Unit-III

Equipment Protection Schemes

The two major equipment in a power system are the generators and transformers. Faults occur less
frequently on the apparatus than the lines. But the damage caused by the faults usually takes much
more time and money to repair compare to faults on lines.
Unit Protection Relay:
➢ If the relay is able to identify the fault within a small physical space is called unit protection relay.
For Example: Differential Relay, Earth Fault Relay, Buchholtz Relay etc.
Non-unit Protection Relay:
➢ If the relay produces the trip signal for the fault within its own unit and also in adjacent unit is
called non-unit protection relay. For Example: Overcurrent Relay, Directional Overcurrent Relay,
Distance Relay etc.

Differential Relay:
➢ A differential relay is defined as the relay that operates when the phase difference of two or more
identical electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined / threshold value.
➢ The differential relay works on the principle of comparison between the phase angle and
magnitude of two or more similar electrical quantities.

ID Operating
Coil

❖ The tripping condition:

𝐼𝐷 > 𝐼0 ; 𝐼𝐷 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) ; 𝐼𝑅 = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )/2
❖ Ideal tripping condition:
𝐼𝐷 > 0
❖ Practical tripping condition:
𝐼𝐷 > 𝐼0
where: I0 = Minimum pick-up current, 𝐼𝐷 = Difference current, 𝐼𝑅 = Restraining current

Disadvantage of Differential Relay:

1. If the CTs are having different ratio and phase angle error causes 𝐼𝐷 ≠ 0, so that relay mall
operates.
2. If one of the CT cores is saturated than the relay produces trip signal for fault.
3. If the length or resistance of pilot wire are different causes 𝐼𝐷 ≠ 0. Therefore, the relay mall
operates.
Percentage Differential Relay / Biased Differential Relay / Merze Price Relay:
➢ The percentage / biased differential relay has two coils, namely operating coil and
restraining coil. The operating coil is energized by the differential current (ID) whereas the
restraining coil is energized by the through fault current, i.e., the average current flow through the
protected equipment. It is also known as bias current (IB).
➢ The relay operates when operating coil torque is greater than restraining torque. Therefore, the
current required for relay operation varies with respect to bias current. It means that the operating
current is represented as some percentage of bias current, thereby it is called percentage biased
differential relay.
➢ A differential relay is a unit protection relay used for protection of transformers, generators, motors
and busbars.

Operating MMF = 𝑁0 𝐼𝐷 = 𝑁0 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )

𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑟
Restraining MMF = 𝑁𝑟 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼 + 𝐼2
2 1 2
❖ The tripping condition:
Operating MMF > Restraining MMF
𝑁0 𝐼𝐷 > 𝑁𝑟 𝐼𝐵
𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑟
𝑁0 𝐼𝐷 > 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
2 2
𝑁 𝐼 +𝐼
𝐼𝐷 > 𝑁𝑟 ( 1 2 2 )
0

❖ Ideal tripping condition:

𝐼 +𝐼
𝐼𝐷 > 𝑘( 1 2 2 )

❖ Practical tripping condition:

𝐼 +𝐼
𝐼𝐷 > {𝐼0 + 𝑘( 1 2 2 )}

Transformer Protection:
Types of Faults in Transformer:
1. Fault in the auxiliary equipment (Transformer Oil, Gas Cushion, Oil Pumps and Forced Air
Fans, Core and Winding Insulation)
2. Fault in the transformer windings and connections (Phase-Phase Faults, Phase-Earth Faults)
3. Overloads and external short circuits
Types of Relays used in Three-phase Transformer Protection:
Sl. No. High-Voltage Side Low-Voltage Side Common Relay on Both Side
1. Over-Current Relay Over-Current Relay Percentage Differential Relay
2. Over-Voltage Relay Over-Voltage Relay Buchholz Relay
3. Earth Fault Relay Earth Fault Relay
4. Over-Flux Relay Over-Flux Relay
Percentage Differential Protection for a Transformer Winding:
➢ The fault occurs on the transformer is mainly divided into two type external faults and internal
fault. External fault is cleared by the relay system outside the transformer within the shortest
possible time in order to avoid any danger to the transformer due to these faults.
➢ The protection for internal fault in such type of transformer is to be provided by using differential
protection system. Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-
to-phase fault and phase to earth faults. The differential protection used for power transformers is
based on Merz-Prize circulating current principle.
➢ In case of power transformer of star-delta / delta-star configuration. Their exist 30-degree phase
difference between primary and secondary currents which causes unequal currents flow in the pilot
wire. Hence, the percentage differential relay will also produce trip signal without any fault in the
power transformer. To compensate effect, CT on the corresponding side of the power transformer
is connected in the opposite configuration of power transformer.
For Example: The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected on the
other side. The CTs on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on delta-connected
side are star-connected. The neutral of the current transformer star connection and power
transformer star connections are grounded.

Power Transformer Current Transformer

Primary Secondary CT1 CT2
Δ Υ Υ Δ
Υ Δ Δ Υ
Δ Δ
Υ Υ
Υ Υ
Δ Δ
Δ Δ
Υ Υ
Buchholz Relay for a Transformer:
➢ A Buchholz Relay is an oil-activated relay in a transformer, used to sense abnormalities such as
short circuits, overheating, and oil leakages inside a transformer. It is a cylindrical object found in
the pipe connecting the conservator to the main tank.
➢ It is the most important part of transformer that protects the transformer from internal faults.
➢ Buchholz Relay works on the theory of gas detection. Whenever a fault occurs inside the tank of
the transformer such as insulation failure between windings, breakdown, and heating of the core,
then heat is produced by fault current. That heat causes the decomposition of transformer oil into
gas bubbles of different hydrocarbon gases, CO2, and CO.
➢ The generation of gas depends on the intensity and magnitude of the fault. These gas bubbles move
upward through the pipe and accumulate in the upper part of the Relay container causing a fall in
oil level. The collected gas displaced the oil level in Relay and the displacement is equivalent to
the volume of gas collected. That causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch and
activates the alarm circuit.

Restricted Earth Fault Protection for a Transformer Winding:

➢ This type of protection is provided to detect earth-faults within the protected zone of the
transformer. The typical arrangement of restricted earth fault protection of a transformer is shown
below.
➢ For Example: Let F1 be the external fault occurs in the network. This fault induces the I1 and
I2 current which flows in the secondary of the CTs. The resultant current of the I1 and I2 becomes
zero in the relay. When the fault occurs inside the protective zone say F2, then only current I2 exist,
and I1 is neglected. The current I2 passes through the earth fault relay. The earth fault relay operates
only for the internal fault of the protective zone.
For Star Connected Winding:

For Delta Connected Winding:

Generator Protection:
Types of Faults in Generator and Types of Relays Used:
Sl. No. Types of Faults Name of Relay
Phase-Phase Faults Percentage Differential Relay
1. Stator Fault Inter-Phase Faults Split-Phase Relay
Earth Faults Restricted Earth Fault Relay
2. Rotor Fault Earth Faults Sensitive Earth Fault Relay
Failure of Prime Mover Reverse Power Relay
Loss of Excitation / Field
OFFSET Mho Relay
Failure
External Faults /
3. Abnormal Running Over-speeding Flyball Governor
Conditions Over-loading Over-current Relay
Over-voltage Over-voltage Relay
Unbalanced Loading Negative Sequence Current Relay
Percentage Differential Protection for a Generator Winding:

➢ The percentage differential relay gives protection against short circuit fault (phase-phase faults
and phase-earth faults) in the stator winding of a generator.
➢ When the neutral point of the windings is available then the CTs may be connected in star on both
the phase outgoing side and the neutral earth side as shown in the above figure.
➢ If the neutral point is not available, then the phase side CTs are connected in a residual connection.
(So that it can be made suitable for comparing the current with the generator ground point CT
secondary current.)
➢ The restraining coils are energized from the secondary connection of CTs in each phase through
pilot wires. The operating coils are energized by the tappings from restraining coils and the CT
neutral earthing connection.

Split-Phase Protection for a Generator Winding:

➢ In single-turn generator, there is no inter-turn faults. But in multi-turn generator, the inter-turn fault
protection is necessary for each phase winding such as hydroelectric generators.
➢ These generators have double winding armatures. This means, each phase winding is divided into
two halves, due to the very heavy currents which they have to carry.
➢ This splitting of single-phase winding into two is advantageous in providing inter-turn fault
protection to such hydroelectric generators.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection for a Generator Winding:
➢ This type of protection is provided to detect earth-faults within the protected zone of the generator
/ alternator. The typical arrangement of restricted earth fault protection of a generator is shown
below.
➢ For Example: Let F1 be the external fault occurs in the network. This fault induces the I1 and
I2 current which flows in the secondary of the CTs. The resultant current of the I1 and I2 becomes
zero in the relay. When the fault occurs inside the protective zone say F2, then only current I2 exist,
and I1 is neglected. The current I2 passes through the earth fault relay. The earth fault relay operates
only for the internal fault of the protective zone.

Restricted Earth
Fault Relay

Earth Fault Protection for Rotor Winding of Generator:

➢ A small DC power supply is connected to the field circuit. A fault detecting sensitive relay and the
resistance are also connected in series with the circuit. This high resistance limits the current
through the circuit.
➢ A fault at any point on the field circuit will pass a current of sufficient magnitude through the relay
to cause its operation. The DC supply is preferred and simple to use and it has no problem of the
leakage currents.
Prime-Mover Failure Protection:
➢ A synchronous Generator / Alternator is expected to supply active power to the system in normal
operating condition.
➢ If the turbine i.e., prime mover fails the Generator / Alternator connected to the system will
continue to operate as synchronous Motor drawing active power from the system.
➢ This reversal of power flow due to loss of prime mover can be detected by reverse power relay.

Normal P
Q

P
Failure Q

P = Active Power
Q = Reactive Power

Loss of Excitation / Field Failure Protection:

➢ Loss of excitation can be detected by measuring the reactive component of stator current. An
excessive value of VAR import indicates either actual or prospective loss of synchronism.
➢ To protect from field failure, an OFFSET Mho impedance measuring relay at the generator
terminals is used. Its operating characteristics is shown below.
➢ During loss of excitation, the locus of apparent impedance seen by relay falls within the tripping
region.
The two major effects of Loss of Excitation:
(i) The machine starts drawing magnetizing current of large magnitude from the system.
(ii) The slip frequency EMFs induced in the rotor circuit and both of them cause overheating of the
rotor.

OFFSE Fiel
T Mho Relay Normal
P
d
P = Active Power Q
Fail
ure
Q = Reactive Power P
Field Failure Q

OFFSET
Mho Relay
Field Failure

Unbalanced Loading Protection:

➢ The unbalanced loading protection of generator is performed by negative sequence relay. During
high unbalance loading, the negative phase sequence current will result in heating of the stator.
➢ The heating by negative sequence current follows a normal resistance law and hence is
proportional to the square of the current. The heating time constant of the machine is largely a
function of the cooling system.
This is expressed by a rating equation: I2t = k

Over Speed Protection:

➢ Over-speed protection must be selective and must not shut-down the unit due to a temporary loss
of load, even if the cause is serious i.e., short circuit.
➢ Short circuits anywhere near a generator will collapse the voltage and the generator experiences a
loss of load.
➢ It is the general practice to provide mechanical over speed devices on both steam and hydro
turbine, which operate directly on the steam main step valve.
➢ On hydroelectric units, as the response of the governor is comparatively slow and the set is more
prone to over-speed. The relay when fitted is usually supplied from the permanent magnet
generator used for the control of governor.

Busbar Protection:
Busbar:
➢ An electrical busbar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductors used for collecting electric
power from the incoming feeders and distributes them to the outgoing feeders.
➢ In other words, it is a type of electrical junction in which all the incoming and outgoing electrical
current meets. Thus, the electrical busbar collects the electric power at one location.
➢ The busbar system consists the isolator and circuit breaker. On the occurrence of a fault, the circuit
breaker is tripped off and the faulty section of the busbar is easily disconnected from the circuit.

Types of Busbar Arrangements:

1. Single Busbar Arrangement:
➢ The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The system has only one busbar
along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator, feeder is
connected to this busbar only.
➢ The advantages of single busbar arrangements are:
• It has low initial cost.
• It requires less maintenance.
• It is simple in operation.
2. Single Busbar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalized:
➢ In this type of busbar arrangement, the circuit breaker and isolating switches are used. The isolator
disconnects the faulty section of the busbar, hence protects the system from complete shutdown.
➢ This type of arrangement uses one addition circuit breaker which does not much increase the cost
of the system.
➢ The advantages of this busbar arrangements are:
• The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
• The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the system supply.

3. Main and Transfer Busbar Arrangement:

➢ Such type of arrangement uses two types of busbars namely, main busbar and transfer (auxiliary)
busbar.
➢ The busbar arrangement uses bus coupler which connects the isolating switches and circuit breaker
to the busbar.
➢ The bus coupler is also used for transferring the load from one bus to another in case of
overloading.
➢ The advantages of this busbar arrangements are:
• The continuity of the supply remains same even in the fault. When the fault occurs on any of
the buses the entire load is shifted to another bus.
• The repair and maintenance can easily be done on the busbar without disturbing their continuity.
• The maintenance cost of the arrangement is less.
• The load can easily be shifted on any of the buses.
4. Double Busbar Double Breaker Arrangement:
➢ This type of arrangement requires two busbar and two circuit breakers. It does not require any
additional equipment like bus coupler and switch.
➢ The advantages of this busbar arrangements are:
• This type of arrangement provides the maximum reliability and flexibility in the supply. Because
the fault and maintenance would not disturb their continuity.
• The continuity of the supply remains same because the load is transferrable from one bus to
another on the occurrence of the fault.

5. Sectionalized Double Busbar Arrangement:

➢ In this type of bus arrangement, the sectionalized main busbar is used along with the auxiliary
busbar. Any section of the busbar removes from the circuit for maintenance and it is connected to
any of the auxiliary bus bars.
➢ But such type of arrangement increases the cost of the system. Sectionalization of the auxiliary
busbar is not required because it would increase the cost of the system.

6. One and a Half Breaker Arrangement:

➢ In this arrangement, three circuit breakers are required for two circuits. Each circuit of the busbar
uses the one and a half circuit breaker. Such type of arrangement is preferred in large stations
where power handled per circuit is large.
➢ The advantages of this busbar arrangements are:
• It protects the arrangement against loss of supply.
• In such type of arrangement, the additional circuits are easily added to the system.
7. Ring Main Arrangement:
➢ In such type of arrangement, the end of the busbar is connected back to the starting point of the
bus to form a ring.
➢ The advantages of this busbar arrangements are:
• Such type of arrangement will provide two paths for the supply. Thus, the fault will not affect
their working.
• The fault is localized for the particular section. Hence the complete circuit is not affected by
the fault.
• In this arrangement, a circuit breaker can be maintained without interrupting the supply.

8. Mesh Arrangement:
➢ In such type of arrangement, the circuit breakers are installed in the mesh formed by the buses.
The circuit is tapped from the node point of the mesh. Such type of bus arrangement is controlled
by four circuit breakers.
➢ When a fault occurs on any section, two circuit breakers have to open, resulting in the opening of
the mesh. Such type of arrangement provides security against busbar fault. It is preferred for
substations having a large number of circuits.
Busbar Protection / Busbar Differential Protection:
➢ Busbar Differential Protection or Circulating Current Protection is working under the principle of
differential protection.
➢ The current transformers are arranged as shown in the figure. Under normal condition, Incoming
current into the busbar is equal to the outgoing current from the busbar, therefore the net circulating
current is equal to zero. Since the relay become inoperative.
➢ Under abnormal condition, the fault in the protected zone, the current become unequal. Therefore,
there is circulating will be present in the relay circuit. If the circulating current is higher than the
pickup current the relay trips all circuit breaker.