Research Methods in Economics

CHAPTER ONE

Definition of research

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is an art of
scientific investigation.
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
“Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
Redman and Mory “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
Research is a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of
discovery.

Research is an academic activity, therefore, should be defined technically.

Clifford Woody “ research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis”.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the
search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also
research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method.

Objectives of the research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-
testing research studies).

Motivations in research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability

Types of research
The basic types of research are as follows:
i. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research
Descriptive research: - includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research it is often called Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. In this type of researches, the researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects
are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. The methods of research
utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods.
Analytical research: - the researcher uses facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
ii. Applied(action) vs. Fundamental (basic or pure)Research

Applied research:- aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem. Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research or to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution. Eg. marketing research and evaluation researches

Fundamental research:- is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Basic research is
directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge

E.g Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, human behavior are
examples of fundamental research.

iii. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Researches

Quantitative research:- is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research:- is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or

involving quality or kind. E.g investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do
certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. It
is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research:- is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical research:- relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. It is also known as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. It is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

(v) Other Types of Research:

one-time research vs. longitudinal research.
One-time research:- is a research confined to a single time-period, whereas longitudinal research is
carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic
research. Such research follow case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small
samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While
doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need
of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his
own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific
method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control.

Research Approaches
There are two basic approaches to research,
1. Quantitative approach and the
2. Qualitative approach.

1. Quantitative Approach:- involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified
into
 Inferential approach
 experimental approach
 simulation approach

Inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships
of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or
observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research environment and in
this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system
(or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and
social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a
dynamic process.

2. Qualitative approach:- to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are
not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Significance of research
1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organisation.
2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
3. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry.
4. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. ..etc
Research Methods vs. Methodology
Research methods includes all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research.
Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research
operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as research methods
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of
research.

Research methodology:- is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary
for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology.

E.g Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the
mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research
techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are
not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the
assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide
that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not.

Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider
the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a
particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken,
how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated,
what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique
of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk
of research methodology concerning a research problem or study.

Research Process

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to present
a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary
to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following order
concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
(1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4)
preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the
project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.

1. Formulating the research problem:- There are two types of research problems, viz., those which
relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the
researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest
or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a
broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can
be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first
step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a
guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide
puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the
problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organisations, the problem is
usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the
problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
2. Extensive literature survey:- Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the
topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending
on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A
good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypothesis:- After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in
clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research
hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They
also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality
of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working
hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the
type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well be
remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working hypotheses,
specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis.
But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in
most research problems.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the
researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to
provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But
how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data
collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only
with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) The time available for research; and
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining sample size:- All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use
of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only
this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is
done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide
the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample
design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population.

A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to
develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and
each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th
name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using
random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample.
In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata
and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on
simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is
known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual
selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling. The
size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population.
Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen
to be judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. The
clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area
of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller
areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling
is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field
interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique
is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country.
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states,
then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan
in the context of statistical quality control. The sample design to be used must be decided by the
researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data:- In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of
collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements,
or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

7. Execution of the project:- Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If
the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If
the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to
be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job
of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated
factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps
should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some
suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response
problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the
help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of data :- After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups
and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can
be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by
computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affecting a problem simultaneously.

9. Hypothesis testing:- After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests,
such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The
hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and
object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may
be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation:- If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real
value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis
to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or thesis:- Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of
the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down
into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Criteria of Good Research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective
as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their
effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for
which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research
more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.