Part IV

MODULE 4 : Electrical Properties of

Materials

43
Chapter 7

Classical and Quantum Free Electron Theory

of Metals

7.1 Electrical Conductivity and Re- part of solid state physics. The phonon plays an important
role in many of the physical properties of solids such as the
sistivity thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity. The
Consider a conductor carrying electric current 𝐼 with the conduction electrons in a metal collide against lattice
area of cross section 𝐴 perpendicular to the current. The ions during the motion. The interaction is considered to be
current density 𝐽 is defined as the ration of current 𝐼 to the of type phonon exchange.This results in non-radioactive
area of cross section 𝐴. Hence transitions.

𝐼
𝐽= (7.1) 7.4 Mathiesen’s Rule
𝐴
It is observed that the current density is proportional to A Metal consists of lattice ions and impurity atoms that
the applied electric field in a conductor. And hence are held together by free electrons. Free electrons wander
inside the crystal. During the motion electrons undergo
𝐽∝𝐸 (7.2) scattering by lattice ions and impurity atoms. The resistiv-
ity 𝜌 of a conductor is mainly attributed to two reasons
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 (7.3)
1. Scattering of electrons with the vibrating lattice ions.
The constant of proportionality 𝜎 is called Electrical Con-
The resistivity of the metal due to electron lattice ion
ductivity of the conductor. The Electrical Resistivity 𝜌 =
scattering is given by
𝜎 of the material is the reciprocal of the Electrical Con-
1

ductivity of the material and is the property of the mate- 𝜌 𝑝ℎ =

𝑚
(7.5)
rial by the virtue of which it opposes the flow of current 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑝ℎ
through it.
2. Scattering of electrons by the presence of impurities
present in the metal. The scattering also occurs from
7.2 Mobility of conduction electrons the lattice dislocations and grain boundaries. The re-
sistivity of the metal due to such scattering is given
It is found that the drift velocity depends on the applied by
field strength and is mathematically given by 𝑣 𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸. 𝜌𝑖 = 2
𝑚
(7.6)
Here 𝜇 is called the mobility of the free electrons. It is de- 𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑖
fined as the drift velocity acquired by the conduction elec-
Thus net resistivity of the conductor is given by
trons per unit field strength.
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 𝑑 𝑒𝜏 𝜎 1 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑝ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 = + (7.7)
𝜇= = = = 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 (7.4) 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑝ℎ 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑖
𝐸 𝑚 𝑛𝑒 𝜌𝑛𝑒
The above equation is called Matthiessen’s Rule, Which
7.3 Concept of Phonon states that the net resistivity of conductor is equal to the
sum of the resistivity due to the phonon scattering which is
A Phonon is a quantum of lattice vibration, the collective temperature dependent and resistivity due to the presence
motion of atoms constituting a crystal. The Energies and of impurity which is temperature independent. Graphically
Momenta of Phonons are quantized. It is often character- the variation of resistance with temperature and impurity is
ized as Heat Energy. The study of phonon is an important as follows.

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7.6 Quantum free electron theory of

metals
The failures of classical free electron theory led to the
rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was proposed by
Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum free electron
theory is based on the following assumptions.

7.6.1 Assumptions
7.5 Failures of classical free electron 1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum free
theory of metals electron theory, energy values of free electrons are
quantized. The energy values of free electrons are dis-
Classical free electron theory of metal is successful in crete since their motion is confined within the bound-
explaining the certain experimentally observed facts of aries of the metal.
electronic conduction in solids and thermal conductivity.
2. Thus in a metal there exists large number of closely
This theory fails to explain certain other experimental ob-
spaced energy levels for free electrons which form a
servations. The following are the failures of classical free
band.
electron theory of metals.
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy levels
7.5.1 Electronic specific heat of solids is as per the Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only a max-
imum of two electrons can occupy a given an energy
According to the Classical Free Electron Theory Metals level. This also suggests the availability of two energy
the electronic specific heat is given by states for free electrons in an energy level correspond-
3 ing to spin up and spin down states.
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 12.5𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 𝐾 −1 (7.8)
2 4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed to
The experimental value of electronic specific heat is be constant throughout the metal.
𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇. It is very small and also temperature depen- 5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the at-
dent Hence Classical theory fails to explain the electronic traction between electrons and lattice ions are ne-
specific heat of solids. glected.

7.5.2 Dependence of 𝜎 on temperature 7.6.2 Fermi energy

According to classical free electron theory of metals For a metal consisting of 𝑁 atom there exists 𝑁 num-
the electrical conductivity 𝜎√is inversely proportional to ber of energy levels in each band. These energy levels are
square root of temperature ( 𝑇). But experiments reveal very closely spaced. The energy levels in bands fillup as
that electrical conductivity (𝜎) is inversely proportional to per Pauli’s exclusion principle. Thus free electrons in a
temperature (𝑇). Hence classical free electron theory fails metal start filling up the available energy levels from the
to explain dependence of electrical conductivity (𝜎) on the lower most level of the valence band. The highest filled
temperature (𝑇). energy level in a metal at absolute zero by free electrons
is called Fermi Level and the corresponding energy is
7.5.3 Dependence of 𝜎 on 𝑛, the number called Fermi Energy (𝐸 𝐹 ). Thus, at absolute zero and
density with no electric field applied, all levels below Fermi level
are completely filled and above Fermi level are empty.
The theory predicts the direct dependence of electrical
conductivity (𝜎) on number of free electrons per unit vol-
ume (𝑛) called number density. But experiments have re- 7.6.3 Density of States (DoS)
vealed different with 𝜎𝐶𝑢 > 𝜎𝐴𝑙 even though the the num- According to band theory Energy bands are formed in
ber densities 𝑛𝐶𝑢 < 𝑛 𝐴𝑙 . . Hence it fails to explain the de- solids and in a band the spacing between two successive
pendence of electrical conductivity 𝜎 on the number free energy levels decreases with increase in energy.
electrons per unit volume 𝑛. The experimental observa-
tions are as in the table below. The Density of States is defined as the number of en-
Metal 𝜎(Ω−1 𝑚 −1 ) 𝑛(𝑚 −3 ) ergy states available per unit volume of the material in
Copper 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028 the unit energy range in the valence band of the mate-
Aluminium 3.65 × 107 18.06 × 1028 rial. It is mathematically a continuous function denoted

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Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 < 𝐸 𝐹

and at T = 0K
The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(7.11)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 is negative. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0
Figure 7.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  = = =1
𝑓 𝑒 −∞ +1 0+1
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
by 𝑔(𝐸). The number of energy levels in the energy range There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 1. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 per unit volume of the material is given by below the Fermi level are completely filled.
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸.
√ !
8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 1
Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 > 𝐸 𝐹
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 − 2 𝑑𝐸 (7.9) and at T = 0K
ℎ3
The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓
The variation of 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 as a function of 𝐸 is given by is positive. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0

1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  = = =0
𝑓 𝑒∞ +1 ∞+1
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 0. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
above the Fermi level are empty.

Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐹

Figure 7.2: Density of states function vs Energy and at T > 0K
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 = 0. Substituting the values

1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = 0
= = = 0.5 (7.12)
7.6.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi 𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑇 ) +1 1 + 1 2
factor
Thus for all temperatures above 0 𝐾 the probability of
The occupation of energy levels by free electrons in the occupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation of Fermi
valence band of a metal is according to Pauli’s exclusion factor with temperature is as shown in the graph 7.3
principle. This distribution of electrons is not random.
It follows a certain universal rule of distribution called
Fermi-Dirac Statistics. The probability of occupation of
an energy level of energy (𝐸) at temperature (𝑇) un-
der thermal equilibrium is evaluated using an expression
called Fermi Factor.
1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(7.10)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1

7.6.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy

and temperature
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy and Figure 7.3: Variation of 𝑓 (𝐸) as a function of Temperature
temperature. This dependence could be explained for en- and Energy
ergy levels below and above Fermi level at absolute zero
and higher temperatures.

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Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 above the Fermi level at 200𝐾
and 400𝐾.
2. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 below the Fermi level at 400𝐾.

3. The Fermi level for silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉. What is the en-

ergy for which probability of occupancy at 300𝐾 is
0.01
4. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability
that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi energy
is occupied.
5. Find the probability that an energy level at 0.2𝑒𝑉 be-
low Fermi level being occupied at temperature 300𝐾
and 1000𝐾

6. Calculate the probability that an electron occupies an

energy level 0.02 eV above Fermi level at 300 K.

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Chapter 8

Superconductivity

8.1 Introduction to Superconductiv- exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc-

tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor-
phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur-
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis- superconducting state. Thus 𝑇𝑐 is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de- temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature 𝑇𝑐 =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15𝐾 and 0𝐾 Mercury 8.2 Meissner’s Effect
offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su-
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal
perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al-
once again when temperature was increased above 4.15K.
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it’s tem-
This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material
perature is above 𝑇𝑐 . If the temperature is reduced below
which exhibits the property is named superconductor.
the critical temperature Tc then it expels all the flux lines
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia-
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as magnetism. This is known as Meissner’s effect. Since
“The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer- critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
tain temperature is called superconductivity material is zero.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia-

tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure
metals with temperature is as shown below.

The expression for magnetic flux density is given by

Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) (8.1)
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit-
ical temperature, denoted by 𝑇𝑐 . Critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 Here 𝐵 is Magnetic Flux Density, 𝑀 is Magnetization and
is different for different substances. The materials, which 𝐻 is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon-

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ductor, 𝐵 = 0 at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . Thus we get Type I Superconductors

𝑀 = −𝐻 (8.2) paragraph Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meis-
sener’s Effect and posses a single value of critical field .
Thus Meissner’s Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo- The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as
ment associated with superconductors. shown in the Fig.8.1. As the field strength increases the
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until 𝐻 be-
comes equal to 𝐻𝑐 . Above 𝐻𝑐 the material allows the flux
8.3 Critical Field and its Tempera- lines to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
ture Dependence value of 𝐻𝑐 is very small for soft superconductors. There-
fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super-
in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field,
material looses its superconducting property and becomes
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by 𝐻𝑐 . It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su-
perconducting property of the material could be restored.
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting
property of the material completely but only reduces the
critical temperature of the material.

The variation of Critical field with temperature below Figure 8.1: Type1 Superconductor
the critical temperature is given by
 
𝑇2
𝐻 𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 2 (8.3) Type II Superconductors
𝑇𝑐
paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with-
Here 𝐻𝑐 is the Critical field at any temperature 𝑇 less than stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard
𝑇𝑐 , 𝐻0 is the Critical field at 𝑇 = 0𝐾. Superconductors.

Figure 8.2: Type2 Superconductor

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as

8.4 Types of Superconductors shown in the Fig.8.2. Hard superconductors are character-
ized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 . When applied
Superconductors are classified into two types magnetic field is less than 𝐻𝑐1 material exhibits perfect
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor diamagnetism. Beyond 𝐻𝑐1 partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra-
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila-

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ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the Cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion all
diamagnetic property of the material. At 𝐻𝑐2 flux fills the Cooper pairs is correlated resulting in zero resistance of
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop- the material.
erty as well as superconducting property completely.

8.6 High Temperature Supercon-

ductivity
Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc-
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su-
perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
The value of 𝐻𝑐2 is hundreds of times greater than Hc Barium, Copper and Oxygen having 𝑇𝑐 =30K was devel-
of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak- oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:𝑁 𝑏𝑇𝑖, an oxide of the form 𝑌 𝐵𝑎 2 𝐶𝑢 3 𝑂 7 which is referred to as
𝑁 𝑏 3 𝑆𝑛 1-2-3 compound with 𝑇𝑐 > 90𝐾 was discovered.

All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop-

8.5 BCS Theory of Superconductiv- per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that
ity addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
temperature 𝑇𝑐 to higher values. The super currents are
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe- strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc-
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
essence of the BCS theory is as follows. High Temperature Superconductors.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and

suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac-
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice.
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice
and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the
energy of the second electron. The two electrons there-
fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice - elec-
tron interaction through phonon field.
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be-
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and
momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re-
pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair
of electrons called cooper pairs.

8.7 Quantum Tunneling

In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave

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Insulator
like waves. On encountering a barrier, a quantum wave � - - -
Superconductor
will not end abruptly. Rather its amplitude decrease ex­
ponentially. This drop in amplitude corresponds to a drop
in the probability of finding a particle further into the bar­
rier. If the barrier is thin enough, then the amplitude may
be non-zero on the other side.This would imply that there
is a finite probability that some of the particles will tunnel
through the barrier.
8.8.3 AC Josephson Effect
If we apply a de voltage across the Josephson junction,
it introduces an additional phase on Cooper pairs during
tunneling. As a result a strikingly new phenomenon will be
observed. The de voltage generates an alternating current
I given by
ls= lesin(cpo + !-,.¢) (8.5)
Because of the de voltage V applied across the barrier, the
energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ
In regions where the potential energy is higher than the in energy by 2eV.
wave's energy, the amplitude of the wave decays exponen­
tially. If the region is narrow enough, the wave can have a
non-zero amplitude on the other side. Superconductor Superconductor
s, s,

8.8 AC and DC Josephson Junctions '------I 1--------------'

V K

8.8.1 Josephson Junction

In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted that Cooper pairs
could tunnel through a very thin insulating layer separat­
ing two super conductors. The superconductor-insulator­ 8.9 DC and RF Squids
superconductor layer constitutes the Josephson junction.
8.9.1 SQUID
8.8.2 DC Josephson Effects A superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) is a device used to measure extremely weak
Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two supercon­ magnetic flux. Thus, it is basically a sensitive magne­
ducting metal films separated by a thin oxide barrier of 10 tometer made of a superconducting ring. flux penetrating
to 20 A thick. Let it be connected in a circuit as shown a superconducting loop is quantized in steps of ¢0 = f,;.
in the Fig. The Cooper pairs in a superconductor can be The heart of a SQUID is a superconducting ring, which
represented by a wave function and is the same for all contains one or more Josephson junctions. are two main
pairs. The Cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junc­ types of SQUID: DC SQUID and RF (or AC) SQUID.
tion to the other side easily. The effect of the insulating
layer is that it introduces a phase difference between the
wave function of Cooper pairs on one side of the insulat­ 8.9.2 DC Squid
ing layer and the wave function of the pairs on the other The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert Jakle­
side. Because of this phase difference, a super current ap­ vic, John Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Mercereau. It
pears across the junction even though the applied voltage has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconduct­
is zero.This is known as the de Josephson effect. Joseph­ ing loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. It relies
son showed that the super current through the junction is on the interference of currents form each junction.
given by

The de SQUID is biased with a de current equal to about

ls = lesincpo (8.4)
twice the superconducting current le . De voltage across
where ¢0 is the phase difference between the wave func­ the junctions is created. Change in the flux penetrating
tions describing Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier, the loop enhances the current through one JJ and reduces
and le is the critical current at zero voltage condition. le the current through the other. This leads to JJs working
depends on the thickness and width of the insulating layer asymmetrically, one JJ is driven normally and one is super­
and the temperature. conducting. This asymmetry provides a feedback current

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input coil current is done by counting the number of peri­

ods the coil produces in the detected RF output, because
the detected RF output is a periodic function.

Note : The DC SQUIDs offer higher sensitivity, but RF

SQUIDs have lower sensitivity. RF SQUIDs are com­
monly used form of the sensor, because of their ease and
low price of manufacturing in small batches.

8.10 Applications of Superconduc­

that nulls the flux penetrating the SQUID loop. Total flux
within the loop is multiples of ¢0 . The feedback current is
tivity in Quantum Computing
a direct measure of changes in flux applied to the SQUID. Squids find application of magnetometers to measure very
small fields like human brain magnetic fields. But the ap­
8.9.3 RF (AC) Squid plications of SQUIDs in Quantum computing are as fol­
lows.
The RF SQUID was invented in 1965 by Robert Jak­
levic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Edward
Zimmerman at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson ef­ 8.10.1 Charge Qubit
fect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less sensi­
In quantum computing, a charge qubit is also known as
tive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to
Cooper-pair box. it is a qubit whose basis states are charge
manufacture in smaller quantities.
states. The states represent the presence or absence of ex­
cess Cooper pairs in the island (dotted region in the fig­
RF ure). In superconducting quantum computing, a charge
c.:urn:nt qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled
by Josephson Junction to a superconducting reservoir.

VRF
--+------To RF amplifier � !!!!- �
I

V
i
� i
I
•
i
i
!
.. iii!

8.10.2 Flux Qubit

Flux qubits (also known as persistent current qubits) are
micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal that is
interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. These de­
vices function as quantum bits. The Josephson junctions
are designed so that a persistent current will flow continu­
ously when an external magnetic flux is applied. Only an
integer number of flux quanta are allowed to penetrate the
In RF SQUID the flux is coupled into a loop contain­ superconducting ring.
ing a single JJ through an input coil and an RF coil. RF
coil is part of a high-Q resonant circuit to read out cur­ 8.10.3 Phase Qubit
rent changes due to induced flux in the SQUID loop. The
tuned circuit is driven by a constant RF oscillator which is A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, oper­
weakly coupled to the loop. Measuring the change in the ated in the zero voltage state with a non-zero current bias.

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11. Elucidate the BCSTheory of Superconductivity.

12. Explain the phenomenon of quantum tunneling.

L
13. Define a Josephson Junction and hence explain the
DC and AC Josephson effects.

14. Define Squid and describe DC and RF Squids.

15. Brief the applications of superconductivity in quan­

tum computing.

This employs a single Josephson junction and the two lev­

els are defined by quantum oscillations of the phase differ­ 8.12 Numerical Problems
ence between the electrodes of the junction. DC Squid is a
1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of
type of phase qubit.
7.26K. If the initial field at OK is 50 x 103 Am- 1 Cal­
culate the critical field at 6K.

2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of

3.7K at zero magnetic field and a critical field of
0.0306 tesla at OK. Find the critical field at 2K.

3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead

is 7.26K. Calculate the initial field at OK given the
critical field at 5 K as 33.644 x 103 Am- 1

4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconduc­

tor at 7K and SK give the critical temperature SK.

5. The critical field for niobium is 1 x 105 Am- 1 at 8K

and 2 x 105 Am- 1 at OK. Calculate the transition tem­
8.11 Model Questions perature of the element.

1. Define Phonon. DescribeMathiessen's rule.

2. Explain the failures of Classical Free ElectronTheory

ofMetals.

3. Mention the Assumptions of Classical Free electron

theory of metals.

4. Explain the concept of Fermi Level, Fermi Energy,

Density of States.

5. Define Fermi Factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi

Factor with Energy and Temperature and represent
graphically.

6. Discuss the discovery of Superconductivity and hence

discuss the variation of resistivity with temperature in
superconductor with critical temperature as reference.

7. State and explainMeissner's Effect.

8. Define Critical field and hence explain its variation

with temperature below critical temperature.

9. Distinguish between/Explain Type-I and Type-2 su­

perconductors.

10. Describe the evolution of high temperature of super­

conductivity.

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 MODULE-5
APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN COMPUTING
PHYSICS OF ANIMATION
Animation:
The word Animation has derived from the word Animate, which means to bring life. It is a method of
photographing successive drawings, models, or even puppets, to create an illusion of movement in a
sequence. The first animated film was made by Emile Chol in 1907; he is referred to as the father of
animation.

The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods

The physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two
groups:

1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.

2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into consideration.
Kinematics and dynamics come in two subgroups:
1. Inverse is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.
2. Forward is the study of motion solely given the starting point?

Frames
A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. A frame contains the image to be displayed at a
unique time in the animation. In general, one second of a video is comprised of 24 or 30 frames per
second abbreviate as FPS. The frame rate is the speed at which the images are shown in the animation.

The following are the most common types of frames used in animation:

 Keyframe
 Placeholder frames
 Regular frames
 Tweened frames

Frames per Second

There are two standard television images: 30 frames per second (National Television Standards
Committee) NTSC for the United States and 25 frames per second (Phase Alternate Line) PAL for
Europe. An animated film with 25 frames per second is played on television at 24 frames per
second would result in a black bar rolling up the screen. Then Digital Converts are to be used to
transfer one speed of the film to another speed of the video.
 Size
Size is simply how small or big an element is in relation to other objects within a design. Generally,
we use size to make a particular element stand out or to give it importance. However, size becomes a
much more powerful design tool when it is considered alongside the scale.

Scaling Properties: Larger or heavier objects move slower while lighter or smaller objects move faster.

When designing characters, you can run into different situations having to do with size and scale, such
as:
1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our everyday
experience. Superheroes, Greek gods and monsters.
2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed to, such as
fairies and elves.
3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more energetic
than other characters.
4. Characters that are child versions of older characters

Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the
character uniformly.

Example: When you scale a cube, its volume changes much more dramatically than its surface
area. Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit in length. The area of one side of the cube is 1 square
unit, and the volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit. If you double the size of the cube along each
dimension, its height increases by 2 times, the surface area increases by 4 times and its volume
increases by 8 times.
Weight: Two objects can appear to be different weights by manipulating their timing.

For example, if you were to hit a croquet ball and a balloon with a mallet, the result would be two
different actions. The croquet ball would require more force to place it into motion, would go farther,
and need more force to stop it. On the other hand, the balloon would require far less force to send it
flying, and because of its low mass and weight, it wouldn't travel as far, and would require less force
to stop it.

Strength

Strength is the maximum force a muscle or group of muscles can apply against a resistance in
a push, pull or lift motion. Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of your muscles and
bones, however, increase by area because their abilities depend more on the cross-sectional area than
volume. To increase a muscle or bone’s strength, you need to increase its cross-sectional area.

Motion and Timing animation

Motion is an essential component in games and animations. The motion is governed by
newton’s laws and kinematic equations. When animating a scene, there are several types of motion
to consider. These are the most common types of motion:
1. Linear
2. Parabolic
3. Circular
4. Wave

Timing Animation
Timing refers to how long an action takes. If the timing is too fast, too slow, too linear, or too long, your
animation won’t look realistic. Since the film is run at 24 frames per second (FPS), you use this as the
building block for your timing. So, if you have an object moving from point A to point B in 24FPS, it
takes the object one second to get there.

The functions of timing are to:

1. Create a movement that obeys the laws of physics.

2. Add interest and appeal to your animations.

 Motion Lines and Paths
Motion has a path of action, which indicates the path along which the object or character moves. The
path of action refers to the object’s motion in space.

Line of Action

Path of Action

Linear Motion Timing

The linear motion refers to motion in a straight line, always in the same direction. An object moving
with linear motion might speed up or slow down as it follows a linear path. A heavy ball rolling on a
table or incline is an example of linear motion.

Uniform Motion Timing

Uniform motion is the easiest to animate because the distance the object travels between frames is
always the same. Uniform motion is a type of linear motion with constant speed and no acceleration
or deceleration. The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames. Longer the distance
between frames, the higher the speed.
Slow in and Slow out
The terms "slow in" and "slow out" are used to describe motion that is accelerating or decelerating.
This type of motion is sometimes called ease in or ease out.
1. Slow in/ ease in—The object is slowing down, frequently in anticipation of stopping.
2. Slow out/ ease out—The object is speeding up, often from a static position.

For example, a ball rolling down an incline or dropping straight down is slowing out, as it goes from
a still position or slow speed to a fast speed. A ball rolling up an incline is slowing in.

Constant Forces
A constant force is a force that doesn’t vary over time.
Examples of constant forces include:
1. Gravity pulling an object to the ground
2. Friction bringing an object to a stop

Constant force and Acceleration

Constant forces result in constant acceleration. Because the acceleration is constant, we can
figure out the timing for such sequences using a few principles of physics.
The resulting acceleration depends on the direction of the force and motion if there is any motion at all,
to begin with.
1. When the constant net force is applied to an unmoving object, the result is acceleration.
2. When the constant net force is applied to a moving object in the same direction as the motion,
the result is acceleration.
3. When hen constant net force is applied in the direction opposite the existing motion, the result
is deceleration (acceleration in the opposite direction).
 Forces Exerted by Characters
However, one can divide the character's motion into brief time intervals and treat each of these
intervals as responding to a constant net force for the purposes of animation. This will make it simpler
to determine the timing for each separate segment.
A character walking and pushing a rock is not exerting a constant force throughout the entire sequence,
but during each short part of the walk cycle, the net force could be considered to be a different constant
value.

The Odd Rule

When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the frames. With this method,
one calculates the distance the object moves between frames using a simple pattern of odd numbers.
Between consecutive frames, the distance the object moves is a multiple of an odd number. For
acceleration, the distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.

The Odd Rule is a multiplying system based on the smallest distance traveled between two
frames in the sequence. For a slow-out, this is the distance between the first two frames; for a slow-
in, it’s the distance between the last two frames. This distance, the base distance, is used in all Odd
Rule calculations.

For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decrease, for example, 7, 5, 3, 1.

Odd Rule Multipliers

The Odd Rule in its simplest form, as described above, is just one way to use it. For example,
one can instead calculate the distance from the first frame to the current frame and use these distances
to place the object on specific frames.
Odd Rule Scenarios

1. Base Distance Known Speeding up

If the object is speeding up, the first frame distance is the base distance. If one knows the base
distance, figuring out the distance the object travels at each frame is pretty straightforward. Just
multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between consecutive frames, or use
squares to multiply the base distance to get the total distance traveled on each frame.

2. Base Distance Known Slowing Down

Suppose one wants an object to slow down, and one knows the distance between the last two frames
before it stops. For slow-ins, the base distance is the distance between the last two frames. The
solution is to work backward, as if the object were speeding up in the opposite direction. Working
Backward, multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between each previous frame in
the sequence.

3. Total Distance and Number of Frames Known, Speeding Up

If one wants to know the total distance and the total number of frames, one can find the base

distance with this formula: Base distance = Total distance/(Last frame number – 1) 2

Suppose there is a jump push (takeoff ) with constant acceleration over 5 frames, and the total distance
traveled is 0.4m. Using the formula above, we find the base distance.
Base distance = 0.4m/(5 – 1) 2 = 0.4m/16 = 0.025m
First Key Distance Known as Slowing Down
Suppose one has a moving object that one wants to slow down, and one has set the first frame of the
slow-in to give an idea of the pacing for the sequence.

One feature of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the difference between any two
adjacent distances. To find the base distance, one can simply calculate:
(0.5m – 0.35m)/2 = 0.07m

To figure out how many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first distance by the base distance to
find out which odd number it corresponds to.0.5/0.07 = 7.
This means the first distance corresponds to 7 in the 7, 5, 3, 1 sequence, making the sequence four frames
long.

Motion Graphs
A motion graph plots an object’s position against time. If one is using animation software,
understanding and using motion graphs is a key skill in animating anything beyond the simplest of
motions. On a motion graph, the time goes from left to right across the bottom of the graph, while the
object’s position is plotted vertically against the time. Each axis in 3D space (X, Y, Z) has its own
line showing the object’s position along that axis.
Examples of character animation

Jumping
A jump is an action where the character’s entire body is in the air, and both the character’s feet
leave the ground at roughly the same time. A jump action includes a takeoff, free movement through
the air, and a landing.

Parts of Jump
A jump can be divided into several distinct parts:
• Crouch: A squatting pose is taken as preparation for jumping.
• Takeoff: The character pushes up fast and straightens their legs with their feet still on the
ground. The distance from the character’s center of gravity (CG) in the crouch to the CG when
the character’s feet are just about to leave the ground is called the push height. The amount of
time (or the number of frames) needed for the push is called the push time.
• In the air: The amount of time the character is in the air from takeoff to the apex is called the jump

time. If the takeoff pose and the landing pose are similar, then the jump height and jump time are
about the same going up as they are going down.
• Landing: The distance from the character’s CG when her feet hit the ground to the point where
the character stops crouching is called the stop height. The stop height is not always exactly the
same as the push height.

Calculating Jump Actions

When working out the timing for a jump, one will need to first decide on:
1. Jump height or jump time
2. Push height
3. Stop height
4. Horizontal distance the character will travel during Jump
Example:
Jump height = 1.2m
Jump time for 1.2m = 0. 5 seconds
Jump time at 30fps = 0. 5 * 30 = 15 frames

Jump Magnification
The JM is the ratio of the jump height to the push height.

Jump Height
JM =
Push Height

Since you already know the jump height and push height, you can calculate the JM. Then you can
use the JM to calculate other aspects of the jump.
Example:
Jump Height = 1m
Push Height =
0.33m
JM = Jump Height/Push Height = 3

Jump Magnification and Acceleration

Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one how much the character has to accelerate
against gravity to get into the air. The JM, besides being the ratio of jump-to-push vertical height and
time, is also the ratio of push-to-jump vertical acceleration. Opposite the other ratios: while a longer
jump time means a shorter push time, a higher jump acceleration means a much, much higher push
acceleration. Knowing about this can help you make more informed decisions about your push timing.

To see how this works, let’s look at the formula for JM and relate it to
acceleration: Jump Time Jump Height
Jump Time Jump Height Push Acceleration
JM = = =
PushTime Push Height Jump Acceleration

The magnitude of jump acceleration is always equal to gravitational acceleration, with

deceleration as the character rises and acceleration as it falls.

Push Acceleration Push Acceleration

JH = =
Jump Acceleration Gravitational Acceleration
 Push Time
The JM also gives you the ratio of the jump time to the
push time. JM = Jump Time/Push Time
Working a little algebra, we can express the equation in a way that directly calculates
the push time: Push Time = Jump Time/JM
Example:
JM = 3
Jump Time: 15 frames
Push Time = 15/3 = 5 frames

Walking
Walks feature all the basics of mechanics while including personality. The ability to animate walk
cycles is one of the most important skills a character animator needs to master.

Strides and Steps

A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length is the distance
the character travels in a stride, measured from the same part of the foot. Step and stride length indicate
lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.
Gait is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the ground or in the
air. During a walk, the number of feet the character has on the ground changes from one foot (single
support) to two feet (double support) and then back to one foot. You can plot the time each foot is on
the ground to see the single and double support times over time. A normal walking gait ranges from 1/ 3
to 2/3 of a second per step, with 1/2 second being average.