiment for
69
Dinesh Practical PhysicsXl PRC 69
 Observations : Rough focal length of concave mirror = Cm

R
S.No. Real radius of Apparent radius of R!

curvature R (cm) curvature PC' R(cem)

1.
2.

Result The refractive index of the liquid =

Pyetautions :
1. The liquid taken should be transparent,
2. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. The distance should be measured from the centre of the mirror and not from the surface of water.
4. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.

EXPERIMENT 15(B)
Obiective : To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.
BreakdoWn
voltage [Fig. 11(0). This voltage is called Zener voltage or Breakdown voltage. This
efect is known as Zener breakdown. As the reverse biased is increased, a
I
small current due to minority carrier flows in the circuit. On further increasing
the reverse bias, electric field becomes so high that large number of covalent
bonds are broken and hence increased reverse current occurs. It has been observed
that for zener diode, the reverse breakdown voltage remains constant while the
reverse current rises [Fig. 11(0].
An important application of zener diode is that it
Fig. 11()
-Y can be used for making constant power supplies.
Fig. 11(k)

EXPERIMENTl6I
Object : To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N Jünction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Aparatus : A P-N junction diode, a battery of 6 volts, a milliammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat, one way key,
connecting wires, microammeter.
Theory : When a P-type crystal is brought in contact with N-type crystal, the resulting arrangement is called P-N
junction or junction diode.
In P types, holes are majority carriers, electrons are minority carriers.
In Ntypes, electrons are majority carriers, electrons are minority carriers.
When positive terminal of the external battery is connected to P-side and the negative terminal to the N-side of P-N
junction [Fig. 11 m], the P-N junction diode is said to be forward biased. On reversing the battery terminals, P-N
junction diode will become reverse biased [Fig. 11(n)]. The characteristic of a typical P-N junction is as shown in
Fig. 11(0).
Dinesh Practical Physics-XIl 75
PRC 75
 Fig. 1l(m) Fig. 11(n)

M V7 VË V; V
V

Fig. 11(0)
Initially for voltage VË. there is not much rise in current due to the barrier potential. Beyond this, curreni starts
rising. The forward voltage when current starts rising is termed as the knee voltage, V
The resistance offered by P-N junction in forward biasing is very-very smallas compared to reverse bias.
The ratio of direct voltage o the direct current at a point on the curve is called static resistance.
i.e. Rstatic
(a P)
The ratio of peak to peak alternating voltage to peak to alternating current is called dynanme resistane.

i.e. Rdynanik
after certain volage
On reverse biasing, initially with increase in reverse voltage, the current increases slowly. Then
rise, current increases suddenly.
Procedure: ) For Forward bias
according lo this as shown in Fig. llp)
1. Draw the circuit diagram and nnake the connections milliammeter.
and
2. Note the least count and zero error of voluneter

Rh
Btery -T
 PN

Fig. 11(n)
Fig. 11(m)

M VK VË V V3
V

Fig. 11(0)
Beyond this, current starts
Initially for voltage V, there is not much rise in current due to the barrier potential.
rising. The forward voltage when current starts rising is termned as the knee voltage, Vk
bias.
The resistance offered by P-N junction in forward biasing is very-very smallas compared to reverse
The ratio of direct voltage to the direct current at a point on the curve is. called
static resistance.

ie. Rstatic
(at P)

The ratio of peak to peak alternating voltage to peak to alternating current is called dynamic resistance.
i.e. Rdynamic
Then after certain voltage
On reverse bíasing, initially with increase in reverse voltage, the current increases slowly.
rise, current increases suddenly,
Procedure: ) For Forward bias
L Draw the circuít diàgram and make the connections according to this as shown in Fig. 11P).
2. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter and milliammeter.
K

Rh mA
Baery

Fig. 11(p)
nesh Practical Physics-XIl
 3, Put the plug in the key K, and move the sliding contact of the rheostat slightly.
4 Read the values of voltmeter and milliammeter and note these readings.
E Keep on increasing the forward biasing in steps and note the
corresponding values of voltmeter and milliammeter.
6 Plot the graph between forward bias V and forward current I[Fig. 11(r)].
For Reverse bias
7. Now set up circuit as shown in fig. 11 (a), so that P-N junction diode is reverse biased.

A
+

Fig 11. (g)

8 Put the key K, and move the sliding contact of the rheostat slightly.
9. Read the value of voltmeter and microammeter and note these readings.
10. Keep on increasing the reverse biasing in steps and note the corresponding values of voltmeter and microammeter.
11. Plot thegraph between reverse bias Vand reverse Current I. [Fig 11 ()]
Obse vations : () For forward bias
Least count of milliammeter = mA
Zero errOr of milliammeter ....... mA
Least count of voltmeter .......V
Zero errOr of voltmeter =...... y

S. No. Voltneter readin Milliammeter readhing

Observed (voit) Corrected (vol) Observed (mA) Correeted (mA)
1.

2,
3

4
5

6.
7.

) For reverse bias

Last count of micro-ammeter = , . . . . LA
Zero error of micro-ammeter
Least count of yoltmeter
Zero error of voltmeter

Dinesh Practical Physics-XIl 77

PRC77
 Micro anmeter reading I
s. No. Voltmeter reading V
Corrected (vol)
Observed (uA) Corrected (LA)
Observed (Volts)
1.
2.
3.
4
5
6.
7
8.

Graph : Pot the graphs between V and I by taking Valong X-axis andI along Y-axis. The graphs will be as showm f
fig 1L) and fig. 1 (S)
YA

Sse :
Scale o s
X-axis, 1div = ........ V
Y-axis, 1 div =.
.
-V
Fig. 11(r).
Calonations : From Fig. 11(r)
Rstatic = = .....2 (from graph)

Rdynamic MV OV, - OM
...2 (from graph)
Ol,

B
4V

Scale
X-axis, 1 div = ........v
Y-axis, 1div = .......A

Fig 11 (s)

78

PRC78 Dinesh Practical Physics-XI

 Erom Fig. 11 (s) :
AV
Junction resistance of reverse bias =r= AI
BC
=.........Q
AC
Dnlt: (i) Static resistance of the given semiconductor diode =..... 2.
(iü) Dynamic resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ..... Q.
(üi) Junction resistance for reverse bias =..... 2.
Precaution
1, The ammetersand voltmeter selected must have suitable ranges.
2 Allconnections must be tight.
3. Plug of key K should be removed when the circuit is not in use.
own in 4. Forward bias and reverse bias should be increased in small steps.

EXPERIMENT 1Z