Tex as A& M University

ECEN 314– Spring 2022

Signals and Systems

Module 7

Review of AC Circuits
Learning Objectives

Be able to find the sinusoidal steady state response of a

linear circuit.
Be able to find the sinusoidal steady state response of an
LTI system described by an ODE.
Understand the difference between a phasor transform and
a Laplace transform.
Sinusoids
A sinusoidal (a.k.a, alternating current, AC) signal has the general form

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃

and is described by three parameters

𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 = amplitude (Volts, Amps, etc.)
𝜃𝜃 = phase (radians or degrees)
𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = frequency (rad/sec)
or 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 /2𝜋𝜋 = frequency in Hz (cycles per sec)
1.5

𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜
0.5

-0.5

1
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 =
-1 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 = period 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
-1.5

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Sinusoids
The polar representation (in terms of amplitude and phase) of the sinusoid on
the previous slide can also be written in an equivalent Cartesian (rectangular)
form.
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃 (polar form)

Using the trig identity cos 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 − sin 𝑥𝑥 sin(𝑦𝑦), the above
expression becomes

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 cos(θ)cos 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 sin 𝜃𝜃 sin(𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)

Let 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 sin(𝜃𝜃). Then

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 sin(𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) (Cartesian form)

(notice the minus sign)

If we have a sinusoid in its Cartesian form, we can convert to polar form

using

𝐵𝐵
𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 = 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 2 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 (𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ).
𝑜𝑜
Phasors
In electrical engineering, it is common to represent sinusoidal waveforms in
terms of complex numbers known as phasors. Doing so greatly simplifies the
analysis.

A general sinusoidal waveform can be written as

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡+𝜃𝜃 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡

Let 𝑿𝑿 be the complex number 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 . Then:

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑿𝑿𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡 ]

sinusoidal Phasor
signal

Note that the magnitude and angle of the phasor represent the amplitude
and phase of the sine wave.
 Sinusoids in Circuit Elements
Resistors Inductors Capacitors
If the current is a If the current is a If the voltage is a
sinusoid, sinusoid, sinusoid,
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃), 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃), 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃),

then the voltage is a then the voltage is a then the current is a

sinusoid, sinusoid, sinusoid,
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡
= 𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃). = −ω𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃). = −ω𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃).

In terms of phasors, In terms of phasors, In terms of phasors,

𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 , 𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 , 𝑰𝑰 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 ,
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 . 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑗𝑗ω𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 . 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 .

Therefore, in the phasor Therefore, in the phasor Therefore, in the phasor

domain, domain, domain,

1
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰𝑅𝑅. 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑰𝑰. 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰.
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Complex Impedance
For the purposes of analyzing circuits with Rs, Ls and Cs that are driven by
sinusoidal (AC) sources, we can analyze the circuit using phasors in which
case the voltage/current relationship for all three types of elements are
basically the same:

𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰𝑍𝑍.

The quantity 𝑍𝑍 is known as the (complex) impedance.

Element Time Domain Phasor Z

Domain
Resistor 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑅𝑅
Inductor 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Capacitor 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1 1
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
AC Circuit Analysis Using Phasors
If we were to analyze a circuit that is being
driven by an AC source, we would expect to see
a differential equation something like: Circuit containing
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 R’s, L’s, and C’s
𝑎𝑎 2 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) might be a voltage or a current.

The solution will consist of: With typical component values we

 Homogeneous part use, the transient part will become
• Consists of decaying exponentials, insignificant after only small
damped sinusoids. fractions of a second.
• Due to initial energy stored in circuit
elements. As a result, we are often interested
• Transient  Will decay to 0 over time. in only the “steady state” part of
 Particular part the solution which is sinusoidal in
• Something like nature.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃)
• Persistent  does not decay over time. We use phasors/impedances to
• Sinusoidal (with same frequency as help us find the sinusoidal steady
source) state solution to AC circuits.
AC Circuit Analysis Using Phasors
Example: 90Ω 32𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Assuming
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 = 15cos(5000𝑡𝑡 + 30°) volts, 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)
find 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 in the circuit shown
using phasors. 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) 5𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Transfer Functions
o If a sinusoidal (AC) input 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) is
applied to a circuit and we measure an +
output voltage (or current), 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) Circuit containing
somewhere in the circuit, the output will 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
R’s, L’s, and C’s
be a sinusoid of the same frequency, _
but not necessarily the same amplitude
and/or phase.
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 ), In the phasor domain:
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 . o 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 , 𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜
o Transfer function:
o The ratio of the output voltage to the 𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
input voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 /𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 will depend on the 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 =
𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
frequency of the input and is referred to o Magnitude response:
as the magnitude response of the 𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
circuit. 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = = =
𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
o Phase response:
o The difference between the phase at 𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
the output and the input, 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 , will ∠ 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = ∠ 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
also depend on frequency and is called = ∠𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − ∠𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
the phase response of the circuit.
Transfer Functions
For the series RLC circuit of the RLC Lowpass Filter
previous example, if the output voltage 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
is measured on the capacitor,
1
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 +
𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜 = 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1 1
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
1 _
= 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
1.5

𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜 1
𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = =
𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
1

0.5
Magnitude Response

1
𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔) = 0

1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10

𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
-50

∠ 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = − tan−1
1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
-100
Phase Response (degrees)

-150

-200

0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)
Transfer Functions
Alternatively, for the series RLC circuit RLC Bandpass Filter
1
of the previous example, if the output 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
voltage is measured on the resistor,
𝑅𝑅
𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜 = 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1 +
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 _
1 + 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = = 1

𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

0.5
Magnitude Response

𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔) =
0

0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10

1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

100

50

𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
∠ 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = − tan−1
Phase Response (degrees)

-50

2 1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 -100

0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)
 General Systems
These ideas can be extended to applications beyond
just circuits. Consider any generic system where 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) System described 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)
by a differential
the relationship between the input and output can
equation.
be described by a differential equation.
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 Phasor Domain:
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑿𝑿𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑿𝑿𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
= 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[(𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)2 𝑿𝑿𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝒀𝒀 ⋮
= 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 (𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑿𝑿 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[(𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)𝑚𝑚 𝑿𝑿𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚
𝒀𝒀 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 (𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑎𝑎0
𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = = 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝒀𝒀𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ,
𝑿𝑿 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎(𝜔𝜔) = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝒀𝒀𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
𝑏𝑏(𝜔𝜔) 𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[(𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)2 𝒀𝒀𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ],
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
Working in the phasor/frequency domain allows us
⋮
to solve algebraic equations rather than differential
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦
equations. = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 𝑛𝑛 𝒀𝒀𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 .
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛
 General Systems
It should be noted that these concepts are very similar to what we did with Laplace
Transforms previously.
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Phasor Laplace
Transform Transform
𝒀𝒀
𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
𝑿𝑿 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 (𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔)𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2
+ 𝑎𝑎1 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)
=
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑏𝑏
1 0 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎0
=
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏0

“Frequency” Domain 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 Laplace Domain

Note: Since the sinusoids we are now dealing with are not one-sided, we cannot
really handle them with a Laplace Transform.