Tex as A& M University

ECEN 314– Spring 2022

Signals and Systems

Module 8

Circuits and Systems with Non-Sinusoidal Inputs

Learning Objectives

Given a transfer function, 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔), of an LTI system, be able to quickly find the
response of the system to any sinusoidal input.
Be able to derive the formula for the Fourier cosine series coefficients and the
Fourier sine series coefficients.
Given an even periodic function, be able to find the Fourier cosine series
coefficients.
Given an odd periodic function, be able to find the Fourier cosine series
coefficients.
Given a transfer function, 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔), of an LTI system, be able to find the response
of that system to a periodic input, represented as a Fourier series.
 Circuit with Sum of Two
Sinusoidal Inputs
The concepts of phasors provides us with
a “frequency domain” tool to study AC +
circuits with sinusoidal inputs. These + Circuit containing
slides will show how to extend these 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) _ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
R’s, L’s, and C’s
ideas to circuits/systems that have _
periodic inputs that are not necessarily
sinusoidal.

Suppose, as a first example, the input was the sum of two sinusoids of different
frequencies
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝜔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜔𝜔2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃2 .

According to the principle of superposition,

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐵𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝜔1 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑1 + 𝐵𝐵2 cos 𝜔𝜔2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑2 ,
where
𝐵𝐵1 /𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔1 ) , 𝐵𝐵2 /𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔2 ) , 𝜑𝜑1 -𝜃𝜃1 = ∠𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔1 ), 𝜑𝜑2 -𝜃𝜃2 = ∠𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔2 ),

Here, 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔) is the transfer function of the circuit.

Circuit with Sum of Two
Sinusoidal Inputs
From the last lecture, the RLC lowpass RLC Lowpass Filter
filter has a transfer function given by 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜 1
𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = = ,
𝑽𝑽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
+
Suppose the input is: +
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) 1
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 _ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
1 _
= cos 1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + cos(3000π𝑡𝑡)
9

For 𝐿𝐿 = 32𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, R = 90Ω, C = 5μ𝐹𝐹,

1.5

v (t)
in

v (t)

𝐻𝐻 1000𝜋𝜋 = 0.6546𝑒𝑒 −112.3° ,

out

𝐻𝐻 3000𝜋𝜋 = 0.0721𝑒𝑒 −162.2° , 0.5

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡
= 0.6546 cos 1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 112.3° -0.5

+ 0.008007cos(3000π𝑡𝑡 − 162.2°) -1

-1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

time (ms)
 Circuit with Sum of Many
Sinusoidal Inputs
Naturally, we can extend this idea to an
input that consists of the sum of any +
number of sinusoids. +
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) Circuit containing
_ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
R’s, L’s, and C’s
If _
𝑀𝑀

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 ,

𝑚𝑚=1
You may be thinking, “That’s
then nice and all, but when do we
𝑀𝑀 ever have an input to our circuit
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜑𝜑𝑚𝑚 , that is the sum of a bunch of
sinusoids?”
𝑚𝑚=1
where
It turns out that almost any
𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 /𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻(𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚 ) , periodic waveform can be
represented in this fashion and
𝜑𝜑𝑚𝑚 − 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 = ∠𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚 . so we can almost always use
this approach.
Circuit with Sum of Many
Sinusoidal Inputs
Extending our previous example, suppose RLC Lowpass Filter
the input is 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
1
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = � cos(1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) +
𝑚𝑚2 + 1
𝑚𝑚=1,3,5,7,9 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
_ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
For 𝐿𝐿 = 32𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, R = 90Ω, C = 5μ𝐹𝐹, _
1.5
v (t)

𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯(𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝝅𝝅) ∠𝑯𝑯(𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝝅𝝅)

in

v (t)
out

(degrees)
1

1 654.6e-3 -112.3 0.5

3 72.07e-3 -162.2 0

5 25.56e-3 -169.6 -0.5

7 12.98e-3 -172.6 -1

9 7.840e-3 -174.3 -1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

𝐻𝐻(1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
time (ms)

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 = � cos(1000𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 + ∠𝐻𝐻(1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋))

𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚=1,3,5,7,9
 Constructing Periodic
Signals From Sinusoids
In the previous example, we were able to construct a signal that looked very
much like a triangle wave with a handful of sinusoids. In the next slides, we
will try to generalize this idea.

Suppose we try to construct a periodic signal from a linear combination of 𝐾𝐾

cosines (or sines)
𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡) , or 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 sin(𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡) .

𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1

 Since cosine is an even function, the sum of cosines would also have to be
an even function.  𝑥𝑥 −𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡).

 Since sine is an odd function, the sum of sines would also have to be an odd
function.  𝑦𝑦 −𝑡𝑡 = −𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡).

 The period of 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) or 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 (if they are actually periodic) will depend on the
relationship between the frequencies, 𝜔𝜔1 , 𝜔𝜔2 , … 𝜔𝜔𝐾𝐾 .
 Constructing Periodic
Signals From Sinusoids
Suppose we chose the frequencies of our various sinusoids as 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 .
o 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 is called the fundamental frequency.
2𝜋𝜋
o cos(𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) (or sin(𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)) is periodic with a period of 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 , where 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = .
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

o 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 is called the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡 harmonic of 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 .

2𝜋𝜋
o cos(𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡) (or sin(𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡)) is periodic with a period of 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 , where 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 = .
𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘

𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = = = → 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 = .
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘

If we form a sum of harmonically related cosines (or sines)

𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) , or 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) ,

𝑘𝑘=0 𝑘𝑘=1

the resulting signal, 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) (or 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)) will be periodic with a period of 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 .
 Constructing Periodic
Signals From Sinusoids
Harmonically related sinusoids are said to be mutually orthogonal to one
another. What that means is that if we multiply two harmonically related
sinusoids together and integrate over one period, the result will always be zero
∫𝑇𝑇 cos(𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)cos 𝑛𝑛𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 for any integers 𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛.
𝑜𝑜

∫𝑇𝑇 sin(𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)sin 𝑛𝑛𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 for any integers 𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛.
𝑜𝑜

∫𝑇𝑇 sin(𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)cos 𝑛𝑛𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 for any integers 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛.
𝑜𝑜

Suppose we have an even periodic waveform, 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), with a period of 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 . Under
a fairly mild set of restrictions which could be loosely summarized as “𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
must be well behaved,” we can approximate such a waveform from a linear
combination of harmonically related cosines

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 ≅ ∑𝐾𝐾
𝑘𝑘=0 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡).

 As 𝐾𝐾 → ∞, the approximation becomes arbitrarily good.

 This is known as the Fourier cosine series.

 Constructing Periodic
Signals From Sinusoids
∞

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)

𝑘𝑘=0
To see how to choose the series coefficients, multiply both sides of the
equation by cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) and integrate over one period
∞

� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘=0
∞

= � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 � cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑘𝑘=0 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
Due to the orthogonality of the harmonically related cosines, only one term in
this series contributes anything (the term where 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚) so that
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
, 𝑚𝑚 ≠ 0,
� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 � cos 2 (𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 , 𝑚𝑚 = 0.
2
� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)cos(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑚𝑚 ≠ 0,
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 =
1
� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑚𝑚 = 0.
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
 Constructing Periodic
Signals From Sinusoids
If we want to construct an odd periodic function, 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) , from a series of
sinusoids, we use sines instead of cosines
∞

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) .

𝑘𝑘=1

Following a procedure identical to the last slide we determine the formula for
choosing the coefficients of the Fourier sine series
∞

� 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) sin(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘=1
∞
𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
= � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 � sin 𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 2
𝑘𝑘=1
2
𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 = � 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
 Fourier Sine and Cosine Series
Summarizing these results

Fourier Cosine Series Fourier Sine Series

(for even periodic functions) (for odd periodic functions)
∞ ∞

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡)

𝑘𝑘=0 𝑘𝑘=1

2 2
� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)cos(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0, 𝑌𝑌𝑘𝑘 = � 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑘𝑘𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 =
1 Note: The Fourier sine series does not
� 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑘𝑘 = 0.
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 include the 𝑘𝑘 = 0 (DC) term.
2𝜋𝜋
 In the above expressions, 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 is the period of the periodic waveforms and 𝜔𝜔𝑜𝑜 = .
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

 The integrals in the above expressions are taken over the duration of one period,
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 . The starting and ending points of the integral are arbitrary as long as they
differ by 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 .
Example
Find the Fourier Series coefficients for
the periodic square wave shown.
1
... ...

−1 1 3 5 𝑡𝑡
Example
Find the Fourier Series coefficients for
the periodic square wave shown.

... 1
...

−1 1 3 5 𝑡𝑡
−1
 Example
1
For the RLC Lowpass filter with transfer function, 𝐻𝐻 𝜔𝜔 = , find the
1−𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
response to the square wave input below if 𝑅𝑅 = 1Ω, 𝐿𝐿 = 1𝐻𝐻, 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝐹𝐹.

... 1
...

−1 1 3 5 𝑡𝑡
−1
 1.5

input

output
1
1

0.8
0.5

|H(jω)|, Yk
0
0.6
x(t), y(t)

-0.5
0.4

-1
0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-1.5

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

t (sec) OutputωFS coefficients

(rad/sec)
0.035

0.03

0.025
Yk|H(jω)|

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
ω (rad/sec)