Data Communication & Networking

Data Communication &

Networking
Part 1

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 Engr. Jubril Al-Min | Engr. Dr. Pascal Chinedu

Copyright © 2023 by ENGR. JUBRIL AL-MIN & ENGR. DR.

PASCAL CHINEDU.

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ISBN:

Published In Nigeria

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Data Communication Basis 1
1.1 Definition Of Data Communication 2
1.2 Relevance of Data Communication 5
1.3 Data Communication and Terminal Equipment
Communication 7
1.4 Equipment Used in Computer Communication 9
1.5 Some Network Devices 11
1.6 Functions of Some Indirect Equipment 16
1.7 Review Questions 25
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Computer Networking Concepts 26
2.1 Why computer networking 26
2.2 Network Protocol and Standards 28
2.3 Types of Networks 32
2.4 Network Topologies 35
2.5 Review Questions 46
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Computer Network Models 49
3.2 The OSI Reference Model 51
3.3 Application Layer 55
3.4 Presentation Layer 56
3.5 Session Layer 57
3.6 Transportation Layer 57
3.7 Network Layer 65
3.8 Data Link Layer 68
3.9 Physical Layer 72
3.10 Review Questions 73

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Data Communication Software 75
4.1 Description of Data Communication Software 75
4.2 Significance of Data Communication Software 75
4.3 Function of Communication software 76
4.4 Categories of Communication Software 77
4.5 Communication Protocol 77
4.6 Review Questions 81
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Data Flows and Transmission Modes 82
5.1 Data Flows Modes 82
5.2 Data Transmission Modes 83
5.3 Serial Transmission 84
5.4 Parallel Transmission 87
5.6 Review Question 88
CHAPTER SIX

6.0 Data Transmission Media 89

6.1 Definition of Data Transmission Media 89
6.2 Transmission Channel Parameters 90
6.3 Guided Transmission Media 92
6.4 Unguided Transmission Media 99
6.5 Transmission Media Problems and Impairment 104
6.6 Ethernet Cabling 107
6.7 Review Question 117

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 CHAPTER ONE
DATA COMMUNICATION BASIS
The term "data" refers to information presented in a specific
format. Data exists in diverse form or representation: as
numbers or text, as bits and bytes stored in electronic memory,
or as factual content retained within an individual's cognition.
Although "datum" signifies a solitary piece of information, "data"
is commonly employed both in singular and plural contexts. In
the realm of electronics, data denotes digital bits or digitized
representations of analog signals. Signals constitute
measurable quantities that change with the progression of time.
Signals might manifest as voltages in correspondence with
message amplitudes or as sequences of pulses conveyed
through fiber optic cables, or even as electromagnetic waves
emitted by antennas. When these signals traverse between two
or more locations, it is termed data transmission. The
conveyance of data from a source to a destination typically
ensues through transmission media, contingent on two central
factors: the quality of the transmitted signal and the attributes of
the transmission medium.
In society today, the significance of communication has
increased greatly. The proliferation of smart phones and
devices incorporating data services like web messaging, web
browsing, internet and cloud has remarkably increased the
usage of voice messaging services on a global scale.
Communication involves the sharing or exchange of
information between multiple entities, encompassing both
human interaction, human to machine interaction and
information interchange between machines or systems. This

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sharing or exchange can either be short distance(local) or long
distance (Telecommunication).
Data transmission predominantly occurs in the form of
electromagnetic waves, categorized into guided and unguided
electromagnetic waves. Guided waves encompass
transmission mediums like twisted pairs, coaxial cables, and
optical fibers. Unguided waves, on the other hand, denote the
transmission of electromagnetic waves through mediums such
as air, vacuum, and seawater, without explicit guidance or
confinement.
1.1 Definition of Data Communication
Data communication refers to the transfer of encoded
information between devices from one location to another,
accomplished through electronic transmission systems. Data
communication can also be defined as exchange of data
between two devices, facilitated by a transmission medium
which is either be wired(cable) or wireless (radio waves). For
data communication to occur, the communication devices
(sender and receiver as shown in fig 1.1) must be part of a
communication system, which is made up of a combination of
physical equipment (hardware)and software.
1.1.1 Fundamental Characteristics of Data
Communication System
The effectiveness of data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.

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 2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data
accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely
manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data
as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission and this occurs
in a real-time system.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival
time. It is the uneven delay of delivery of audio or
video packets. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 20ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 20ms delay and others with 30ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
1.1.2 Components of Data Communication

Figure 1.1 Components of Data Communication

1. Messages: The Information(data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of data include text, numbers, pictures,
audio, video or a combination of any of these.
2. Sender: The device that initiates the communication and
sends the message. It can be a computer, workstation,

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 telephone handset, television, mobile phones, smart
devices etc
3. Transmission medium: The transmission medium also
known as channel of communication is the physical path
by which data travels from sender (transmitter) to receiver.
Example of such channels is wired (guided medium;
twisted pair cable, optical fibres, coaxial cable) and
wireless (unguided medium; radio waves)
4. Receiver: The device that receives the message. It can be
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television,
mobile phones, smart devices etc.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a Set of rules that governs data
communication. It represents an agreement between
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating. Just like a
person speaking Edo Language cannot be understood by
a person speaking Igbo.

1.1.3 Data Representation

The way in which information is presented a computer is
referred to as Data form or data representation. Information
nowadays comes in the following forms; numbers, text, images,
audio, video, etc.
1. Numbers: in data communication binary (0 or 1) are
used to represent numbers, this is to simplify
mathematical operations.
2. Text: Text is represented in sequence of binary
pattern, each sequence or set is called a code, the
process of representing text symbols with a set of code

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 is referred to as coding. The two common methods of
coding often use in data communication is are the
Unicode also known as the Basic Latin and the
American Standeard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII).
3. Images: Image is composed of matrix of pixels (picture
elements) where each pixel is a dot. The size of the
length depends on its resolution. For example, an
image can be divided into 2000 pixels or 20,000 pixels.
In the second case. There is a better representation of
the image (better resolution) but it will occupy more
space in the system memory. There are several
method in representing Images one of which is called
RGB(Red, Green and Blue)which combines the three
primary colours and the another is called YCM
(Yellow, Cyan and Magenta) which is made up the
three other primary colour.
4. Audio: this referred to as recorded or broadcasted
sound or music. When you create a sound or music,
you create a continuous non discrete signal which can
be converted and represented with bit patterns.

5. Video: this is the recording or broadcasting of moving

pictures. Videos are usually produced as a continues
entity (eg. By TV Camera), or it can be a combination
of images, each having a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion.
1.2 Relevance of Data Communication
Data is the lifeblood of data communication. The ability to
efficiently and accurately transmit data is what enables modern

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technology to function seamlessly and empowers businesses,
industries, and individuals to operate more effectively in today's
interconnected world. Here is the need for data communication
between devices, systems or machines:
1. Decision-Making: Data is crucial for making informed
decisions. Many systems and processes rely on data collected
from various sources to analyse trends, assess situations, and
make accurate decisions. For example, businesses analyse
sales data to make marketing strategies, and healthcare
systems use patient data for medical diagnoses.
2. Information Exchange: Data communication is all about
transmitting and receiving information in the form of data.
Whether it's text, images, videos, or any other digital format,
data carries the information that needs to be shared between
devices, users, or systems.
3. Remote Access and Management: Data communication
allows remote access and management of systems and
devices. This is essential for scenarios where physical
presence is not feasible or safe. For example, remote servers
can be managed through data communication without needing
to be physically on-site.
4. Automation and Control: In automated systems, data
communication enables control mechanisms. Machines and
devices communicate to share data about their status, enabling
automated responses or adjustments. For instance, sensors in
a smart thermostat communicate temperature data to adjust
heating or cooling settings.
5. Real-Time Applications: Many applications require real-
time data communication for timely responses. Online gaming,
video conferencing, stock trading, and autonomous vehicles
are just a few examples where data needs to be communicated
instantly to maintain smooth operation.

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6. IoT and Smart Systems: The Internet of Things (IoT)
relies entirely on data communication. IoT devices, ranging
from smart thermostats to industrial sensors, communicate
data to centralized systems for analysis, automation, and
decision-making.
7. Collaboration and Sharing: Data communication
facilitates collaboration by allowing users to share information,
documents, and resources. Email, file sharing platforms, and
collaborative software rely on data communication to enable
teamwork regardless of geographical distances.
8. Cloud Computing: Cloud services are built upon data
communication principles. Users store and access data
remotely through the cloud, which necessitates reliable and
secure data communication to ensure data integrity and
accessibility.
9. Scientific Research and Exploration: In scientific
research and exploration, data communication is vital for
transmitting data from instruments and sensors in remote or
hazardous environments back to researchers and control
centres.
10. Big Data and Analytics: The proliferation of data has led
to the rise of big data analytics. Data communication enables
the transfer of large datasets from various sources to analytics
platforms, which in turn generate insights and trends to support
strategic decisions.

1.3 Data Communication and Terminal Equipment

Communication
The origins of Data Communication and Terminal Equipment
Communication facilities can be traced back to ancient times.
However, when we reflect on the onset of modern
communication, it is often the telegraph and later the telephone

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that come to mind. These innovations brought about significant
changes. Well-developed telegraph and telephone networks
were already in place across the globe, even long before
computers came into the picture.
Data communications equipment (DCE) refers to computer
hardware devices used to establish, maintain and terminate
communication network sessions between a data source and
its destination. DCE is connected to the data terminal
equipment (DTE) and data transmission circuit (DTC) to
convert transmission signals. IT vendors may also refer to data
communications equipment as data circuit-terminating
equipment or data carrier equipment. Modem, CSU and DSU
are examples data communication equipment.

Figure 1.2 Data communication and terminal equipment

Data Terminal Equipment is equipment which acts as source or
destinations in digital communication and which is capable of
converting information to signals and also reconverting
received signals. Data terminal equipment does communicate
directly with each other. Communication between them is done
by data communication equipment. Popular examples of data
terminal equipment are computers, printers, routers, servers
etc.

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Data communication equipment and data terminal equipment
are often confused with each other. In fact, the confusion is
more pronounce when data communication equipment is
embedded in some data terminal equipment. The truth is that
when the two are separated they are interlinked. Also, data
terminal equipment and data communication connectors are
wired differently if a single straight cable is employed. Data
communication equipment generates internal clock signals,
while data terminal equipment works with externally provided
signals. Figure 1.2 shows a typical arrangement of data
communication and terminal equipment.

1.4 Equipment Used in Computer Communication

Computer communication involves the exchange of data and
information between computers and devices. Various
equipment and components are used to facilitate this
communication. Here are some of the key equipment used in
computer communication:
1. Routers: Routers are devices that connect different
networks together and for-ward data packets between
them. They play a crucial role in directing data traffic
on the internet.
2. Switches: Switches are used to connect devices
within a local area network (LAN). They operate at the
data link layer and forward data only to the specific
device it's intended for, reducing network congestion.
3. Modems: Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used
to convert digital sig-nals from computers into analog
signals that can be transmitted over tele-phone lines or
other analog communication channels. They also

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 convert in-coming analog signals back into digital
signals for the receiving computer.
4. Network Interface Cards (NICs): NICs are hardware
components that allow computers to connect to a
network. They provide the necessary interface be-
tween the computer's internal bus and the network
medium, such as Ethernet cables.
5. Access Points: Access points are devices used in
wireless networks to provide a connection point to the
wired network. They allow wireless devices to con-nect
to the network through Wi-Fi.
6. Firewalls: Firewalls are used to protect networks and
devices from unauthorized access and malicious
activities. They can be hardware or software-based
and control incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined secu-rity rules.
7. Gateways: Gateways are devices that translate data
between different com-munication protocols or network
architectures. They enable communication between
networks that use different technologies.
8. Load Balancers: Load balancers distribute network or
application traffic across multiple servers to ensure
efficient utilization of resources and prevent overload
on any single server.
9. Proxy Servers: Proxy servers act as intermediaries
between clients and servers, forwarding requests and
responses. They can enhance security, provide cach-
ing, and control access to certain resources.

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 10. Cables and Connectors: Various types of cables,
such as Ethernet cables, fiber optic cables, and coaxial
cables, are used to physically connect devices within a
network. Connectors ensure proper connections
between cables and de-vices.
11. Repeaters and Extenders: Repeaters are used to
extend the range of a network by regenerating and
boosting signals. Extenders are used to expand the
cov-erage area of wireless networks.
12. Multiplexers and Demultiplexers: Multiplexers
combine multiple data streams into a single signal for
transmission, while demultiplexers separate the com-
bined signal back into individual streams.
13. Transceivers: Transceivers are devices that can both
transmit and receive data on a network. They are often
used in Ethernet connections.
14. Cabling Infrastructure: This includes the physical
cabling and wiring within a network, such as structured
cabling systems that provide a standardized ap-proach
to organizing and connecting network devices.
These are just a few examples of the equipment used in
computer communication. The specific equipment required will
depend on the type of network, the scale of communication,
and the technologies being used.
1.5 Some Network Devices
Network connection devices or network devices are data
communication devices that connect various segment of the
network media that make up the network. A segment is one

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section of a network transmission media that is assigned a
specific address.
1.5.1 Repeaters
A repeater is a device that amplifies or regenerate a signal for
further transmission. Ideally there is a length a signal gets to on
cable and the start to degenerate or attenuate, a repeater is
need at this point to amplify or regenerate the signal for further
or extended transmission. its joins one physical media to
another, will pass broadcast storm but cannot connect different
network topology or access them. Repeater are at the physical
layer of the OSI Model.
1.5.2 Hubs
Hub is basically just an antiquated device that connects wires
together. It is a wiring concentrator for a LAN or WAN that
provides central connecting point. An active hub can connect
multiple media segment and perform the function of a repeater
which is to amplify of regenerate a signal for extended or longer
transmission length. A passive hub cannot perform the function
of a repeater but can only be used to connect multiple media
segment. Hubs operate at the physical layer and simply
broadcast data to all devices connected to them, leading single
collision and broadcast domain which make them to be less
efficient for data transmission compared to switches.

Figure 1.3a Hub

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An ethernet hub or a concentrator is really a multiple-port
repeater. A repeater receives a digital signal, reamplifies or
regenerates that signal, then forwards the signal out the other
port without looking at any data. A hub does the same thing
across all active ports: any digital signal received from a
segment on a hub port is regenerated or reamplified and
transmitted out all other ports on the hub. This means all
devices plugged into a hub are in the same collision domain as
well as in the same broadcast domain. Figure 1.3b shows a
hub in a network and how when one host transmits, all other
hosts must stop and listen.

Figure 1.3b Hub in a network

Hubs, like repeaters, don’t examine any of the traffic as it
enters or before it’s transmitted out to the other parts of the
physical media. And every device connected to the hub, or
hubs, must listen if a device transmits. A physical star network,
where the hub is a central device and cables extend in all
directions out from it, is the type of topology a hub creates.
Visually, the design really does resemble a star, whereas
Ethernet networks run a logical bus topology, meaning that the
signal has to run through the network from end to end.

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1.5.3 Bridges
A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local
area networks) together to form a larger LAN. The process of
aggregating networks is called network bridging. A bridge
connects the different components so that they appear as parts
of a single network. Bridges operate at the data link layer of the
OSI model and hence also referred as Layer 2 switches. Since
they operate at data link layer, they transmit data as data
frames. Figure 1.4 show a diagram of bridge connecting two
LAN.

Figure 1.4 A bridge connecting two LANs

1.5.4 Switches
Switches are more intelligent hubs which contains circuitry that
can quickly routes signal between ports on the switch, as a
result reduce bandwidth wastage because only the device(s)
that needs to receive packet will receive and process them not
the entire network segment. Switch filter traffic through MAC
addresses (the physical addresses of the sending devices). A
Switch receives a transmission and retransmits it using only the
port through which the intended receiver can be reached.

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Switches are layer two devices, which is also known as the
datalink layer. We discuss network layers in chapter eight (8)
when we are discussing about the OSI Model.

Figure 1.5 A Switch

1.5.5 Router
outer is device that moves packets of information from one
network segment to another base on its routing table. It has a
RAM where its routing table is built in. it routes(moves) packets
of information across multiple networks based on the TCP/IP
address of the neighbours which is built on its routing table. It
shares routing information and status with other routers to
provide better traffic management and bypass slow
connections. Routers will not pass broadcast traffic and
unrouteable protocols. Its strips off Data link information to
create packets. They can connect multiple active networks and
are usually slower than bridges because of their complex
natures. Wireless routers are must common nowadays.

Figure 1.6 Routers and Internetworking devices

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Routers operates at the Network layer (layer three) of OSI
model and uses the Network address (IP) to move data through
the best path its destination.
1.5.6 Brouter
Brouter is a device can function as bridge and router, it acts as
a bridge for some specified protocols and routes for other
specified protocols. Brouter functions like routers, relaying data
transmission between networks but when that found a data unit
that uses an unfamiliar protocol, they will work like bridges by
forwarding the data to the next segment by using a physical
address. As a result of this ability brouters can be used in a
network on which there is a mixed protocol traffic and for
networks that uses protocols that does not support routing
1.6 Functions of Some Indirect Equipment
1.6.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)
A physical device that connects computers and other network
equipment to the transmission media, it is a piece of computer
hardware that allows the computer to communicate over the
over a computer network. It is at both the physical and the
datalink layer of the OSI Model. It provides low-level
addressing system through the use of media access control
(MAC) address. It allows users to connect to each other either
by using cables or wirelessly.
Although other network technologies exist. Ethernet has
achieved near-obliquity since the mid-1900s. Every ethernet
(NIC) network card has unique 48-bit serial number called MAC
address which is stored in ROM carried on the card. Every
computer on an ethernet network must have a card with a
unique MAC address.

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This is accomplished by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering (IEEE), which is responsible for
assigning unique MAC address to the vendors of network
interface card.
Before now network card use to be expansion card to plug into
a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the ethernet
standard means that newer computer have a network interface
built the motherboard. These motherboards either have
ethernet capabilities integrated into the motherboard chipset, or
implemented via a low cost dedicated ethernet chip, connected
through the PCI (or newer PCI express bus). A separate
network card is not required unless multiple interfaces are
needed or some other type of network is used. Newer
motherboards may even have dual network(ethernet)
interfaces built in.
The card implements the electronic circuitry required to
communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer
standard such as ethernet or token ring. This provides a base
for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication
among small group of computers on the same LAN and large-
scale network communications through routable protocols such
as IP. There are four techniques used to transfer data. The NIC
may use one or more of these techniques.
• Polling is where the microprocessor examines the
status the peripheral under program control.
• Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts
the designated peripheral by applying its address to
the system’s address bus.

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 • Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts
microprocessor that it’s ready to transfer data.
• DMA is where the intelligent peripheral assumes
control of the system bus to access memory directly.
This removes load from the CPU but requires a
separate processor for on the card.
A network card typically has an RJ45, BNC, or AUI socket
where the network cable is connected, and a few LEDs to tell
the status of the network card, whether or not data is being
transmitted on it. Network cards are usually available in
10/10/1000 Megabit per second (Mbps). This means it can
support a transfer rate of 10 or 100 or 1000 Mbps.
Some notable manufactures of NIC are: Realtek, Dell,
Broadcom ASIX Electronics, AMD, Beelkin, 3COM, Intel,
Novel, Cisco, Netgear, VIA Networking, Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) etc.
1.6.2 Line Drivers
Line Driver is a device that can use installed twisted-pair phone
lines or leased lines to connect terminals to servers in different
parts of a building or in different buildings. A line driver is
essentially a combination of a signal converter and an amplifier
for digital signals. The signal converter performs line
conditioning, and the amplifier increases the signal strength.
Also called a “short-haul” device, a line driver allows a signal
produced by a serial transmission device using an interface
such as RS-232 to be carried over a longer distance than the
interface standard allows, which for RS-232 is only 15 meters.
Line drivers are always used in pairs. One line driver is placed

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at the local site and is connected to the terminal, while the
other is located at the remote site and is connected to the
server. Line drivers are typically used to extend the maximum
distance of serial communication protocols such as RS-232,
V.35, X.21, and G.703 and can provide either synchronous or
asynchronous communication in various vendor
implementations. Considerations for line driver type include full-
duplex or half-duplex communication, 2-wire or 4-wire cabling
options, and various kinds of connectors.
The most common type of line driver uses an RS-232 serial
interface for synchronous transmission of data over installed 4-
wire telephone cabling. These line drivers can extend the
maximum distance of RS-232 serial transmission from 15
meters to several kilometres.
For intrabuilding connections using line drivers, copper
unshielded twisted-pair cabling or the installed telephone lines
are typically used. For interbuilding connections, fiber-optic
cabling is preferred.

Figure 1.7 The Line Driver

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Line drivers are available for almost every kind of
communication mode, from 19.2-Kbps RS-232 serial line
drivers over 6 kilometers to 2-Mbps single-mode fiber-optic line
drivers over 18 kilometers. Line drivers for parallel connections
can extend parallel transmission of data from about 6 meters to
several kilometers. Line drivers are also used in
implementation of T1 lines.
1.6.2 Modem:
Modem is use to modulate and demodulate signals. It
modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to
decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a
signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce
the original digital data. Modem can be used over any means
of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio.
A good example of modem is the voiceband modem that turns
the digital 1s and 0s of a personal computer into sounds that
can be transmitted over the telephone lines of Plain Old
Telephone System (POTS), and once received on the other
side, converts those 1s and 0s back into form used by USB,
Ethernet, serial or network connection. Modems are classified
by the amount of data they can send at a given time which is
usually measured in bit per second(bps). They also can be
classified by the number of times the modem changes its signal
state per second which is referred to as baud. Baud is not
speed of modem in bps but in symbols per second(sps). The
baud rate varies depending of the modulation techniques used.
Original Bell 103 Modem used a modulation technique that saw
a change in the state 300 times per second, they transmit 1bit

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for every baud and so a 300bps modem was also a 300-baud
modem. This concept is usually confusing because its only the
300-bit modem that as it matching with its baud rate. Other
modem like the 2400bit modem changes state 600times per
second due to the fact that it transmits 4 bits for each baud,
2400 bits are transmitted by 600 times baud, or changes in
states. As the need for speed of data communication increase
faster modem like ADSL were developed. In
telecommunication, “radio modem” transmit repeating frames of
data at a very high data rates over microwave radio links.
Some microwave modem transmits more than a hundred
million bit per second. Optical modem transmit data over optical
fibers. Most intercontinental data link now use optical modems
transmitting over undersea optical fibers cables. Optical
modem routinely has data in excess of a billion (1x109) bit per
second (kbps or kbit/s or kb/s). for example, a 56k modem can
transfer data at up to 56,000 bits (7kB) per second over the
phone line.
A standard modem of today contains two functional parts; an
analog section for generating the signals and operating the
phone, and digital section for setup and control. This
functionality is actually incorporated into the single chip, but the
division remains in theory. In operation the modem can be in
one of two “modes”, data mode in which data is sent to and
from the computer over the phone line and the command mode
in which the mode listens to the data from the computer for
commands, and carries them out. A typical session consists of
powering the modem (often inside the computer itself) which
automatically assumes command mode, then sending it the
command for dialling a number.

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After the connection is established to the remote modem, the
modem automatically goes into data mode, and the user can
send and receive data. When the user is finished, the escape
sequence, “+++” followed by a pause of about a second, is
sent to the modem to return it to command mode, and the
command ATH to hang up the phone is sent.
The command themselves are typically from the Hayes
command set, although that term is somewhat misleading. The
original Hayes commands were useful for 300 bit/s operations
only, and then extended for their 1200 bit/s modems. Faster
speeds required new commands, leading to a proliferation of
command sets in the early 1990s. Things became considerably
more standardised in the second half of the 1990s, when most
modems were built from one of a very small numbers “chip
set”. We call this the Hayes command set even today, although
it has three or four times the numbers of command as the
actual standard.
The 300bit/s modem use frequency-shift keying to send data.
In this system the stream of 1s and 0s in computer data is
translated into sound which can be easily sent on the phone
lines. In the Bell 103 system the original modem sends 0s by
playing a 1070Hz tone, and 1s at 1270Hz, with the answering
model putting its 0s on 2025Hz and 1s on 2225Hz. These
frequencies were chosen carefully, they are in the range that
suffer minimum distortion on the phone system, and also are
not harmonies on each other.
In 2000 bit/s and faster system, phase-shift keying was used.
In this system the two tones for anyone side of the connection
are sent at similar frequencies as in the 300bit/s system, but
slightly out of phase. By comparing the phase of the two

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signals, 1s and 0s could be pulled back out, for instance if the
signals where 90 degrees out of phase, this represented two
digits, “1,0”, at 180 degrees it was “1,1”. In this way each cycle
of the signal represents two digits instead of one. 1200bit/s
modems were in effect, 600 symbols per second modems (600
baud modems) with 2 bit per symbol.
Voiceband modem generally remained at 300 and 1200bit/s
(V.21 and V.22) into the mid-1980s. A V.22bis 2400bit/s system
similar in concepts to the 1200bit/s. Bell 212 signalling was
introduced in the US., and a slightly different one in Europe. by
the late 1980s, most modems could support all of these
standards and 2400bit/s operation was becoming common.
1.6.3 Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU)
CSU/DSU stands for Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit,
is a digital communications device that combines the functions
of both a Channel Service Unit (CSU) and a Data Service Unit
(DSU). These devices lie between the telephone company
network and the customer network at the demarcation point
and are the local interfaces between the data terminal
equipment (DTE) at the customer premises and the telco’s
digital communications line (such as a T1 line), as shown in
figure 1.8.

CSU/DSUs essentially function as the digital counterpart to

analog modems. They are typically external units that look
similar to an external modem, but they can also come in sizes
that can be mounted in a rack. Unlike analog modems,
CSU/DSUs do not perform signal conversion because the
signal at both ends is already digital. CSU/DSUs package
digital data into a format suitable for the particular digital

23
transmission line they are servicing, and buffer and rate-adapt
digital signals going to and from the telephone company
network. CSU/DSUs ensure that data frames are properly
formed and timed for the telephone company network and
provide a protective barrier to electrical disturbances that can
harm customer premises equipment (CPE).

Figure 1.8 CSU/DSU

Digital lines usually terminate at customer premises with four-
wire connections having various connector types, including RJ-
45, four-screw terminal blocks, and M-block connectors (used
for V.35 interfaces). The four-wire connection is joined to the
appropriate connector on the CSU/DSU. The CSU/DSU
typically adjusts itself to the line speed of the digital data
service (DDS) line using an autosensing feature.
The customer’s CSU/DSU then connects directly to the
customer’s router, and from there connects to the customer’s
network. At the other end of the DDS line at the central office
(CO), the telco has a similar CSU that interfaces with a
multiplexer to feed into the carrier’s backbone network.
CSU/DSUs was a generic expression to name the device
responsible for the connection to the telecommunication

24
network, and the device responsible for managing the interface
with the DTE. A CSU/DSU is the equivalent of the modem for
an entire LAN.

1.7 Review Questions

1. Define the following terms: Data, Communication and
Data Communication.
2. Itemise the relevance of data communication discuss
any four of them.
3. With the aid of diagram, explain components of data
communication system.
4. Highlights any 5 examples of resources that can be
share in a networks

25
 CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER NETWORKING CONCEPTS
Computer network is interconnectivity of two or more computer
system for purpose of sharing data. A computer network is a
communication system much like a telephone system, any
connected device can use the network to send and receive
information. In essence a computer network consists of two or
more computers connected to each other so that they can
share resources. Networking arose from the need to share
resources in a timely fashion.

Sharing expensive peripherals is often promoted as the primary

reason to network. But this is not a sufficient reason. In
considering the cost benefits of sharing, we find some
impressive arguments against networking. With today more
affordable technology, we can easily dedicate inexpensive
peripherals and not bother with a network. Desktops and
laptops are getting less expensive as their capacities increase.
As a result, the local hard disk is becoming common place and
is frequently dedicated to a local desktop or laptop. Flash
drives and external hard disks now has enough storage for
uses.

2.1 Why computer networking

Computer networking is a fundamental aspect of modern
technology and communication that revolves around the
interconnection of various computing devices to enable them to
share resources, exchange information, and collaborate. This
interconnectedness allows computers, servers, smartphones,
tablets, and other devices to communicate and interact
seamlessly, regardless of their physical location. The primary
motivations behind computer networking include:

26
1. Resource Sharing: Computer networks facilitate the
sharing of resources such as files, printers, and
databases. This sharing optimizes resource utilization,
reduces redundancy, and enhances efficiency.
2. Data Exchange: Networks enable the rapid and
efficient exchange of data and information among
devices. This is crucial for tasks ranging from sending
emails and instant messages to transferring large files
and collaborating on projects.
3. Remote Access: Networks allow users to remotely
access resources and services located on other
devices or servers. This is particularly important for
remote work, accessing cloud-based services, and
managing servers from afar.
4. Communication: Networks provide the infrastructure
for various communication methods, including emails,
voice calls, video conferencing, and social media.
These communication channels have revolutionized
how individuals and businesses interact.
5. Centralized Management: In business settings,
networks facilitate centralized management of
resources and user accounts. This makes it easier for
administrators to control access, enforce security
policies, and perform updates across multiple devices.
6. Internet Access: The global network of networks
known as the internet is the pinnacle of computer
networking. It connects billions of devices worldwide,
enabling access to a vast repository of information,
services, and entertainment.
7. Economic Benefits: Networking offers economic
advantages through cost savings. Instead of
purchasing dedicated resources for each device, a

27
 network allows sharing, leading to reduced hardware
costs and operational expenses.
8. Scalability: Computer networks can be scaled up to
accommodate growth in users, devices, and data. This
scalability is essential for businesses and organizations
that experience expansion over time.
9. Collaboration and Teamwork: Networks enable
collaborative work environments where individuals
from different locations can collaborate on projects in
real time, leading to increased productivity and
innovation.
10. Data Backup and Recovery: Networks facilitate
automated data backup and recovery processes. Data
can be centrally stored and backed up, reducing the
risk of data loss due to hardware failures or disasters.
11. Entertainment and Media: Networks are the
foundation for streaming services, online gaming,
social media platforms, and other forms of digital
entertainment.
computer networking underpins the modern digital landscape,
enabling seamless communication, resource sharing, and
collaboration across devices and geographical boundaries. It
plays a crucial role in both personal and professional contexts,
contributing to increased efficiency, productivity, and
connectivity in today's interconnected world.
2.2 Network Protocol and Standards
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities
in different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or
receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send
bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.

28
2.2.1 Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing.
Syntax: - The term syntax refers to the structure or format of
the data, meaning the order in which they are presented. For
example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
Semantics: - The word semantics refers to the meaning of
each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route
to be taken or the final destination of the message?
Timing: - The term timing refers to two characteristics: when
data should be sent and how fast they can be sent. For
example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
2.2.2 Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open
and competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards
provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications.

29
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto
(meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning
"by law" or "by regulation").
De facto: - Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are
often established originally by manufacturers who seek to
define the functionality of a new product or technology.
De jure: - Those standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body are de jure standards
2.2.3 Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards
creation committees, forums, and government regulatory
agencies.

Standards Creation Committees

While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of
standards, data telecommunications in North America rely
primarily on those published by the following:
1. International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). The ISO is a multinational body whose
membership is drawn mainly from the standards
creation committees of various governments
throughout the world. The ISO is active in developing
cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological,
and economic activity.
2. International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T). By
the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining
national standards for telecommunications, but there
was still little international compatibility. The United

30
 Nations responded by forming, as part of its
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a
committee, the Consultative Committee for
International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). This
committee was devoted to the research and
establishment of standards for telecommunications in
general and for phone and data systems in particular.
On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was
changed to the International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Despite its name, the American National Standards
Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation
not affiliated with the U.S. federal government.
However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the
welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying
primary importance.
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers is the largest professional engineering
society in the world. International in scope, it aims to
advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio
as well as in all related branches of engineering. As
one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development
and adoption of international standards for computing
and communications.
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Aligned with
ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association is a non-
profit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities
include public awareness education and lobbying

31
 efforts in addition to standards development. In the
field of information technology, the EIA has made
significant contributions by defining physical
connection interfaces and electronic signalling
specifications for data communication.
2.3 Types of Networks
There are several different types of computer networks.
Computer networks can be characterized by their size as well
as their purpose. The size of a network can be expressed by
the geographic area they occupy and number of computers that
are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a
handful of devices within a single room to millions of devices
spread across the entire globe.

2.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

A PAN is the interconnection of information technology devices
within the range of an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters. For example, a person traveling with a laptop, a
personal digital assistant (PDA), and a portable printer could
interconnect them without having to plug anything in, using
some form of wireless technology. Typically, this kind of
personal area network could also be interconnected without
wires to the Internet or other networks. PANs can be used for
communication among the personal devices themselves
(intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher
level network and the Internet (an uplink). However, it is
possible to have multiple individuals using this same network
within a residence. If this is the case we can refer to the
network as Home Area network (HAN). In this type of setup, all
the devices are connected together using both

32
Figure 2.1 Personal Area Network
wired and/or wireless. All networked devices can be connected
to a single modem as a gateway to the Internet. See figure 2.1.
2.3.2
3 Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of
an organization and type of technology used, a LAN can be as
simple as two desktops and a printer in someone‟s home
office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few
kilometers. In addition to the size, LANs are distinguished from
other types of networks by their transmission media and
topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type of
transmission medium. LANs are designed to allow resources to
be shared between personal computers or workstations. Early
LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 mega-bits-per-seconds
(Mbps). Today, however, speeds are normally 100Mbps or
1000Mbps. Wireless LANs (WLAN) are the newest evolution in
LAN technology. See figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Local Area Network

33
2.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size
between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside
a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good example of
a MAN is part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.

Figure 2.3 Metropolitan area Network

2.3.4 Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over
large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be as complex
as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a
dial-up line that connects a home computer to the internet. We
normally refer to the first one as a switched WAN and to the
second as a point-to-point WAN.3

The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually

comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that

34
connects to another LAN or WAN. The point-to-point WAN is
normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider
that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an internet
service provider (ISP). A good example of a switched WAN is
X.25, the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. See
figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Wide Area Network

2.4 Network Topologies
The term topology in computer networking refers to the way in
which a network is laid out physically. Two or more devices
connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. The cost and flexibility of a network
installation are partly affected by as is system reliability. Many
network topologies are commonly used, but they all have
certain similarities. Information is carried either through space
(wireless) or cable. The cable must control the movement of
information on the network so that data can be transmitted in a

35
reliable manner. There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring. See Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Network Topology

2.4.1 Bus Topology

The Bus topology consists of a single cable that runs to every
work-station. See figure 10. The bus topology is also known as
linear bus. In other words, all the nodes (computers and
servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by the
help of interface connectors. This central cable is the back
bone of the network and every workstation communicates with
the other device through this bus.

Figure 2.5 Bus Topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by
addressing data to a particular computer and putting that data
on the cable in the form of electronic signals. To understand
how computers communicate on a bus you need to be familiar
with three concepts:
1. Sending the signal: Network data in the form of electronic
signals is sent to all of the computers on the network;

36
however, the information is accepted only by the computer
whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal. Only one computer at a time can send
messages. Because only one computer at a time can send
data on a bus network, network performance is affected by
the number of computers attached to the bus. The more
computers on a bus, the more computers there will be
waiting to put data on the bus, and the slower the network.
There is no standard measure for the impact of numbers of
computers on any given network. The amount the network
slows down is not solely related to the number of
computers on the network. It depends on numerous factors
including:
• Hardware capacities of computers on the network
• Number of times computers on the network transmit
data
• Type of applications being run on the network
• Types of cable used on the network
• Distance between computers on the network
The bus is a passive topology. Computers on a bus only
listen for data being sent on the network. They are not
responsible for moving data from one computer to the
next. If one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network. In active topology computers regenerate signals
and move data along the network.
2. Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic
signal, is sent to the entire network, it will travel from
one end of the cable to the other. If the signal were
allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would keep
bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent

37
 other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the
signal must be stopped.
3. The Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a
component called a terminator is placed at each end of
the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal
clears the cable so that other computers can send
data. Every cable end on the network must be plugged
into something. For example, a cable end could be
plugged into a computer or a connector to extend the
cable length. Any open cable ends-ends not plugged
into something – must be terminated to prevent signal
bounce.
In bus topology nodes are connected to the bus cable
by drop lines and taps. See figure 11. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main
cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to
create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal
travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker
and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this
reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can
support and on the distance between those taps.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
2. Cable length required for this topology is the
least compared to other networks.
3. Bus topology very cheap.
4. Linear Bus network is mostly used in small
networks.

38
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. There is a limit on central cable length and number
of nodes that can be connected.
2. Dependency on central cable in this topology has
its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus)
encounters some problem, whole network breaks
down.
3. Proper termination is required to dump signals.
Use of terminators is must.
4. It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at
individual station.
5. Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
6. Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number
of devices connected to it increases.
7. It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8. Security is very low because all the computers
receive the sent signal from the source.
2.4.2. Ring Topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of
cable. There are no terminated ends. A ring topology connects
one host to the next and the last host to the first. The signal
travels around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer. Unlike the passive bus topology, each computer acts
like a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next
computer. Because the signal passes through each computer,
the failure of one computer can impact the entire network.

39
Figure 2.7 Ring Topology
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token
passing. The token is passed from computer to computer until it
gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending
computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the
data, and sends it around the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. This type of network topology is very organized. Each
node gets to send the data when it receives an empty
token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also,
in ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction
at very high speed.
2. Even when the load on the network increases, its
performance is better than that of Bus topology.
3. There is no need for network server to control the
connectivity between workstations.
4. Additional components do not affect the performance
of network.
5. Each computer has equal access to resources.

40
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Each packet of data must pass through all the
computers between source and destination. This
makes it slower than Star topology.
2. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire
network gets affected.
3. Network is highly dependent on the wire which
connects different components.
4. MAU‟s and network cards are expensive as compared
to Ethernet cards and hubs.
2.4.3. Star Topology
In the star topology, computers are connected by cable
segments to centralized component, called a hub or switch.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the
hub or switch to all computers on the network. This topology
originated in the early days of computing with computers
connected to a centralized mainframe computer. It is now a
common topology in microcomputer networking. Each device
has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one
another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an
exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device (see Figure 2.8)
The star network offers centralized resources and
management. However, because each computer is connected
to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of cable in
a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the
entire network goes down.
Figure 2.8: Star Topology

41
Figure 2.8: Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

1. As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better
performance, signals don‟t necessarily get transmitted
to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the
intended destination after passing through no more
than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance of the
network is dependent on the capacity of central hub.
2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology
new nodes can be added easily without affecting rest
of the network. Similarly components can also be
removed easily.
3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the
network.
4. Failure of one node or link doesn‟t affect the rest of
network. At the same time it is easy to detect the
failure and troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Too much dependency on central device has its own
drawbacks. If it fails whole network goes down.

42
 2. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device
increases the overall cost of the network.
3. Performance and as well number of nodes which can
be added in such topology is depended on capacity of
central device.
2.4.4 Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. In a
mesh topology, Node1 must be connected to n-1 nodes, node2
must be connected to (n – 1) nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to (n – 1) nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. In
other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n-
1)/2 .

Figure 2.9 Mesh topology

To accommodate many links, every device on the network
must have (n – 1) input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to
the (n – 1) stations as shown in Figure above. For these
reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a

43
hybrid network that can include several other topologies. One
practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of
telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs
to be connected to every other regional office.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices
simultaneously. This topology can withstand high
traffic.
2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an
alternative present. So, data transfer doesn’t get
affected.
3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done
without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the
network connections.
2. Overall cost of this network is way too high as
compared to other network topologies.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very
difficult. Even administration of the network is tough.
2.4.5 Hybrid Topology
Before starting about Hybrid topology, we saw that a network
topology is a connection of various links and nodes,
communicating with each other for transfer of data. We also
saw various advantages and disadvantages of Star, Bus, Ring,
Mesh. Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two different
things. Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or
more different topologies to form a resultant topology which has
good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic
topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific

44
topology. This combination of topologies is done according to
the requirements of the organization. For example, if there is an
existing ring topology in one office department while a bus
topology in another department, connecting these two will
result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting two similar
topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and
Star-Bus networks are most common examples of hybrid
network. (See figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9 Hybrid Network

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
1. Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and
troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. The
part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the
rest of network and required corrective measures can
be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of
the network.
2. Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by
adding new components, without disturbing existing
architecture.
3. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to
the requirements of the organization and by optimizing
the available resources. Special care can be given to
nodes where traffic is high as well as where chances of
fault are high.

45
 4. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or
more topologies, so we can design it in such a way that
strengths of constituent topologies are maximized
while their weaknesses are neutralized. For example,
we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability
(achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high
tolerance capability (as each node is not directly
connected to other but through central device), so
these two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring
topology.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of
hybrid topology is its design. It is not easy to design
this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process
needs to be very efficient.
2. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct
networks, are very expensive. These hubs are different
from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough
to work with different architectures and should be
function even if a part of network is down.
3. Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are
usually larger in scale, they require a lot of cables;
cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

2.5 Review Questions

1. Define the following:
a. key element of protocol.
b. Define two types of standards.
2. Enumerates five components of a data
communications system

46
3. Describe the role of the following standards creation
committee.
a. International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
b. International Telecommunication Union
c. American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
d. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE).
4. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective
and efficient network?
5. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line
configuration.
6. Name the four basic network topologies, and cite an
advantage of each type.
7. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable
links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology?
8. What are some of the factors that determine whether a
communication system is a LAN or WAN?
9. Assuming you get a job as a network engineer in a
multinational company that has five (5) regional station
that must be interconnected with others for smooth
operation of the organization. The company is about to
network the regional offices together. Each physical
link must allow communication in both directions. Use
the knowledge acquired in this course to advice the
management of the company based on the following:
a. Recommend the most suitable Network
topology for the organization.
b. Give detail explanation of the recommended
Topology.

47
c. Illustrate the explanation in (b) with a diagram
to show the interconnectivity of the five (5)
regional offices.
d. Explain four (4) major advantages of the
recommended topology.

48
 CHAPTER THREE
COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
When networks first came into being, computers could typically
communicate only with computers from the same
manufacturer, for example, companies ran either a complete
DECnet solution or an IBM solution, never both together. In the
late 1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was created by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) to break through this barrier. The OSI
model was meant to help vendors create interoperable network
devices and software in the form of protocols so that different
vendor networks could work in peaceable accord with each
other. Like world peace, it’ll probably never happen completely,
but it’s still a great goal.

The OSI model is the primary architectural model for networks.

It describes how data and network information are
communicated from an application on one computer through
the network media to an application on another computer. The
OSI reference model breaks this approach into layers which
help greatly when troubleshooting our internetworks.

3.1.1 The Layered Approach

Understand that a reference model is a conceptual blueprint of
how communications should take place. It addresses all the
processes required for effective communication and divides
them into logical groupings called layers. When a
communication system is designed in this manner, it’s known
as a hierarchical or layered architecture. Think of it like this:
You and some friends want to start a company. One of the first
things you’ll do is sort out every task that must be done and
decide who will do what. You would move on to determine the

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order in which you would like everything to be done with careful
consideration of how all your specific operations relate to each
other. You would then organize everything into departments
(e.g., sales, inventory, and shipping), with each department
dealing with its specific responsibilities and keeping its own
staff busy enough to focus on their own particular area of the
enterprise.

In this scenario, departments are a metaphor for the layers in a

communication system. For things to run smoothly, the staff of
each department has to trust in and rely heavily upon those in
the others to do their jobs well. During planning sessions, you
would take notes, recording the entire process to guide later
discussions and clarify standards of operation, thereby creating
your business blueprint—your own reference model.

And once your business is launched, your department heads,

each armed with the part of the blueprint relevant to their own
department, will develop practical ways to implement their
distinct tasks. These practical methods, or protocols, will then
be compiled into a standard operating procedures manual and
followed closely because each procedure will have been
included for different reasons, delimiting their various degrees
of importance and implementation. All of this will become vital if
you form a partnership or acquire another company because
then it will be really important that the new company’s business
model is compatible with yours!
Models happen to be really important to software developers
too. They often use a reference model to understand computer
communication processes so they can determine which
functions should be accomplished on a given layer. This means
that if someone is creating a protocol for a certain layer, they

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only need to be concerned with their target layer’s function.
Software that maps to another layer’s protocols and is
specifically designed to be deployed there will handle additional
functions. The technical term for this idea is binding. The
communication processes that are related to each other are
bound, or grouped together, at a particular layer.

3.1.2 Advantages of Reference Models

The OSI model is hierarchical, and there are many advantages
that can be applied to any layered model. But as I said, the OSI
model’s primary purpose is to allow different vendors’ networks
to interoperate.
Here’s a list of some of the more important benefits of using the
OSI layered model:
1. It divides the network communication process into
smaller and simpler components, facilitating
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
2. It allows multiple-vendor development through the
standardization of network components.
3. It encourages industry standardization by clearly
defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model.
4. It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
5. It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers to expedite development.
3.2 The OSI Reference Model
One of best gifts the OSI specifications give us is paving the
way for the data transfer between disparate hosts running
different operating systems, like Unix hosts, Windows
machines, Macs, smartphones, and so on.

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And remember, the OSI is a logical model, not a physical one.
It’s essentially a set of guidelines that developers can use to
create and implement applications to run on a network. It also
provides a framework for creating and implementing networking
standards, devices, and internetworking schemes.

The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups.
The top three layers define how the applications within the end
stations will communicate with each other as well as with users.
The bottom four layers define how data is transmitted end to
end. Figure 3.1 shows the three upper layers and their
functions.

Figure 3.1 The upper layers

When looking at Figure 3.1, understand that users interact with

the computer at the Application layer and also that the upper
layers are responsible for applications communicating between
hosts. None of the upper layers knows anything about
networking or network addresses because that’s the
responsibility of the four bottom layers.

In Figure 3.2, which shows the four lower layers and their
functions, you can see that it’s these four bottom layers that
define how data is transferred through physical media like wire,
cable, fiber optics, switches, and routers.

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Figure 3.2 The lower layers

These bottom layers also determine how to rebuild a data

stream from a transmitting host to a destination host’s
application.

The following network devices operate at all seven layers of

the OSI model:
• Network management stations (NMSs)
• Web and application servers
• Gateways (not default gateways)
• Servers
• Network hosts
Basically, the ISO is pretty much the Emily Post of the network
protocol world. Just as Ms. Post wrote the book setting the
standards—or protocols—for human social interaction, the ISO
developed the OSI reference model as the precedent and
guide for an open network protocol set. Defining the etiquette
of communication models, it remains the most popular means
of comparison for protocol suites today.

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The OSI reference model has the following seven layers:
• Application layer (layer 7)
• Presentation layer (layer 6)
• Session layer (layer 5)
• Transport layer (layer 4)
• Network layer (layer 3)
• Data Link layer (layer 2)
• Physical layer (layer 1)
Some people like to use a mnemonic to remember the seven
layers, such as All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
Figure 3.3 shows a summary of the functions defined at each
layer of the OSI model.

Figure 3.3 OSI layer functions

I’ve separated the seven-layer model into three different

functions: the upper layers, the middle layers, and the bottom
layers. The upper layers communicate with the user interface

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and application, the middle layers handle reliable
communication and routing to a remote network, and the
bottom layers communicate to the local network. With this in
mind, you’re now ready to explore each layer’s function in
detail.

3.3 The Application Layer

The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where
users actually communicate to the computer and comes into
play only when it’s clear that access to the network will be
needed soon. Take the case of Internet Explorer (IE). You
could actually uninstall every trace of networking components
like TCP/IP, the NIC card, and so on and still use IE to view a
local HTML document. But things would get ugly if you tried to
do things like view a remote HTML document that must be
retrieved because IE and other browsers act on these types of
requests by attempting to access the Application layer. So
basically, the Application layer is working as the interface
between the actual application program and the next layer
down by providing ways for the application to send information
down through the protocol stack. This isn’t actually part of the
layered structure, because browsers don’t live in the
Application layer, but they interface with it as well as the
relevant protocols when asked to access remote resources.
Identifying and confirming the communication partner’s
availability and verifying the required resources to permit the
specified type of communication to take place also occurs at
the Application layer. This is important because, like the lion’s
share of browser functions, computer applications sometimes
need more than desktop resources. It’s more typical than you
would think for the communicating components of several
network applications to come together to carry out a requested

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function. Here are a few good examples of these kinds of
events:
• Web Browsing
• File transfers
• E mail
• Enabling remote access
• Network management activities
• Client/server processes
• Information location
Many network applications provide services for
communication over enterprise networks, but for present and
future internetworking, the need is fast developing to reach
beyond the limits of current physical networking.

3.4 The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose: It
presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for
data translation and code formatting. Think of it as the OSI
model’s translator, providing coding and conversion services.
One very effective way of ensuring a successful data transfer
is to convert the data into a standard format before
transmission. Computers are configured to receive this
generically formatted data and then reformat it back into its
native state to read it. An example of this type of translation
service occurs when translating old Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) data to ASCII, the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (Often
pronounced “askee”). So just remember that by providing
translation services, the Presentation layer ensures that data
transferred from the Application layer of one system can be
read by the Application layer of another one.

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With this in mind, it follows that the OSI would include
protocols that defi ne how standard data should be formatted,
so key functions like data compression, decompression,
encryption, and decryption are also associated with this layer.
Some Presentation layer standards are involved in multimedia
operations as well.

3.5 The Session Layer

The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and
dismantling sessions between Presentation layer entities and
keeping user data separate. Dialog control between devices
also occurs at this layer.

Communication between hosts’ various applications at the

Session layer, as from a client to a server, is coordinated and
organized via three different modes: simplex, half-duplex, and
full-duplex. Simplex is simple one-way communication, kind of
like saying something and not getting a reply. Half-duplex is
actual two-way communication, but it can take place in only
one direction at a time, preventing the interruption of the
transmitting device. It’s like when pilots and ship captains
communicate over their radios, or even a walkie-talkie. But full-
duplex is exactly like a real conversation where devices can
transmit and receive at the same time, much like two people
arguing or interrupting each other during a telephone
conversation.

3.6 The Transport Layer

The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a
single data stream. Services located at this layer take all the
various data received from upper-layer applications, then
combine it into the same, concise data stream. These

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protocols provide end-to-end data transport services and can
establish a logical connection between the sending host and
destination host on an internetwork.

A pair of well-known protocols called TCP and UDP are

integral to this layer, for now, understand that although both
work at the Transport layer, TCP is known as a reliable service
but UDP is not. This distinction gives application developers
more options because they have a choice between the two
protocols when they are designing products for this layer.

The Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms

for multiplexing upper layer applications, establishing sessions,
and tearing down virtual circuits. It can also hide the details of
network-dependent information from the higher layers as well
as provide transparent data transfer. The Transport layer can
be either connectionless or connection-oriented.

3.6.1 Connection-Oriented Communication

For reliable transport to occur, a device that wants to transmit
must first establish a connection-oriented communication
session with a remote device—its peer system—known as a
call setup or a three-way handshake. Once this process is
complete, the data transfer occurs, and when it’s finished, a
call termination takes place to tear down the virtual circuit.

Figure 3.4 depicts a typical reliable session taking place

between sending and receiving systems. In it, you can see that
both hosts’ application programs begin by notifying their
individual operating systems that a connection is about to be
initiated. The two operating systems communicate by sending
messages over the network confirming that the transfer is

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approved and that both sides are ready for it to take place.
After all of this required synchronization takes place, a
connection is fully established and the data transfer begins.
And by the way, it’s really helpful to understand that this virtual
circuit setup is often referred to as overhead!

Figure 3.4 Establishing a connection-oriented session

Okay, now while the information is being transferred between
hosts, the two machines periodically check in with each other,
communicating through their protocol software to ensure that
all is going well and that the data is being received properly.
Here’s a summary of the steps in the connection-oriented
session—that three-way handshake—pictured in Figure 3.3
• The first “connection agreement” segment is a request
for synchronization (SYN).
• The next segments acknowledge (ACK) the request and
establish connection parameters— the rules—between
hosts. These segments request that the receiver’s
sequencing is synchronized here as well so that a
bidirectional connection can be formed.

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 • The final segment is also an acknowledgment, which
notifies the destination host that the connection
agreement has been accepted and that the actual
connection has been established. Data transfer can now
begin.

Sounds pretty simple, but things don’t always flow so

smoothly. Sometimes during a transfer, congestion can occur
because a high-speed computer is generating data traffic a lot
faster than the network itself can process it. And a whole
bunch of computers simultaneously sending datagrams
through a single gateway or destination can also jam things up
pretty badly. In the latter case, a gateway or destination can
become congested even though no single source caused the
problem. Either way, the problem is basically akin to a freeway
bottleneck—too much traffic for too small a capacity. It’s not
usually one car that’s the problem; it’s just that there are way
too many cars on that freeway at once!
But what actually happens when a machine receives a flood of
datagrams too quickly for it to process? It stores them in a
memory section called a buffer. Sounds great; it’s just that this
buffering action can solve the problem only if the datagrams
are part of a small burst. If the datagram deluge continues,
eventually exhausting the device’s memory, its flood capacity
will be exceeded and it will dump any and all additional
datagrams it receives like an overflowing bucket!

3.6.2 Flow Control

Since floods and losing data can both be tragic, we have a fail-
safe solution in place known as flow control. Its job is to
ensure data integrity at the Transport layer by allowing
applications to request reliable data transport between

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systems. Flow control prevents a sending host on one side of
the connection from overflowing the buffers in the receiving
host. Reliable data transport employs a connection-oriented
communications session between systems, and the protocols
involved ensure that the following will be achieved:
• The segments delivered are acknowledged back to the
sender upon their reception.
• Any segments not acknowledged are retransmitted.
• Segments are sequenced back into their proper order
upon arrival at their destination.
• A manageable data flow is maintained in order to avoid
congestion, overloading, or worse, data loss.
Because of the transport function, network flood control
systems really work well. Instead of dumping and losing data,
the Transport layer can issue a “not ready” indicator to the
sender, or potential source of the flood. This mechanism works
kind of like a stoplight, signalling the sending device to stop
transmitting segment traffic to its overwhelmed peer. After the
peer receiver processes the segments already in its memory
reservoir, (its buffer), it sends out a “ready” transport indicator.
When the machine waiting to transmit the rest of its datagrams
receives this “go” indicator, it resumes its transmission. This
process is pictured in Figure 3.5
In a reliable, connection-oriented data transfer, datagrams are
delivered to the receiving host hopefully in the same sequence
they’re transmitted. A failure will occur if any data segments are
lost, duplicated, or damaged along the way—a problem solved
by having the receiving host acknowledge that it has received
each and every data segment.

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Figure 3.5 Transmitting segments with flow control
A service is considered connection-oriented if it has the
following characteristics:
• A virtual circuit, or “three-way handshake,” is set up.
• It uses sequencing.
• It uses acknowledgments.
• It uses flow control.

3.6.3 Windowing
Ideally, data throughput happens quickly and efficiently. And
as you can imagine, it would be painfully slow if the
transmitting machine had to actually wait for an
acknowledgment after sending each and every segment! The
quantity of data segments, measured in bytes, that the
transmitting machine is allowed to send without receiving an
acknowledgment is called a window. The size of the window
controls how much information is transferred from one end to
the other before an acknowledgment is required. While some
protocols quantify information depending on the number of
packets, TCP/IP measures it by counting the number of bytes.
As you can see in Figure 3.6 there are two window sizes—one
set to 1 and one set to 3.

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Figure 3.6 Windowing
If you’ve configured a window size of 1, the sending machine
will wait for an acknowledgment for each data segment it
transmits before transmitting another one. A window set to 3
allows three to be transmitted before receiving an
acknowledgment. In this simplified example, both the sending
and receiving machines are workstations. Remember that in
reality, the transmission isn’t based on simple numbers but on
the number of bytes that can be sent.

3.6.4 Acknowledgments
Reliable data delivery ensures the integrity of a stream of data
sent from one machine to the other through a fully functional
data link. It guarantees that the data won’t be duplicated or
lost. This is achieved through something called positive
acknowledgment with retransmission —a technique that
requires a receiving machine to communicate with the
transmitting source by sending an acknowledgment message
back to the sender when it receives data. The sender
documents each segment measured in bytes, then sends and
waits for this acknowledgment before sending the next

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segment. Also important is that when it sends a segment, the
transmitting machine starts a timer and will retransmit if the
timer expires before it gets an acknowledgment back from the
receiving end. Figure 3.7 pictures the process I just described.

Figure 3.7 Transport layer reliable delivery

In the figure, the sending machine transmits segments 1, 2,
and 3. The receiving node acknowledges that it has received
them by requesting segment 4 (what it is expecting next).
When it receives the acknowledgment, the sender then
transmits segments 4, 5, and 6. If segment 5 doesn’t make it to
the destination, the receiving node acknowledges the event
with a request for the segment to be re-sent. The sending
machine will then resend the lost segment and wait for an
acknowledgment, which it must receive in order to move on to
the transmission of segment 7.

The Transport layer, working in tandem with the Session layer,

also separates the data from different applications, an activity
known as session multiplexing, and it happens when a client
connects to a server with multiple browser sessions open. This
is exactly what’s taking place when you go someplace online

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like Amazon and click multiple links, opening them
simultaneously to get information when comparison shopping.
The client data from each browser session must be separate
when the server application receives it, which is pretty slick
technologically speaking, and it’s the Transport layer that
performs the juggling act.

3.7 The Network Layer

The Network layer, or layer 3, manages device addressing,
tracks the location of devices on the network, and determines
the best way to move data. This means that it’s up to the
Network layer to transport traffic between devices that aren’t
locally attached. Routers, which are layer 3 devices, are
specified at this layer and provide the routing services within
an internetwork. Here’s how that works: First, when a packet is
received on a router interface, the destination IP address is
checked. If the packet isn’t destined for that particular router, it
will look up the destination network address in the routing
table. Once the router chooses an exit interface, the packet will
be sent to that interface to be framed and sent out on the local
network. If the router can’t find an entry for the packet’s
destination network in the routing table, the router drops the
packet. Data and route update packets are the two types of
packets used at the Network layer:
3.7.1 Data Packets: These are used to transport user data
through the internetwork. Protocols used to support data traffic
are called routed protocols, and IP and IPv6 are key examples.
3.7.2 Route Update Packets: These packets are used to
update neighbouring routers about the networks connected to
all routers within the internetwork. Protocols that send route
update packets are called routing protocols and the most

65
critical ones are Static Routing and OSPF Single Area. Route
update packets are used to help build and maintain routing
tables. Figure 3.8 shows an example of a routing table. The
routing table each router keeps and refers to includes the
following information:

Figure 3.8 Routing table used in a router

3.7.3 Network Addresses: Protocol-specific network
addresses. A router must maintain a routing table for individual
routing protocols because each routed protocol keeps track of
a network with a different addressing scheme. For example,
the routing tables for IP and IPv6 are completely different, so
the router keeps a table for each one. Think of it as a street
sign in each of the different languages spoken by the
American, Spanish, and French people living on a street; the
street sign would read Cat/Gato/Chat.

Interface The exit interface a packet will take when destined

for a specific network.

Metric The distance to the remote network. Different routing

protocols use different ways of computing this distance.

And as I mentioned earlier, routers break up broadcast

domains, which means that by default, broadcasts aren’t
forwarded through a router. Do you remember why this is a

66
good thing? Routers also break up collision domains, but you
can also do this with layer 2, (Data Link layer), switches.
Because each interface in a router represents a separate
network, it must be assigned unique network identification
numbers, and each host on the network connected to that
router must use the same network number. Figure 3.9 shows
how a router works in an internetwork:

Figure 3.9 A router in an internetwork. Each router LAN

interface is a broadcast domain. Routers break up broadcast
domains by default and provide WAN services.

Here are some router characteristics that you should never

forget:
• Routers, by default, will not forward any broadcast or
multicast packets.
• Routers use the logical address in a Network layer
header to determine the next-hop router to forward the
packet to.
• Routers can use access lists, created by an
administrator, to control security based on the types of
packets allowed to enter or exit an interface.
• Routers can provide layer 2 bridging functions if
needed and can simultaneously route through the
same interface.
• Layer 3 devices—in this case, routers—provide
connections between virtual LANs (VLANs).
• Routers can provide quality of service (QoS) for
specific types of network traffic.

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3.8 The Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer provides for the physical transmission of
data and handles error notification, network topology, and flow
control. This means that the Data Link layer will ensure that
messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using
hardware addresses and will translate messages from the
Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit.

The Data Link layer formats the messages, each called a data
frame, and adds a customized header containing the hardware
destination and source address. This added information forms
a sort of capsule that surrounds the original message in much
the same way that engines, navigational devices, and other
tools were attached to the lunar modules of the Apollo project.
These various pieces of equipment were useful only during
certain stages of space flight and were stripped off the module
and discarded when their designated stage was completed.
The process of data traveling through networks is similar.
Figure 3.10 shows the Data Link layer with the Ethernet and
IEEE specifications. When you check it out, notice that the
IEEE 802.2 standard is used in conjunction with and adds
functionality to the other IEEE standards.

Figure 3.10 Data Link layer

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It’s important for you to understand that routers, which work at
the Network layer, don’t care at all about where a particular
host is located. They’re only concerned about where networks
are located and the best way to reach them—including remote
ones. Routers are totally obsessive when it comes to networks,
which in this case is a good thing. It’s the Data Link layer that’s
responsible for the actual unique identification of each device
that resides on a local network. For a host to send packets to
individual hosts on a local network as well as transmit packets
between routers, the Data Link layer uses hardware
addressing. Each time a packet is sent between routers, it’s
framed with control information at the Data Link layer, but that
information is stripped off at the receiving router and only the
original packet is left completely intact. This framing of the
packet continues for each hop until the packet is finally
delivered to the correct receiving host. It’s also really important
to understand that the packet itself is never altered along the
route; it’s only encapsulated with the type of control information
required for it to be properly passed on to the different media
types. The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer has two sublayers:

3.8.1 Media Access Control (MAC) Defines how packets

are placed on the media. Contention for media access is “first
come/first served” access where everyone shares the same
bandwidth—hence the name. Physical addressing is defined
here as well as logical topologies. What’s a logical topology?
It’s the signal path through a physical topology. Line discipline,
error notification (but not correction), the ordered delivery of
frames, and optional flow control can also be used at this
sublayer.
3.8.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) Responsible for
identifying Network layer protocols and then encapsulating

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them. An LLC header tells the Data Link layer what to do with
a packet once a frame is received. It works like this: A host
receives a frame and looks in the LLC header to find out where
the packet is destined—for instance, the IP protocol at the
Network layer. The LLC can also provide flow control and
sequencing of control bits.

The switches and bridges we talk about both work at the Data
Link layer and filter the network using hardware (MAC)
addresses.

Bridges and switches read each frame as it passes through the

network. The layer 2 device then puts the source hardware
address in a filter table and keeps track of which port the frame
was received on. This information—logged in the bridge’s or
switch’s filter table—is what helps the machine determine the
location of the specific sending device. Figure 3.11 shows a
switch in an internetwork and demonstrates John sending
packets to the Internet. Sally doesn’t hear his frames because
she’s in a different collision domain.

Figure 3.11 A switch in an internetwork

The destination frame goes directly to the default gateway
router, and Sally doesn’t see John’s traffic, much to her relief.
The real estate business is all about location, location,
location, and it’s the same way for both layer 2 and layer 3
devices. Though both need to be able to negotiate the

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network, it’s crucial to remember that they’re concerned with
very different parts of it. Primarily, layer 3 machines (such as
routers) need to locate specific networks, whereas layer 2
machines (switches and bridges) need to eventually locate
specific devices. So, networks are to routers as individual
devices are to switches and bridges. Similarly, routing tables
that “map” the internetwork are for routers, as filter tables that
“map” individual devices are for switches and bridges. After a
filter table is built on the layer 2 device, it will forward frames
only to the segment where the destination hardware address is
located. If the destination device is on the same segment as
the frame, the layer 2 device will block the frame from going to
any other segments. If the destination is on a different
segment, the frame can be transmitted only to that segment.
This is called transparent bridging.

When a switch interface receives a frame with a destination

hardware address that isn’t found in the device’s filter table, it
will forward the frame to all connected segments. If the
unknown device that was sent the “mystery frame” replies to
this forwarding action, the switch updates its filter table
regarding that device’s location. But in the event the
destination address of the transmitting frame is a broadcast
address, the switch will forward all broadcasts to every
connected segment by default. All devices that the broadcast
is forwarded to are considered to be in the same broadcast
domain. This can be a problem because layer 2 devices
propagate layer 2 broadcast storms that can seriously choke
performance. The only way to stop a broadcast storm from
propagating through an internetwork is with a layer 3 device—
a router.

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The biggest benefit of using switches instead of hubs in your
internetwork is that each switch port is actually its own collision
domain. Remember that a hub creates one large collision
domain, which is not a good thing! But even armed with a
switch, you still don’t get to just break up broadcast domains
by default because neither switches nor bridges will do that.
They’ll simply forward all broadcasts instead.

Another benefit of LAN switching over hub-centered

implementations is that each device on every segment plugged
into a switch can transmit simultaneously. Well, at least they
can as long as there’s only one host on each port and there
isn’t a hub plugged into a switch port. As you probably
guessed, this is because hubs allow only one device per
network segment to communicate at a time.

3.9 The Physical Layer

Finally arriving at the bottom, we find that the Physical layer
does two things: it sends bits and receives bits. Bits come only
in values of 1 or 0—a Morse code with numerical values. The
Physical layer communicates directly with the various types of
actual communication media. Different kinds of media
represent these bit values in different ways. Some use audio
tones, while others employ state transitions—changes in
voltage from high to low and low to high. Specific protocols are
needed for each type of media to describe the proper bit
patterns to be used, how data is encoded into media signals,
and the various qualities of the physical media’s attachment
interface. The Physical layer specifies the electrical,
mechanical, procedural, and functional requirements for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating a physical link
between end systems. This layer is also where you identify the

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interface between the data terminal equipment (DTE) and the
data communication equipment (DCE). (Some old phone-
company employees still call DCE “data circuit-terminating
equipment.”) The DCE is usually located at the service
provider, while the DTE is the attached device. The services
available to the DTE are most often accessed via a modem or
channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/ DSU).
The Physical layer’s connectors and different physical
topologies are defined by the OSI as standards, allowing
disparate systems to communicate.

Summary
We discussed the OSI model—the seven-layer model used to
help application developers design applications that can run on
any type of system or network. Each layer has its special jobs
and select responsibilities within the model to ensure that solid,
effective communications do, in fact, occur. we provided you
with complete details of each layer.

In addition, each layer in the OSI model specifies different

types of devices, and I described the different devices used at
each layer.
Remember that hubs are Physical layer devices and repeat the
digital signal to all segments except the one from which it was
received. Switches segment the network using hardware
addresses and break up collision domains. Routers break up
broadcast domains as well as collision domains and use
logical addressing to send packets through an internetwork.

3.10 Review Questions

1. What are the concerns of the physical layer of the OSI
model?

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2. What are the responsibilities of the of the following
layers of the OSI model?
a. Data link layer b. Network layer, c. Transport layer
3. What is the difference between a port address, a
logical address, and a physical address?
4. Name some services provided by the application layer
in the Internet model.
5. How do the layers of the Internet model correlate to the
layers of the OSI model?
6. How are OSI and ISO related to each other?
7. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI
model:
a. Route determination b. Flow control
b. Interface to transmission media
c. Provides access for the end user
8. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI
model:
a. Reliable process-to-process message delivery
b. Route selection
c. Defines frames
d. Provides user services such as e-mail and file
transfer
e. Transmission of bit stream across physical
medium
9. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSl
model:
a) Communicates directly with user's application
program
b) Error correction and retransmission
c) Mechanical, electrical, and functional interface
d) Responsibility for carrying frames between
adjacent nodes

74
 CHAPTER FOUR
Data Communication Software

4.1 Description of Data Communication Software

The basic concept behind data communication and network is
for the two or more computer or electronic devices to see each
other and share resources, for that to be archived there must
be a program or software responsible for the communication to
take place. The software in this case is refers to as data
communication software. Data communication Software is
basically: -
1. a computer program required on DTE (PC) to bridge
the gap and interpret the bits/bytes that are transmitted
via the communication media through the interface.
2. the Core of Data Communication is Communication
Software without software, Data communication is
incomplete.
3. responsible for controlling data formatting, data
transmission, and total communication control.
4. resides on central PC or part of it may be located on
the front-end communication PC, a concentrator,
remote concentrator or in intelligent terminals.

4.2 Significance of Data Communication Software

Major significance of data Communication software are:
1. Defines the communication parameters like
communication speed, error rate, bandwidth, protocols,
etc.
2. Controls the user accessibility to information. It means
how a user can access the information and how
information shall be presented to user.

75
 3. It controls the optimal configuration of communication
hardware and makes the effective utilization of network
resources.

4.3 Function of Communication software

General functions of communication software are:
1. Establish logical data paths.
2. Check accuracy of each transmission, and arrange
retransmission if necessary (e.g., TCP/IP).
3. Exercise flow control to avoid congestion and loss of
data.
4. Maintaining the statistics on traffic volumes over all
links, and on network reliability
5. Transmission initiation and termination is done by
communication software when user prompts it. In case
of modem, modem initialization and making it ready
function come under this category.
6. Establishment of logical connections over physical line
like dialling the number on phone lines.
7. Message Assembly and De-assembly.
8. Data Transmission & receipt. It means Modulation of
digital data into analog and vice versa by modem).
9. Code conversion is done by communication software
where it formats the data
10. Error Detection is also done by it. It checks for lost bits
and other error introduced while transmitting.
11. Data Editing
12. Control Character Recognition
13. Data Delivery and output. Communication software
control the output and delivery of data at the
destination)
14. Transmission monitoring and maintenance

76
4.4 Categories of Communication Software
Data communication software can be categories into two:
1. Application Software: These are the software that
enables end users to perform one task or the other on
data communication and network system. For
example, Email Software - all types for email
software’s which include the following, Broadcast
Software - including MP3s, audio recording and call
recording software, and Wireless Software - all types of
wireless related software’s
2. System Software: Software that allows you to connect
with other computers or mobile devices via text, video
or audio formats in either a synchronous or
asynchronous manner. They are set of software that
enable data communication system to function and
meet the require objective of resources sharing and to
perform other functions. Data communication system
software can be classified in into development
software, and management software e.g., networks
traffic analyser, a ping/traceroute program, firewall etc.

4.5 Communication Protocol

4.5.1. Description of Communication Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking Igbo cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Yoruba. A
communication protocol is a description of the rules that
communication devices must follow to communicate with each
other. A Protocol is one of the components of a data
communications system. Without protocol communication

77
cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data
and expect the receiving device to receive and further interpret
it correctly.

4.5.2. Elements of a Protocol

There are three key elements of a protocol:
a) Syntax is the structure or format of the data. It is the
arrangement of data in a particular order.
b) Semantics gives the meaning of each section of bits
and indicates the interpretation of each section. It also
tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the
interpretation.
c) Timing tells the sender about the readiness of the
receiver to receive the data It tells the sender at what
rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.

4.5.3. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP/IP is the basic communication protocol for two or more
computers or electronic devices (e.g mobile phone) to
communicate with one another on a network setup. TCP/IP
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like computers) should
be connected to the Internet, and how data should be
transmitted between them. TCP/IP is the major protocol in
communication network that communication can do without.
Inside the TCP/IP standard there are several protocols for
handling data communication these are: TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) communication between applications; UDP
(User Datagram Protocol) simple communication between
applications; IP (Internet Protocol) communication between

78
computers; ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) for
errors and statistics; DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) for dynamic addressing; and TCP Uses a Fixed
Connection.
Transmission Control Protocol: Transmission Control
Protocol takes care of the communication between your
application software (i.e., your browser) and your network
software. TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP
packets before they are sent, and for assembling the packets
when they arrive. TCP is for communication between
applications. If one application wants to communicate with
another via TCP, it sends a communication request. This
request must be sent to an exact address. After a "handshake"
between the two applications, TCP will set up a "full-duplex"
communication between the two applications. The "full-duplex"
communication will occupy the communication line between
the two computers until it is closed by one of the two
applications.
Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol is Connection-Less i.e, it
does not occupy the communication line between two
computers. The Network Layer protocol for TCP/IP is the
Internet Protocol (IP). It uses IP addresses and the subnet
mask to determine whether the datagram is on the local or a
remote network. If it is on the remote network, the datagram is
forwarded to the default gateway which is a router that links to
another network. IP keeps track of the number of transverses
through each router that the datagram goes through to reach its
destination. Each transvers is called a hop. If the hop count
exceeds 255 hops, the datagram is removed and the
destination considered unreachable. IP reduces the need for
network lines. Each line can be used for communication

79
between many different computers at the same time. With IP,
messages (or other data) are broken up into small independent
"packets" and sent between computers via the Internet. IP is
responsible for "routing" each packet to the correct destination.
4.5.4. Special Purpose Protocol
The special purpose protocols are the set of protocols design to
perform a single task on communication network system. Some
of these protocols and their function are listed below:
a) HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol: HTTP takes care
of the communication between a web server and a web
browser. HTTP is used for sending requests from a
web client (a browser) to a web server, returning web
content (web pages) from the server back to the client.
b) HTTPS - Secure HTTP: HTTPS takes care of secure
communication between a web server and a web
browser. HTTPS typically handles credit card
transactions and other sensitive data.
c) SSL - Secure Sockets Layer: The SSL protocol is used
for encryption of data for secure data transmission.
d) MIME - Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extensions: The
MIME protocol lets SMTP transmit multimedia files
including voice, audio, and binary data across TCP/IP
networks.
e) IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol: IMAP is
used for storing and retrieving e-mails.
f) FTP - File Transfer Protocol: FTP takes care of
transmission of files between computers.
g) NTP - Network Time Protocol: NTP is used to
synchronize the time (the clock) between computers.
h) DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: DHCP
is used for allocation of dynamic IP addresses to
computers in a network.

80
 i) SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol: SNMP
is used for administration of computer networks.
j) LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol: LDAP is
used for collecting information about users and e-mail
addresses from the internet.
k) ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol: ICMP takes
care of error-handling in the network.
l) ARP - Address Resolution Protocol: ARP is used by IP
to find the hardware address of a computer network
card based on the IP address.
m) RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol: RARP
is used by IP to find the IP address based on the
hardware address of a computer network card.
4.6. Review Questions
1. Define Communication Software
2. State Five functions of Communication Software
3. Give examples and function of the following
communication Software.
i. Broadcast software
ii. Messaging software
iii. Instant communication Software
4. TCP/IP Protocol is communication software. Yes or NO
discuss?
5. What are the elements of communication protocol
6. Compare TCP and IP, hence highlights and gives
function of basic protocol for handling data
communication
7. Describe the communication between one application
and other via TCP/IP
8. Give the full meaning and function of the following
protocols; HTTPS, SSL, ARP, MIME, BOOTP, SMTP,
LDAP

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 CHAPTER FIVE
DATA FLOWS AND TRANSMISSION MODES

5.1 Data Flows Modes

Data communication between two devices occurs in either
simplex, half duplex, or full duplex mode.

5.1.1. Simplex

Figure 5.1 Simplex Data Flow

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive. A good example of simplex
data flow is data communication between Keyboards and
traditional monitors. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction. Another
example are Radio and Television broadcasts. They go from
our radios and TV stations to the radios and televisions in our
homes.

5.2.2. Half Duplex Transmission

Figure 5.2 Half Duplex Data Flow

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending,
the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex

82
mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going
the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the
entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the
two devices is transmitting at the time. Example is the walkie-
talkie

5.2.3. Full Duplex Transmission

Figure 5.3 Full Duplex Data Flow

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street
with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

5.2 Data Transmission Modes

Our primary concern when we are considering the transmission
send from one device to another is the wiring, another concern
when we are considering the wiring is the data stream. The
question is do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into
larger groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary data
across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent per second. In
serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is
only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses
of serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and
isochronous. See figure 5.4.

83
Figure 5.4: Data Transmission
5.3 Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit at a time a as result we need only
a single communication line (channel) rather than n (numbers
of lines) to transmit data between the sender and the receiver.
The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with
only one communication channel, serial transmission reduces
the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion
devices are required at the interface between the sender and
the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the
receiver (serial-to-parallel) as shown in figure 5.5 below. Serial
transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous.

84
Figure 5.5: Serial Transmission
5.3.1 Asynchronous Transmission: - in Asynchronous
transmission mode, the timing of a signal is unimportant, rather
the information is received and translated according to the
agreed pattern. As long as the pattern is followed the receiver
will receive the information without regard to the time it was
sent. The pattern is based on grouping the bit stream into byte.
Each group which consists of 8 bits, is sent sent across the link
as a unit. The sending device handles each group
independently, relaying it to the link whenever its ready without
regarding the time. To alert the receiving device of the arrival of
a new group, an extra bit is added to beginning of each byte.
This bit, which is usually a 0, is called the Start bit and to let
the receiver device know also that it has finished receiving the
byte, an additional bit is appended which is usually a 1. This
appended bit is called the stop bit. By this method, each byte
is increased in size to at least 10bits, of which 8bits is the
information and 2 bits acts as signal to the receiver. In addition,
the transmission of every byte might be followed by varying
degree of gap. This gap can either represent an idle link or
stream of additional stop bits.
Figure 5.6: Asynchronous Transmission

85
The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiving device of
the beginning and end of each byte and allow it to synchronize
with the data stream. This mechanism is referred to as
asynchronous.
5.3.2 Synchronous Transmission: - In synchronous
transmission, we send bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group
the bits stream into longer “frames” which may contain multiple
bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the link without a
gap between it and the next. It is left for the receiving device to
separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes. In
other words, data are sent as an unbroken string of 1s and 0s,
and the receiving device separates that string into the bytes, or
characters, it needs to reconstruct the information.

The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no

extra bits or gaps introduced at the sending end and removal at
the receiving end and by extension a few bits to move across
the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous
transmission. For this reason, it is more useful for high-speed
applications such as the transmission of data from one
computer to another. Byte synchronization is achieved at the
datalink layer.
5.3.3 Isochronous Transmission: - A sequence of events
is isochronous if the events occur regularly, or at equal time
intervals. The isochronous transmission guarantees that the
data arrive at a fixed rate. In real-time audio and video, in which
uneven delays between frames are not acceptable,
synchronous transmission fails. For example, TV images are
broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be

86
viewed at the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or
more frames, there should be no delays between frames.

Figure 5.6: Parallel transmission

5.4 Parallel Transmission

In parallel transmission mode, binary data, consisting of 1s and
0s, will be organized into groups of n-bits each. By grouping,
we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called
parallel transmission. Parallel communication mechanism
uses n-wires to send n-bits at a time, that way each bit is sent
on its own wire and all n-bits of one group can be sent per
second from one device to another. Figure 5.6 shows how
parallel transmission works for n=8. Typically, the eight wires
are bundled in a cable.
Transmission is the advantage of parallel. All things being
equal, parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by
a factor of n over serial transmission. The disadvantage of
parallel transmission is that it requires n communication lines
just to transmit the data stream. Hence it is expensive, as a
result parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

87
5.3 Review Questions
1. What is data flow?
2. Describe briefly with diagram and relevant example,
three major data flow approaches.
3. Describe the types of data transmission modes.
4. If an Ethernet frame has overhead of 64bytes including
start and stop frames, and the data size is 2500 bytes.
Determine the Ethernet frame efficiency

88
 CHAPTER SIX
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6.1. Definition of Data Transmission Media

Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information
from sender to receiver. We use different types of cables or
waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals. An electrical signal is in
the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series of
electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These
signals can be transmitted through copper wires, optical fibers,
atmosphere, water and vacuum Different Medias have different
properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation
and maintenance. Transmission media is also called
Communication channel. Transmission media is broadly
classified into two groups. Wired or Guided Media or Bound
Transmission Media and Wireless or Unguided Media or
Unbound Transmission Media. (See the diagram below).

Figure 6.1 Transmission Media

The data transmission capabilities of various Medias vary

differently upon: Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying

89
capacity of a channel or medium. Higher bandwidth
communication channels support higher data rates; Radiation.
It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to
undesirable electrical characteristics of the medium; Noise
Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to
external electrical noise that can cause distortion of data signal;
Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates
outwards. The amount of energy lost depends on frequency.
Radiations and physical characteristics of media contribute to
attenuation.

6.2. Transmission Channel Parameters

Some parameters are required in description of transmission
channel. Some of the parameter is discussed below.

Bandwidth: The range of frequencies contained in a

composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is normally a
difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite
signal contains frequencies between 2000 and 6000, its
bandwidth is 6000 - 2000, or 4000. The bandwidth of a
composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal. The bandwidth
determines the channel capacity.

Bit Rate: Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period
and frequency are not appropriate characteristics. Bit rate is
used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the number of
bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of

100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of the
channel?

90
Solution:
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each
line. If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit
rate is
100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000 bps =1.636 Mbps
A digital signal can have more than two levels. If a signal has L
levels, each level needs log2 L bits. A digital signal with eight
levels will need 3bits per level. i.e., Log28 =3

Bit Length: The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on
the transmission medium.
Bit length = propagation speed x bit duration
Data Rate Limits: one of the most important considerations in
data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
a. The bandwidth available
b. The level of the signals we use
c. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data

rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by
Shannon for a noisy channel.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate. For a noiseless channel,
the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit
rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is
the number of signal levels used to represent data, and Bit
Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.
Example:

91
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 6000Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit
rate can be calculated as:
BitRate =2 x 6000 x log22 =12000 bps
Noisy Channel: In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel;
the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude Shannon
introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to
determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR
is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the
channel in bits per second. Note that in the Shannon formula
there is no indication of the signal level, which means that no
matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data
rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the
formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method
of transmission.

Example:
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the
signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is
so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C
is calculated as:
C=B log2(1+SNR) =B log2(1+0) =Blog21 = Bx0 =0
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless
of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data
through this channel.
6.2 Guided Transmission Media
Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound
transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have

92
physical existence and are limited by the physical geography.
Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair
cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has
its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise,
physical appearance, cost etc.
6.3.1. Open Wire
Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire
strung along power poles. There is a single wire strung
between poles. No shielding or protection from noise
interference is used. We are going to extend the traditional
definition of Open Wire to include any data signal path without
shielding or protection from noise interference. This can include
multiconductor cables or single wires. This media is susceptible
to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently
not acceptable for data transmission except for short distances
under 20 ft.
6.3.2. Twisted Pair
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown
in below figure. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the
receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The
receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the
signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference
(noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals. Each pair would consist of a wire used for
the +ve data signal and a wire used for the - ve data signal.
Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur on the
other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are
180 degrees out of phase (180 degrees - phasor definition of
opposite polarity). When the noise appears on both wires, it
cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end. Twisted Pair
cables are most effectively used in systems that use a

93
balanced line method of transmission. The degree of reduction
in noise interference is determined specifically by the number
of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot
reduces the noise interference. To further improve noise
rejection, a foil or wire braid shield is woven around the twisted
pairs. This "shield" can be woven around individual pairs or
around a multi-pair conductor (several pairs).

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications
is referred to as unshielded twisted -pair (UTP). IBM has also
produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called
shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or
braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of
cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive.

Figure 6.2: Twisted Pair Cables

94
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice
and data channels. The local loop-the line that connects
subscribers to the central telephone office – commonly consists
of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used
by the telephone companies to provide high-data- rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.

6.3.3. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is
held inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around
it providing a shield. An insulating protective coating called a
jacket covers the outer conductor.
The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside
electrical signals. The distance between the outer conductor
(shield) and inner conductor plus the type of material used for
insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or
impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75ohms
for Cable TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. The
excellent control of the impedance

Figure 6.3: Optical Fiber

95
6.3.4. Optical Fiber
6.3.4.1. Description of Optical fiber cable
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in
the form of light. Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that
can carry information at frequencies in the visible light
spectrum. Optical fiber work on the principle that the core
refracts the light and the cladding reflects the light. The core
refracts the light and guides the light along its path. The
cladding reflects any light back into the core and stops light
from escaping through it - it bounds the media. The basic
features of optical fiber are:
➢ The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow
strand of glass called the cladding.
➢ A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns.
➢ Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 minors.
Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting
of plastic, it is called the jacket.
➢ The device generating the message has it in
electromagnetic form (electrical signal); this has to be
converted into light (i.e., optical signal) to send it on
optic

6.3.4.2. Advantages Optical Fiber

Some of the advantages of using fiber optical cable are:
i. Small size and light weight: The size of the optical
fibers is very small. Therefore, a large number of
optical fibers can fit into a cable of small diameter.
ii. Easy availability and low cost: The material used for
the manufacturing of optical fibers is Silica glass. This
material is easily available. So, the optical fibers cost
lower than the cables with metallic conductors.

96
 iii. No electrical or electromagnetic interference: Since the
transmission takes place in the form of light rays the
signal is not affected due to any electrical or
electromagnetic Interference.
iv. Large Bandwidth: As the light rays have a very high
frequency in GHz range, the bandwidth of the optical
fiber is extremely large.
v. No cross talk inside the optical fiber cable. Signal can
be sent up to 100 times faster.

Figure 6.4: Optical Fiber Cable

6.3.4.3. Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Disadvantages of optical fiber cable include the following.
i. Physical vibration will show up as signal noise.
ii. Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much & it will
break.
iii. Difficult to splice
iv.
6.3.4.4. Optical Transmission Modes
There are 3 primary types of transmission modes using optical
fiber.

97
i. Step Index Mode: Step Index has a large core the
light rays tend to bounce around, reflecting off the
cladding, inside the core. This causes some rays to
take a longer or shorted path through the core. Some
take the direct path with hardly any reflections while
others bounce back and forth taking a longer path. The
result is that the light rays arrive at the receiver at
different times. The signal becomes longer than the
original signal. LED light sources are used. Typical

Core: 62.5 microns.

Figure 6.5: Step Index Mode

ii. Grade Index Mode: Grade Index has a
gradual change in the Core's Refractive Index. This
causes the light rays to be gradually bent back into the
core path. This is represented by a curved reflective
path in the attached drawing. The result is a better
receive signal than Step Index. LED light sources are
used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns.

98
 Figure 6.6: Grade Index Mode

Note: Both Step Index and Graded Index allow more

than one light source to be used (different colours
simultaneously). Multiple channels of data can be run
simultaneously.

iii. Single Mode: Single Mode has separate

distinct Refractive Indexes for the cladding and core.
The light ray passes through the core with relatively
few reflections off the cladding. Single Mode is used for
a single source of light (one colour) operation. It
requires a laser and the core is very small: 9 microns.

Figure 6.7: Single Mode

6.4. Unguided Transmission Media
(Wireless Transmission Medium)
6.4.1. Description of Unguided Transmission Media

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In unguided Transmission Media data signals flows through the
air. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission
Media: Unbound transmission media are the ways of
transmitting data without using any cables. These media are
not bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission
is called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless
communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being
installed in office and college campuses. This transmission
uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infrared are some of popular
unbound transmission media.

6.4.2. Wireless Signal Propagation

Wireless signals travel or propagated in three ways:
1. Ground-wave propagation: Ground Wave
Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground
Waves have carrier frequencies up to 2MHz. AM radio
is an example of Ground Wave Propagation.

Figure 6.8: Ground wave Propagation

2. Sky-wave propagation: Ionospheric Propagation

bounces off of the Earths Ionospheric Layer in the
upper atmosphere. It is sometimes called Double Hop
Propagation. It operates in the frequency range of 30 -
85MHz. Because it depends on the Earth's ionosphere,

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 it changes with weather and time of day. The signal
bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Ham
radios operate in this range. Characteristics of Sky
Propagation are as follows: Signal reflected from
ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth; Signal
can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth„s surface; Reflection effect
caused by refraction.

Figure 6.9: Sky Wave Propagation

3. Line-of-sight propagation: Line of Sight Propagation

transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive
station must be in the view of the transmit station. It is
sometimes called Space Waves or Tropospheric
Propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the Earth
for ground-based stations (100 km: horizon to horizon).
Reflected waves can cause problems. Examples of
Line-of-Sight Propagation are: FM Radio, Microwave
and Satellite. Transmitting and receiving antennas
must be within line of sight.

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Figure 6.10: Line of sight Propagation

6.4.3. Types of Wireless Signal

6.4.3.1. Radio waves
Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz
and 1GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are
omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they
are propagated in all directions. This means that sending and
receiving antenna do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate
in sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio
waves a better choice for long-distance broadcasting such as
AM radio. Radio waves particularly those of low and medium
frequencies can penetrate walls. It is an advantage because;
an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is the
disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to
first inside or outside a building.
6.4.3.2. Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The
Transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive
station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations
depending on the local geography. Typically, the line of sight

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due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the horizon.
Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop,
skip and jump across the country. Electromagnetic waves
having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna
transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be
aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas. Microwaves propagation is
line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
needs to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far
apart need to be very tall, the curvature of the earth as well as
other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are often needed
for long distance communication very high frequency
microwaves cannot penetrate walls. Parabolic dish antenna
and horn antenna are used for this means of transmission.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10

GHz. This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to
the large bandwidth.

Advantages
They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
i. They can carry high quantities of information due to
their high operating frequencies.
ii. Low-cost land purchase: each tower occupies small
area.
iii. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small
antenna.

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Disadvantages
i. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
ii. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
iii. Diffracted (split) around solid objects
iv. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be
projected away from receiver.
6.4.3.3. Infrared
Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400
GHz can be used for short range communication. Infrared
signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
helps to prevent interference between one system and another.
Infrared Transmission in one room cannot be affected by the
infrared transmission in another room. Infrared band has an
excellent potential for data transmission. Transfer digital data is
possible with a high speed with a very high frequency. There
are number of computer devices which are used to send the
data through infrared medium e.g., keyboard mice, PCs and
printers. There are some manufacturers provide a special part
called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to
communicate with a PC.
6.5. Transmission Media Problems and Impairment
Data is transmitted through transmission medium which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Due to the
imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted data i.e. the
original signal at the beginning of the transmission is not the
same as the signal at the Receiver. Some of the transmission
media/impairment problems are:

6.5.1. Attenuation Distortion

Attenuation results in loss of energy. When a signal travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming

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the resistance of the medium. The electrical energy in the
signal may convert to heat. To compensate for this loss,
amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Figure below shows
the effect of attenuation and amplification. The loss of signal or
attenuation is measured at the receiving end and compared to
a standard reference frequency.

Figure 6.11: Effect of attenuation and amplification.

6.5.2. Crosstalk
Crosstalk is when one line induces a signal into another line. In
voice communications, we often hear this as another
conversation going on in the background. In digital
communication, this can cause severe disruption of the data
transfer. Cross talk can be caused by overlapping of bands in a
multiplexed system or by poor shielding of cables running close
to one another. There are no specific communications
standards applied to the measurement of crosstalk.

Figure 6.12: Crosstalk impairment

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6.5.3. Echo or Signal Return
All media have a preferred termination condition for perfect
transfer of signal power. The signal arriving at the end of a
transmission line should be fully absorbed otherwise it will be
reflected back down the line to the sender and appear as an
Echo. Echo Suppressors are often fitted to transmission lines to
reduce this effect. Normally during data transmission, these
suppressors must be disabled or they will prevent return
communication in full duplex mode. Echo suppressors are
disabled on the phone line if they hear carrier for 400ms or
more. If the carrier is absent for 100 mSec, the echo
suppressor is re-enabled. Echo Cancellers are currently used
in Modems to replicate the echo path response and then
combine the results to eliminate the echo. Thus, no signal
interruption is necessary.

6.5.4. Noise
Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined with
the original signal during transmission. Due to noise the original
signal is altered and signal received is not same as the one
sent. Noise is sharp quick spikes on the signal caused from
electromagnetic interference, lightning, sudden power
switching, electromechanical switching, etc. These appear on
the telephone line as clicks and pops which are not a problem
for voice communication but can appear as a loss of data or
even as wrong data bits during data transfers. Impulse noise
has duration of less than 1 mSec and their effect is dissipated
within 4mSec.

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6.6 Ethernet Cabling
6.6.1 RJ45 Cabling
Materials required
1. Ethernet Cable - bulk Category (Cat) 5, 5e, 6, 6a or
higher ethernet cable.
2. Wire Cutters/ Wire Stripper - to cut and strip the
ethernet cable if necessary
3. Cable Tester – for test if a cable is properly terminated
or prepared
4. Crimping tool -for terminating or crimping cable. Some
come with single jack crimping port while other comes
with multiple jack crimping port like RJ11, RJ45 etc.
5. Cable tester.
For Patch Cables:
a. 8P8C Modular Connector Plugs ("RJ45")
b. Modular Connector Crimper ("RJ45")
For Fixed Wiring:
a. 8P8C Modular Connector Jacks ("RJ45")
b. 110 Punch Down Tool

Figure 6.13: Material for terminating an ethernet cable.

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6.1.2 Ethernet Cable Structure
Ethernet cable Cat 5 is required for basic 10/100 functionality,
you will want Cat 5e for gigabit (1000BaseT) operation and Cat
6 or higher gives you a measure of future proofing. Bulk
Ethernet cable comes in many types; there are 2 basic
categories, solid and braided stranded cable. Figure 6.2 shows
the internal structure of a cable.
i. Stranded Ethernet cable tends to work better in patch
applications for desktop use. It is more flexible and
resilient than solid ethernet cable and easier to work
with, but really meant for shorter lengths.
ii. Solid Ethernet cable is meant for longer runs in a fixed
position.
Inside the Ethernet cable, there are 8 colour coded wires.
These wires are twisted into 4 pairs of wires; each pair has a
common colour theme. One wire in the pair being a solid or
primarily solid coloured wire and the other being a primarily
white wire with a coloured stripe (Sometimes Ethernet cables
won't have any colour on the striped wire, the only way to tell
which is which is to check which wire it is twisted around).
Examples of the naming schemes used are: Orange
(alternatively Orange/White) for the solid-coloured wire and
White/Orange for the striped cable. The twists are extremely
important. They are there to counteract noise and interference.

It is important to wire according to a standard to get proper

performance from the Ethernet cable. The TIA/EIA-568-A
specifies two wiring standards for an 8-position modular
connector such as RJ45. The two wiring standards, T568A and
T568B vary only in the arrangement of the coloured pairs.

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6.6.3 Modular Connector Plugs and Jacks
The 8P8C modular connectors for Ethernet are often called
RJ45 due to their physical resemblance. The plug is an 8-
position modular connector that looks like a large phone plug.
There are a couple variations available. The primary variation
you need to pay attention to is whether the connector is
intended for braided or solid wire. For braided/stranded wires,
the connector has sharp pointed contacts that actually pierce
the wire. For solid wires, the connector has fingers which cut
through the insulation and make contact with the wire by
grasping it from both sides.

Figure 6.15: Modular Connector Plug and Jack Pin Out

Modular connector jacks come in a variety style intended for
several different mounting options. The choice is one of
requirements and preference. Jacks are designed to work only
with solid Ethernet cable. Most jacks come labelled with colour
coded wiring diagrams for T568A, T568B or both. Make sure
you end up with the correct one. Figure 6.15 shows a wiring
diagram and pin out:

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6.6.4 Ethernet Cable Pin Outs
There are two basic Ethernet cable pin outs. A straight through
Ethernet cable, which is used to connect a computer system to
a hub or switch, and a crossover Ethernet cable used to
operate in a peer-to-peer fashion without a hub/switch or to
connect similar devices (ie Switch to switch, hub to Hub,
system to system etc). Generally, all fixed wiring should be run
as straight through. Some Ethernet interfaces can cross and
un-cross a cable automatically as needed, a handy feature.
The also a cable that is used to connect to the console port of a
router for the purpose of configuration, such cables are call
rollover cable.
The pinout description with the colour code of T568A is
given in the table below.
Pin Wire Colour Signal Signal Description
1 White/Green TX1+ Transmit +
2 Green TX1- Transmit –
3 White/Orange RX+ Receive +
4 Blue TX2+ Bi-Directional Transmit +
5 White/Blue TX2- Bi-Directional Transmit –
6 Orange RX- Receive –
7 White/Brown TX3+ Bi-Directional Transmit +
8 Brown TX3- Bi-Directional Transmit –

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Figure 6.16 Straight-Through Cable Pin Out for T568A
1. Straight-Through Ethernet Cable
The straight-through cables use the same connector standard
at both ends. This means that both ends either have T568A or
T568B standard connectors, however, it makes absolutely no
functional difference in which you choose. They are used to
computer systems to a hub or switch. The figure 6.16 above
shows the two ends of a cable connected with the T568A
standard.
2. Crossover Cables
When the ethernet wires are terminated with T568A standard at
one end and with T568B standard at the other end, they are
called crossover cables. It follows the reverse features of
straight-through cables. They are used to connect similar

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devices. Like a laptop to another laptop. The figure 6.17 below
shows

Figure 6.17 Crossover Cable Pin Out for T568A

3. Rollover Cable
Rollover cable also known as console cable is used to connect
a computer to the console terminal of a manned (cisco router or
a switch) for the purpose of configuration.
The pc or laptop is connected with a rollover cable and the
other end of the cable is connected to the switch. The Rollover
cable usually have a rj45 connector and also DV9. This DV9 is
used to connect to the pc. The pinouts of the rollover cable are
in the form of showed in diagram in figure 6.18 below.

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Figure 6.18: Crossover Cable Pin Out forT568B

Procedures for Cabling

1. Strip off about 2 inches of the Ethernet cable sheath.
2. Untwist the pairs, “don't untwist them beyond what you
have exposed” the more untwisted cable you have the
worse the problems you can run into.
3. Align the coloured wires according to the wiring
diagrams for either straight-through or crossover or
rollover.
4. Trim all the wires to the same length, about 1/2" to 3/4"
left exposed from the sheath.
5. Insert the wires into the RJ45 plug “make sure each
wire is fully inserted to the front of the RJ45 plug and in
the correct order”. The sheath of the ethernet cable
should extend into the plug by about 1/2" and will be
held in place by the crimp.
6. Crimp the RJ45 plug with the crimper tool.
7. Verify the wires ended up the right order and that the
wires extend to the front of the RJ45 plug and make
good contact with the metal contacts in the RJ45 plug.

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 8. Cut the ethernet cable to length, make sure it is more
than long enough for your needs”
9. Repeat the above steps for the second RJ45 plug.
Using Cable Tester
If an Ethernet cable tester is available, use it to verify the
proper connectivity of the cable. That should be it, if your
ethernet cable doesn't turn out, look closely at each end and
see if you can find the problem. Often a wire ended up in the
wrong place or one of the wires is making no contact or poor
contact. Also, double check the colour coding to verify it is
correct. If you see a mistake or problem, cut the end off and
start again. Ethernet cable tester is invaluable at identifying and
highlighting these issues. When sizing ethernet cables
remember that an end-to-end connection should not extend
more than 100m (~328ft). Try to minimize the ethernet cable
length, the longer the cable becomes, the more it may affect
performance. This is usually noticeable as a gradual decrease
in speed and increase in latency.

6.6.4 Wiring Ethernet Patch Cables

When you’re building a network, it’s often ideal to use a patch
panel to direct cables and organize long Ethernet runs —
especially if they go through walls, floors, and/or ceilings. Patch
panels make cable management and network organization very
easy over long periods of time, but you’ll need to wire the
panels in order to put them into your network.

Tools You Will Need

Before you jump into the task, ensure that you have the
necessary tools and equipment for the job. To wire a patch
panel, you will need patch cables, the patch panel, and a
punch-down kit. The punch-down kit should include the

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following: Cable stripper, wire cutters (often included in the
stripper), Cable tester and 110 punch-down tools with blade.

How to Wire Patch Panels

When it comes to wiring patch panels, you can follow these
steps in order:
1. Check the Panel
The very first thing you want to do is check the patch panel.
The standard for cat5 and cat6 patching is a 110-style
connection type, but you can get alternative panels. Make sure
you are working with the 110 style before you start cutting or
stripping wires.
2. Strip the Cable
If the patch cable has a plastic connection on the end, then go
ahead and cut it off. Once you have an unterminated end on
the cable, you can strip it.
The wire strippers make this easy. You want to remove one to
three inches of the shielding or jacket off of the cable end. In
most cases, one inch will be sufficient, but in tight spaces, a
little bit of extra stripped cable end can make the process
easier. That will be up to you.
Assuming you’re patching multiple cables, strip them one at a
time. This will reduce the chance of dirtying or damaging the
stripped cable ends.

If you’re using cat6 cables, cut away the plastic part in the
middle.
3. Spread out the Wires
There are four pairs of wires that will be exposed after you strip
the cable. You need to untwist each pair so that all eight
component wires are easy to see and manipulate. They will be
connected to the patch panel individually.

115
 4. Set the Wires in the Panel
The patch panel has 110 connectors on it already. It’s primed
for the individual wires to be placed and secured. You’re going
to want to set your cable wires in the appropriate individual
slots.
To make sure you’re doing this correctly, you want to follow a
coloured cable guide. Your punch-down tool kit should include
a coloured guide. The patch panel should also have a colour
guide. If neither of those resources works, you can find a colour
guide for every type of common Ethernet connection here.
You should have extra length in the wires that extend past the
110 connectors on the panel. You will clean this up in the next
step, so don’t worry about it.
When you place the individual wires, push on them enough that
they are firmly in place. They don’t need to be perfectly
secured; that happens in the next step. But, if they are too
loose, it will be easy to knock wires out of their slots when you
punch everything down.
5. Punch and Cut
The last step is to punch down each individual wire. Using your
tool, punch them one at a time. When you do, the blade on the
tool should cut off any excess wire, giving you perfect cable
management in the patch panel.
If the tool doesn’t perfectly sever a wire, you can twist it at the
puncture point until it breaks free.
6. Test...Test...Test
Use your cable tester to make sure each cable works. It’s
usually easier to do this with each cable as you go, that way
you won’t confuse which termination point corresponds with
each cable, and you can fix mistakes quickly and easily.

116
You can also make a cable map as you test so that you will
know which port on the panel corresponds with each incoming
cable.
6.7. Review Questions
1. Explain briefly the following:
a) Attenuation, b) Propagation delay, c)
Crosstalk, d) Echo
2. Compare Guided and Unguided transmission with
relevant examples.
3. Compare coaxial and twisted pair cable transmission
based on the following:
a. Attenuation b. Propagation delay c. Crosstalk
d. Echo
4. Describe with diagram the following transmission mode
in optical fiber
a. Grade index b. Step index c. Single mode
5. What are the reasons why Telecommunication
Companies are investing in Optical fiber transmission?
6. Describe with diagram:
a. Ground wave propagation b. Ionospheric c.
Line of sight d. Highlights 4 major types of
microwave transmission.
7. Enumerate and give function of any five-network
implementation device.
8. Explain three configuration types of Network Interface
Cards.
9. Discuss the important of Ethernet cable tester.
10. Describe the Procedures for making network patch
cable with Rj45.
11. Compare T-568A and T-568B
12. Enlist materials required for making network patch
cable for a LAN.

117
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Alberto Leon-Garcial and Indra Widjaja. Communication

Networks, Fundmental Concepts and Key Architecture. Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New dehlhi 2004

Bertsekas, D. and R. Gallager, Data Networks, Prentice-Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, 1992

Clack, M. P., Network and Telecommunication: Design and

Operation, John Willey and Sons, New York, 1997.

Jain, B. N. and A.K. Agrawala. Open System Interconnection:

Its architecture and Protocol. McGraw-Hill. New York 1993
William Buchanan, Distributed Systems and Networks,

McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 2000.

Yekini and Lawal 2010, Introduction to ICT and data
Processing, Hasfem Publication Nigeria.

Yekini et al, 2007. Fundamental of Computing, Hasfem

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