ANALYZING INTRODUCTION SECTION IN THE ACADEMIC GENRES

Answer these questions:

1. When you have been assigned to summarize one academic book, what
chapter of the book will you read to understand the overview of the book?

2. When you read the content in each chapter, what part of the content has
been presented first?

3. When you write an essay titled ‘Developing Ideas to Your Research Study’,
what part of the essay will you start to write?

Introduction is a significant section of the written products. It indicates the

overall of the entire books, chapters, or articles from general statements to
specific areas, including the broader statement of the textual purposes. The
detailed statement of Introduction section in research paper may comprise
establishing a research territory from literature review to clarify problem(s),
theory, and figure out some solution. However, the length of the Introduction
section and sub-headings of the Introduction section will depend upon the text
type, the length of the text, and the research topic.

General Statement

Detail or
commentary related
to statement

More specific detail

Boarder Statement

Figure 1: General to Specific Statement of Introduction Section

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 For research reports or theses, the Introduction section will establish the
understanding of current research and background information in different
contexts, state problems, establish the significance of the study, and state the
purpose(s) of the research and research question(s). In order to address research
questions or support hypothesis, this section may elicit the definition of a key term
from related theories or the methodological approach from a literature review.
Finally, it can reveal the limitation of the study and the structure or organization
of the paper.

RESEARCH ARTICLE INTRODUCTION

As mentioned, the connectivity among reading and writing with genre

analysis (GA) is to differentiate a variety of genres and translate the texts for
research articles (RAs). This strategy helps students to examine the read texts
from theory to practice by discussing and analyzing approaches. That is, learners
can identify the pattern of RA Introduction section (RAI) from lexico-grammatical
features (e.g., vocabulary, grammar [tense]) and rhetorical features (e.g., the
sequence of idea and meaning). Therefore, the learners can produce research
paper with appropriate lexico-grammatical features and well-format pattern of
textual organization.

Figure 2: Two Levels of Genre Analysis (Rhetorical Structure and Language Features)

2
 Based on Swales’ (1990) Create-a-Research-Space (CARS) model, move
and step are used to analyze lexical-grammatical features and rhetorical
structure of Introduction section of Ras.

Accordingly, the genre knowledge aims at the development of reading and

writing skills in order to familiarize language used in move and step sequence
while analyzing the text and manipulate those knowledge to write the academic
target genres. The Swales’ (1990, 2004) framework of RA Introduction section will
be presented:

Move 1: Establishing an area of the research (citations possible) *** by

Step 1: Highlighting the significance of the topic
Step 2: Making general background of the study
Step 3: Reviewing subject of previous research
Move 2: Establishing a particular theory (citations possible) *** by
Step 1A: Indicating a gap or
Step 1B: Adding to what is known
Step 2: Presenting positive explanation*
Move 3: Presenting the current work by
Step 1. Announcing present research descriptively and/or purposively
Step 2: Presenting research questions or hypotheses*
Step 3: Definitional clarifications*
Step 4: Summarizing methods*
Step 5: Announcing principal outcomes**
Step 6: Stating the value of the present research**
Step 7: Outlining the structure of the paper**

* Optional and less fixed in order

** Probable in some academic disciplines
*** Possible cyclical patterning of moves particularly in longer Introduction

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Exercise 1: Identifying Introduction
Instructions: Look at a sample of a three-paragraph of Introduction. Sort out
each move to identify Move 1, 2, and 3.

Currently, there have been many studies that have investigated the
relationship between motivational variables and second language (L2)
achievement.1 These studies have particularly, used many different measures
of motivation.2 Some studies have been based on the socioeducational model
of L2 acquisition and the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB; Gardner,
1985, 2006), or on Noels’s (2001) adaptation of Deci and Ryan’s (1985) self-
determination theory, or on Clement’s (1980) social context model, and other
studies have used items developed for the purpose (see, e.g., Dornyei &
Clement, 2001).3 Although these studies have used different conceptualizations
of motivation, they all found relationships between motivation and L2
achievement or other indexes of learning.4 This type of research that focuses
on individual difference correlates of language achievement has been
criticized, however, because critics have claimed that it overlooks the
importance of the teacher in the learning process and that the contributions
of the teacher are being ignored.5… All of these motivational strategies seem
important, and, as a result of studies based largely on student or teacher
responses to questionnaires, all of them have been proposed as potentially
important. 6 There appears to be little research, however, that has directly
investigated the relationship between the use of these useful strategies and
student motivation or achievement in the language, or both; that is, if one
were to conduct a study in which some students were randomly assigned to
classes taught by teachers who actively followed some of these strategies
while other students were taught by teachers who did not use the strategies,
would the anticipated results actually be obtained?7 Much research that has
been done relating teacher motivational strategies to student motivation and

4
achievement in fact does not even test the teachers.8 Many of the results are
based on the students’ perceptions of their teacher’s behavior, not necessarily
on the teacher’s actual behavior itself 9…
Although the various strategies that have been proposed seem
meaningful, there is evidence to suggest that there may be disagreement
between students and teachers about the value of some strategies. 10 For
example, Schulz (2001) investigated the perceived value of the use of
grammar instruction and corrective feedback in samples of students and
teachers of foreign languages in Colombia and the United States.11 The results
indicated that although the teachers from the two countries showed
reasonable agreement on the use of grammar instruction and corrective
feedback, as did the two student groups, there was a considerable degree of
disagreement between the teachers and the students in the two countries12…
Thus, there is evidence to suggest that students and teachers perceive things
differently.13 There does not appear to be any study that has formed random
classes of students and has systematically tested whether the use of specific
strategies has the hypothesized effect on motivation and achievement.14
There does not even appear to be any study that has asked both teachers
and students whether specific strategies were used in their classes.15
The purpose of the present study was to investigate this issue of teacher
and student perceptions of strategy use and the effects of those strategies.16
In this study, we asked the teachers and the students to indicate the extent to
which 26 different teaching strategies were used in their classes.17 There were
14 strategies that would be considered traditional, in that they tend to be
teacher centered and devoted primarily to the structural aspects of language
training, and 12 strategies that most teachers would classify as innovative in
intent, given that they are student-centered, devoted to communicative
interaction, and stress student autonomy in the language learning process (cf.
van Lier, 1996).18 The questions underlying our research were: 1. Do students

5
and teachers perceive the use of the same strategies similarly? 2. Are the
strategies as reported by the teachers related to their students’ motivation and
achievement? 3. Are the students’ perceptions of the use of these strategies
related to their motivation and achievement.19

EXERCISE 2: IDENTIFYING MOVE 1

Instructions: To what extent can you identify lexical words of Move 1 from a
sample of RA Introduction 1?
Currently, there have been many studies Sentence 1: __________________
______________________________
that have investigated the relationship
______________________________
between motivational variables and second ______________________________
______________________________
language (L2) achievement.1 These studies
______________________________
have particularly used many different ______________________________
Sentence 2: __________________
measures of motivation.2 Some studies have
______________________________
been based on the socio-educational ______________________________
______________________________
model of L2 acquisition and the Attitude
______________________________
Motivation Test Battery (AMTB; Gardner, ______________________________
1985, 2006), or on Noels’s (2001) adaptation
Sentence 3: __________________
of Deci and Ryan’s (1985) self-determination ______________________________
______________________________
theory, or on Clement’s (1980) social context
______________________________
model, and other studies have used items ______________________________
______________________________
developed for the purpose (see, e.g.,
______________________________
Dornyei & Clement, 2001).3 Although these ______________________________
______________________________
studies have used different
Sentence 4: __________________
conceptualizations of motivation, they all ______________________________
______________________________
found relationships between motivation and
______________________________
L2 achievement or other indexes of learning.4 ______________________________
______________________________
This type of research that focuses on
______________________________
individual difference correlates of language ______________________________
______________________________
achievement has been criticized, however,

6
b e c a u s e c r i t i c s h a v e c l a i m e d t h a t i t Sentence 5: __________________
______________________________
overlooks the importance of the teacher in
______________________________
t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s a n d t h a t t h e ______________________________
______________________________
contributions of the teacher are being
______________________________
i g n o r e d . … A l l o f t h e s e m o t i v a t i o n a l ______________________________
5

______________________________
strategies seem important, and, as a result
______________________________
of studies based largely on student or Sentence 6: __________________
______________________________
teacher responses to questionnaires, all of
______________________________
them have been proposed as potentially ______________________________
______________________________
important.6
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Instructions: Based on the CARS model, identify Move 1 from a sample of RA

Introduction 2. Then, answer the following questions.

Since the early 1980s, the school ______________________________

______________________________
accountability Movement in the United
______________________________
States has grown from the efforts of a few ______________________________
______________________________
states to establish minimum testing
______________________________
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r g r a d u a t i o n t o a n ______________________________
______________________________
encompassing nationwide effort to leverage
______________________________
improved academic outcomes through ______________________________
______________________________
state- and federal-testing requirements
______________________________
(Beadie, 2004; Thomas & Brady, 2005; Wells, ______________________________
______________________________
2009). 1 As policy actors attempted to
______________________________
l e v e r a g e i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h ______________________________
______________________________
accountability mechanisms, technological
______________________________
advances improved the speed and ease by ______________________________
______________________________

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which teachers could generate, analyze, ______________________________
______________________________
and respond to various educational data
______________________________
(Burch & Hayes, 2009; Wayman, 2005; ______________________________
______________________________
Wayman, Stringfield, & Yakimowski, 2004).2
______________________________
Due to technological advances, as well as ______________________________
______________________________
to public expectations and policy pressures,
______________________________
teachers across the United States are ______________________________
______________________________
expected to use a variety of data to inform
______________________________
and improve classroom practice (Anderson, ______________________________
______________________________
Leithwood, & Strauss, 2010; Means, Padilla,
______________________________
DeBarger, & Bakia, 2009; Wayman, Cho, ______________________________
______________________________
Jimerson, & Spikes, 2012). 3 Still, research
______________________________
indicates that educators struggle with using ______________________________
______________________________
data to inform practice, citing issues such as
______________________________
data systems, principal leadership, time, and ______________________________
______________________________
a lack of knowledge about how best to use
______________________________
data to improve instruction (Anderson et al., ______________________________
______________________________
2010; Earl & Fullan, 2003; Goertz, Olah, &
______________________________
Riggan, 2010; Means, Padilla, & Gallagher, ______________________________
______________________________
2010; Valli & Buese, 2007; Wayman, Cho, et
______________________________
al., 2012). Specific to knowledge, this same ______________________________
4

______________________________
research base often indicates that a lack of
______________________________
quality data-related professional learning ______________________________
______________________________
opportunities contribute to this knowledge
______________________________
gap. Quality is an operative word here –
5 ______________________________
______________________________
teachers are often exposed to plenty of
______________________________
professional learning about data use, but ______________________________
______________________________
often report that little of it meets their
______________________________
p r a c t i c a l n e e d s ( M e a n s e t a l . , 2 0 1 0 ; ______________________________

8
 Wayman, Cho, & Johnston, 2007; Wayman, ______________________________
______________________________
Cho, Jimerson, & Snodgrass Rangel, 2010).6

1. According to the above samples, can you identify the similarities and
differences in terms of lexical-grammatical features and rhetorical structure?

1.1 Lexical-grammatical features:

Similarities Differences
RA1

RA2

1.2 Rhetorical structure:

RA 1:

RA 2:

2. Recognize the characteristic of Move 1

Move 1:

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Exercise 3: Identifying Move 2

Instructions: Identify Move 2 from a sample of RA Introduction 1.

There appears to be little research, Sentence 7: __________________
______________________________
however, that has directly investigated the
______________________________
relationship between the use of these useful ______________________________
______________________________
strategies and student motivation or
______________________________
achievement in the language, or both; that ______________________________
______________________________
is, if one were to conduct a study in which
______________________________
some students were randomly assigned to ______________________________
______________________________
classes taught by teachers who actively
______________________________
followed some of these strategies while ______________________________
______________________________
other students were taught by teachers who
Sentence 8: __________________
d i d n o t u s e t h e s t r a t e g i e s , w o u l d t h e ______________________________
______________________________
anticipated results actually be obtained? 7
______________________________
Much research that has been done relating ______________________________
______________________________
teacher motivational strategies to student
______________________________
motivation and achievement in fact does ______________________________
Sentence 9: __________________
not even test the teachers. 8 Many of the
______________________________
r e s u l t s a r e b a s e d o n t h e s t u d e n t s ’ ______________________________
______________________________
perceptions of their teacher’s behavior, not
______________________________
necessarily on the teacher’s actual behavior ______________________________
______________________________
itself 9… Although the various strategies that
______________________________
have been proposed seem meaningful, ______________________________
Sentence 10: _________________
there is evidence to suggest that there may
______________________________
be disagreement between students and ______________________________
______________________________
teachers about the value of some
______________________________
strategies. For example, Schulz (2001) ______________________________
10

______________________________
investigated the perceived value of the use
______________________________
of grammar instruction and corrective ______________________________

10
f e e d b a c k i n s a m p l e s o f s t u d e n t s a n d Sentence 11: _________________
______________________________
teachers of foreign languages in Colombia
______________________________
and the United States. The results indicated ______________________________
11

______________________________
that although the teachers from the two
______________________________
countries showed reasonable agreement on ______________________________
______________________________
the use of grammar instruction and
______________________________
corrective feedback, as did the two student Sentence 12: _________________
______________________________
groups, there was a considerable degree of
______________________________
disagreement between the teachers and ______________________________
______________________________
the students in the two countries 12… Thus,
______________________________
there is evidence to suggest that students ______________________________
______________________________
and teachers perceive things differently.13
______________________________
There does not appear to be any study that Sentence 13: _________________
______________________________
has formed random classes of students and
______________________________
has systematically tested whether the use of ______________________________
______________________________
specific strategies has the hypothesized
Sentence 14: _________________
effect on motivation and achievement. 14 ______________________________
______________________________
There does not even appear to be any study
______________________________
that has asked both teachers and students ______________________________
______________________________
whether specific strategies were used in their
______________________________
classes. 15 ______________________________
______________________________
Sentence 15: _________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

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Instructions: Based on the CARS model, identify Move 2 from a sample of RA
Introduction 2. Then, answer the following questions.
Despite these proven challenges, Sentence 7: __________________
______________________________
studies rarely examine data related
______________________________
professional learning directly. Research on ______________________________
7

______________________________
data use sometimes addresses professional
______________________________
learning, but usually as a smaller piece of a ______________________________
______________________________
larger study (Anderson et al., 2010; Datnow,
Sentence 8: __________________
Park, & Wohlstetter, 2007; Supovitz & Klein, ______________________________
______________________________
2003; Wayman, Jimerson, & Cho, 2012). 8
______________________________
Further, the professional learning literature is ______________________________
______________________________
robust when it comes to characteristics of
______________________________
effective professional learning in a broader ______________________________
Sentence 9: __________________
sense, but supporting teachers for becoming
______________________________
better users of educational data is not a ______________________________
______________________________
focus of this body of research (e.g.,
______________________________
Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman, ______________________________
______________________________
2002; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, &
______________________________
Gallagher, 2007; Wei, DarlingHammond, ______________________________
______________________________
Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009).9
______________________________

12
1. According to the above samples, can you identify the similarities and
differences in terms of lexical-grammatical features and rhetorical structure?

1.1 Lexical-grammatical features:

Similarities Differences
RA1

RA2

1.2 Rhetorical structure:

RA 1:

RA 2:

2. Recognize the characteristics of Move 2

Move 2:

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Exercise 4: Identifying Move 3
Instructions: Identify Move 3 from a sample of RA Introduction 1.
The purpose of the present study was Sentence 16: _________________
______________________________
to investigate this issue of teacher and
______________________________
student perceptions of strategy use and the ______________________________
______________________________
effects of those strategies.16 In this study, we
______________________________
asked the teachers and the students to ______________________________
______________________________
indicate the extent to which 26 different
______________________________
teaching strategies were used in their ______________________________
______________________________
classes.17 There were 14 strategies that would
______________________________
be considered traditional, in that they tend ______________________________
______________________________
to be teacher centered and devoted
Sentence 17: _________________
p r i m a r i l y t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s o f ______________________________
______________________________
language training, and 12 strategies that
______________________________
most teachers would classify as innovative in ______________________________
______________________________
intent, given that they are student-centered,
______________________________
devoted to communicative interaction, and ______________________________
Sentence 18: _________________
stress student autonomy in the language
______________________________
learning process (cf. Van Lier, 1996). 18 The ______________________________
______________________________
questions underlying our research were: 1.
______________________________
Do students and teachers perceive the use ______________________________
______________________________
of the same strategies similarly? 2. Are the
______________________________
strategies as reported by the teachers ______________________________
Sentence 19: _________________
related to their students’ motivation and
______________________________
a c h i e v e m e n t ? 3 . A r e t h e s t u d e n t s ’ ______________________________
______________________________
perceptions of the use of these strategies
______________________________
r e l a t e d t o t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n a n d ______________________________
______________________________
achievement.19
______________________________
______________________________

14
Instructions: Based on the CARS model, identify Move 3 from a sample of RA
Introduction 3. Then, answer the following questions.
Consequently, the goal of the present Sentence 10: _________________
______________________________
study was to examine the intersection of
______________________________
professional learning and educational data ______________________________
______________________________
use.10 In pursuit of this goal, we focused on
______________________________
two research questions: (1) What skills do Sentence 11: _________________
______________________________
teachers need to use data effectively? (2)
______________________________
How should teachers receive data-related ______________________________
______________________________
professional learning?11
______________________________

1. According to the above samples, can you identify the similarities and
differences in terms of lexical-grammatical features and rhetorical structure?

1.1 Lexical-grammatical features:

Similarities Differences
RA1

RA2

1.2 Rhetorical structure:

RA 1:

RA 2:

15
2. Recognize the characteristics of Move 3
Move 3:

THESIS INTRODUCTION SECTION

As mentioned, introduction is the first important section of the research
paper focusing on the overview of the study. Based on CARS three moves, Move
1 establish your territory (say what the topic is about); Move 2 establish a niche
(show why there needs to be further research on your topic); and Move 3
introduce the current research (make hypotheses; state the research questions).
The theses introduction heading generally establishes a research territory from
literature review to clarify problem(s), theory, and find some solution. Most
introduction will be structured as follows:
1. Giving some background and stating the general topic;
2. Providing a review of the related literature;
3. Defining the terms and scope of the topic;
4. Outline the current situation
5. Evaluating the current situation (advantages/disadvantages) and
identifying the gap
6. Identifying the significance of the study
7. Stating the problems
8. Stating the research objectives and research questions
9. Stating hypotheses
10. Outlining the structures of the theses
Sometimes, it could be presented from the understanding of current
research and background information, problems, significance of the study,
research purpose(s), research question(s), definition of key terms, limitation of the
study, and structure or organization of the paper based on each discipline. The

16
information in each element should be informative and independent as distinct
from the research paper. Nevertheless, graduate students should study the
required sub-headings as university requirements including the reference and in-
text citation style. Furthermore, some questions might raise how you can initiate
this part and the length of each sub-heading should be appropriate.
Based on the graduate research paper (GRP) manual, there are five main
chapters. However, graduate students should consult advisors. That was
because the organization of GRP or theses generally depends upon the research
type (e.g., quantitative or qualitative), methodology of the study, and research
purpose(s) or research question(s) in each discipline. The organization of GRP
introduction is presented as follows:
1. Background or rationale of study: This part will be provided the general
background discussed the related and applicable theories and previous studies
to support the rationale.
2. Statement of problem: It presents the problem and explains how the
study is worth investigating. It introduces and discusses a problematic occurrence
with possible clarification.
3. Research objective(s): It states the purpose(s) and goal(s) of the study.
The objective(s) should be correlated to the general background of the study. If
there are more than two objectives in your study, the objective(s) will be sorted
out based on the significance.
4. Research question(s): It presents a clear, focused, concise, complex,
and arguable question(s) concerning specific issue(s) of your research. The
research question(s) help(s) you focus on a path through the research. It should
NOT present in Yes/No question.
5. Significant of study: The statement provides a number of benefits from
the study. It demonstrates briefly how the study is significant with (1) academic
knowledge, principles or theories and (2) applicable outcomes from this
implementation.

17
 6. Delimitation of the study: Delimitation of the study or scope of the study
will be set as factors of methodology e.g., sample population, data collecting
method, and research duration. These serve as criteria with reference to discuss
in research results.
7. Limitation of the study: This part provides limitation(s) of the study with
explanation of the problems and drawbacks of the study. These cause from
insufficient informants and instruments, time constraint.
8. Definition of terminology: A list of key terms should be presented with the
definition used in the study context to make sure that audience will understand
those terms in your study.
9. Organization of thesis: It demonstrates the provided organization of the
GRP.
Exercise 5: Identifying Thesis Introduction
Instructions: Look at the lists of the content in 4 thesis introductions and answer
the questions provided.

1. Based on the lists of thesis introductions from 3 universities, can you see the
different or similar contents from those lists?

18
2. How do the lists of the introductions imply?

3. Based on your interesting research title, what sub-headings of introduction will

you include in your thesis?

4. What statement of each part will you establish in your thesis introduction?

As seen, the sub-genres of thesis introduction in each university can elicit

the different organization of those theses. Also, it might be based on research
problems, research types, research questions, and methodology to figure out
the potential application or intervention in each discipline. Nevertheless, the
statement mentioned in thesis introduction should establish the understanding of
current research and background information, stating problems, establishing
significance of the study, stating purpose(s) of the research and research
question(s) and methodological approach from literature review. It should be
presented as paragraphs with main idea or thesis statement patternized in the
essays (introduction, body, and conclusion).

19
Language Focus

Table 1: Lexical-grammatical features: Establishing significance (Move 1)

Lexical choices and lexical bundles

basic issue range (of) (has) focused (on)
common issue rapid rise (has been) extensively
fundamental issue remarkable variety studied
crucial issue economically important for a number of years
major issue importance/ important for many years
current problem numerous investigations there has been significant
central problem possible benefits research
classic feature potential applications of great concern
striking feature recent decades of growing interest
challenging area well-documented one of the best-known
essential element well-known over the past ten years
vital aspect widely recognized play a key role (in)
worthwhile study widespread play a major part (in)
numerous studies worthwhile attracted much attention
considerable number benefit/ beneficial during the past two decades
increasing number commercial interest generally
dramatic increase traditional(ly) frequently
significant increase typical(ly) usually
interesting field (an) advantage nowadays
key technique great deal of often
leading cause much more prominently today
popular method much study in recent more recently
powerful method years in general
useful method much of this research generally
profitable technology traditionally

Examples:
• A great deal of research has been carried out using Systemic Functional
Linguistics (SFL) methods to examine the ways history textbooks….
• Much of this research has looked at how various, often contentious,
historical topics are represented in textbooks across different educational
contexts…
• Research has frequently focused on (teachers’) role in the professioal
development of trainees…

20
 • Personal pronouns have been widely studied as an engagement feature
in academic discourse. Traditionally, the main focus has been on research
writing, particularly RAs (RAs) (Harwood,2005; Hyland, 2001; Kuo, 1999).
More recently, there has been significant research on pronoun use in
spoken genres, including lectures (Cheng, 2012; Fortanet, 2004; Lee, 2009;
Rounds, 1987; Yeo & Ting, 2014) and conference presentations (CPs)…
Research shows the existence of important differences both in the quantity
and role of presonal pronouns in academic speech and writing, in general,
but also acrooss genres and disciplines. Generally, speaking, academic
writing shows a clear preferences for we over I and you (Hyland, 2001;
Kuo, 1999). While the latter could convey a potentially offensive “stark
detachment” (Hyland, 2001, p. 557) from readers, inclusive we can
strategically show positive politeness towards them, by acknowledging—
arguably, only cosmetically (Harwood, 2005) –their status as expert equals.
I and you feature much more prominently in university lectures (Fortanet,
2004; Okamura, 2009) and CPs (Rowley-Jolivet & Carter-Thomas, 2005a;
Webber, 2005).
• Numerous studies have established that I, we, and you have been found
to occur far more frequently in CPs than in RAs.

Table 2: Lexical-grammatical features: Contributing present research (Verbs used

in Literature review)

Lexical choices (verbs)

achieve concentrate discover improve recommend
address conclude discuss incorporate report
adopt conduct enhance indicate reveal
analyze confirm establish interpret revise
apply consider estimate introduce review
argue construct evaluate investigate simulate
assume correlate examine measure suggest
attempt deal with explain model support
calculate debate explore monitor undertake
categorize define extend note use
carry out demonstrate formulate observe utilize
choose describe generate prefer
claim design identify propose
classify detect illustrate provide
collect determine implement realize
compare develop imply recognize

Examples:

21
 • Cohen’s (2005) study of nearly 800 history course syllabi at US colleges and
universities found that “fully one-third of U.S. history surveys in which a
textbook is assigned make use of no other books” while only “a small
minority of those courses use the primary-source reader that can be
purchased with their textbooks” (p. 1407)…
• Spring (1991) observes that many textbooks at this level “convey the
impression that scholars agree on a particular body of knowledge” and
recommends instead that authors focus on producing an “original
synthesis or interpretation [that] can make a contributin to their field” (p.
197).
• Crismore’s (1983) pioneering research on metadiscourse in history texts
catalogues a number of less explicit forms of disciplinary engagement
including the use of hedges (may, might) and other resources for …
• McKeown and Beck (2010) propose various ways textbooks can be
modified to make them more engaging and comprehensible to students,
including greater “connectivity” between the reader and the text through
the use of …

Table 3: Lexical-grammatical features: Identifying gap, question, problem, and

criticism (Move 2)

Lexical choices and lexical bundles

ambiguous absence of weakness not well understood
confused alternative ineffective not/no longer useful
deficient approach inefficient of little value
doubtful challenge inferior over-simplistic
expensive defect inflexible time-consuming
false difficulty insufficient unanswered
far from perfect disadvantage meaningless uncertain
ill-defined drawback misleading overlook
impractical error non-existent computationally
improbable flaw not addressed demanding
inaccurate gap in our not apparent need to re-examine
inadequate knowledge not deal with few studies have…
incapable lack not repeatable it is necessary to …
incompatible limitation not studied little evidence is
inconsistent need for not sufficiently + available
inconvenient clarification adj little work has been
poor no correlation unlikely done
problematic obstacle unresolved more work is needed
questionable problem demand there is growing
redundant clarification concern
restricted neglect this is not the case
risk unfortunately

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 Based on aforementioned lists of lexical choice, it is often signalled by
contrastive conjunctions (e.g., however, nevertheless, but, although, while, and
despite).

Examples:
• Few of these studies, however, have explored the actual interpersonal
language of these text, including the explicit evaluations that are
performed about historical actors and past events by the authorial voice
and other discourse participants (see Oteiza, 2003; Coffin, 1997). Moreover,
research up to now has been firmly focused on secondary school
textbooks…Despite the prominent role textbooks play in university
classrooms, little is known about the ways these books evaluate the past
and how they might differ from secondary school ones in the types of
evaluations that are used and the kinds of discourse participants who
perform them.
• Compared to lectures, there are few specific studies on pronoun use in
CPs.
• Few researchers have addressed the problem of…
• There remains a need for an efficient method that can…
• However, light scattering techniques have been largely unsuccessful to
date.
• The high absorbance makes this an impractical option in cases where…
• Unfortunately, these methods do not always guarantee…
• An alternative approach is necessary…
• These can be time-consuming and are often technically difficult to
perform.
• Although this approach improves performance, it results in an
unacceptable number of…
• Previous studies have focused only on…
• However, the quantitative study was far from optimal

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Table 4: Lexical-grammatical features: Establishing present study (Move 3)
Lexical choices and lexical bundles
(to) attempt (to) minimize Presented in detail Effective/effectively
(to) compare (to) offer Present work Efficient/efficiently
(to) concentrate (to) outline this work Excellent results
(to) conclude (to) predict this paper simple
(to) describe (to) present this project straightforward
(to) discuss (to) propose this report successful
(to) enable (to) provide this study valuable
(to) evaluate (to) reveal begin by/with new
(to) expect accurately here aim
(to) facilitate organized as follows: overview goal
(to) illustrate Set out as follows: practical intention
(to) improve close attention is objective
(to) succeed paid to purpose
(to) manage to

Examples:
• This study provides a comprehensive description of the distribution and
functions of audience-spcific you,…
• The aim of the study is to show, using a corpus of NS presenations which is
broadly comparable in terms of discipline, topic, speaker expertise,…The
following general research questions guided the investigation:
1) Who are the actual referents of you in CPs?
2) What roles are attributed to the audience through the use of
explicit you?
3) What differences are there in the use of you –mentions by native
and non-native English presenters?
• The present study aims to provide more insight into these issue by
examining various types of evaluative meanings and the discourse
participants…
• Of particular relevance to this study is the area of the Appraisal framework
called Attitude,…The paper also uses Myskow’s (inpress-a, in press-b)
Levels of Evaluation framework to track the types of discourse participants

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 • To explore these issues, the article examines the following two questions:
To what extent do secondary school and university textbooks differ with
respect to:
(1) Types of evaluations: people (Judgment), things (Appreciation),
and construal of emotion (Affect)?
(2) Sources of evaluation: historical actors; the authorial voice; other
historians?
• In this paper, we investigate the link between the educators’ discursive
strategies and …Subsequently, we explore how these topics are
transformed into professional knowledge. We examine the mentors’
strategies through the analysis of verbal… We use two excerpts to discuss
how the types of interactional dynamics are linked to the problematic
issues raised by PTs and how they influence the profession knowledge
development. Our research aims to answer three questions:
a) What are the discursive mentoring strategies and the
interactional dynamics at play within the conversations?
b) How are they linked to the discussed topics?
c) How do they impact knowledge construction?

Though a typical organizational pattern of RA is IMRD, you need to carry

on writing a longer research paper. The parts of research paper or research
report generally organized from title, abstract, introduction, literature review,
methods, results, discussion, and references. With different purposes of those
sections, the present tense has been found in introduction section based on
Swales’ (2004) study. However, there are other tenses (past simple and present
perfect) used in this section as shown in the previous examples.
Sometimes, you have to use the present simple to refer to the type of text
or to present your fresh and new research. E.g., the purpose of this study is….

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 If you use past simple, it may refer to the type of investigation (your study).
E.g., the aims of the present study was to…. It shows that your original objective
has changed now. Consequently, you can use present purposive statement for
Move 3 with either present and past simple. E.g., the purpose of this study
is/was….
Table 5: Lexical-grammatical features: Establishing present study (Move 3)
Lexical choices (Objective action verbs)
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
cite assess apply analyze arrange appraise
count associate calculate appraise assemble assess
define classify choose contract collect choose
describe compare complete criticize combine compare
draw compute choose debate compose critique
identify contrast demonstrate deduce construct decide
indicate demonstrate develop detect create determine
list describe employ diagram design estimate
name differentiate examine infer detect evaluate
point discuss illustrate inspect document grade
quote distinguish match inventory formulate judge
read experiment operate measure generalize measure
recite explain order question integrate rank
recognize express practice separate manage rate
record extrapolate prescribe summarize organize recommend
relate interpolate restate plan revise
report interpret schedule prepare score
select locate sketch prescribe select
state predict solve produce test
summarize report treat proposes
use

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