Course- BAG 209 (Soil and Water conservation)

UNIT3 MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING WATER EROSION

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING WATER EROSIOON

Soil conservation is a preservation technique. in which deterioration of soil and its losses
are elimin:.ted or minimized by using it within its capabilities and applying conservation
techniques for protection as well as improvement of soil. In soil and water conservatioñ, the
agronomical meusure is a more economical, long lasting and effective technique. Agronomic
conservation measures function by reducing the impact of raindrops through interception and
thus reducing soil erosion. They also increase infiltration rates and thereby reduce surface runoff.

W'idely uscd agronomic measures for water erosion control are listed below.

1. CONT;UR CROPPING

method that is used slopes to control soil losses

Contour Cropping is a conservation farming on

involves planting crops across the slope instead of up and

duc to w-ter erosion. Cuntour cropping
by reducing the
down the siope (Fig. 1). Use of contour cropping protects the valuable top soil

water and inducing more infiltration. On long and smooth slope, cchtour
velocity o runoft
of flow is high under such situation and contour
cropping i more effective as the velocity
to reduce the flow velocity. Contour cropping is nmost
erpiny shortens the slope length
effective o.. siopes between 2 and 10 percent.
 1. Contour
cropping
Fig.

2. STRIP CROPPING

for erosion control,

poor potential
of crops having
the practice of
growing strip good
is with strips of crops having
Strip cropping alternated
cereals, etc.,
(inter-tilled crops), a r e close
growing trops
such as root crop
grasses, etc., which
fodder crops,
control, such farming. The farming
as

potentials for erosion than contour

intensive farming practice cropping,

cropping is a more cover
farming.
(Fig. 2). Surip farming are
contour strip
included in this type of rotation with a
combination

practices that
are
rotation. A crop
suitable crop
conservation tillage and fodder and
conserves

farming with on contours,

provides food,
farmed
and close growing
crops,
reduce the
runoff velocity
of inter-tilled barriers to flow and
act as
soil moisture. Close growing crops
reduce soil
erosion. Strip cropping
inter-tilled crops,
and eventually
the strips of
generated from
three methods:
the following
is laid out by using
Page No.

Fig. 2. Strip cropping

are s o w n
mdre or
alternate strips of crop
In contour strip cropping,
i) Contour strip cropping: rotation of crops
and tillage
the contours, similar
to contouring. Suitable
less follow ing
operations are followed during the farming operations.
are laid out
cropping, strip of uniform width
In a field layout of strip
ii) Field sirip cropping: water. To protect
the soil
while protecting the soil from erosion by
across the prevailing
slope,
of wind. Such practices
are laid out across
the prevailing direction
from erosion by wind, strips
contour lines are
is very irregular, and the
followed in areas where the topography
are generally
too curvy for strict contour farming.

where uniform strip of crops are

Buffer strip eropping: Buffer strip cropping is practiced
ii) farming on a ccJitour
farm machinery, while
to be laid out for smooth operations of the
required laid out
similar other crops are
Buffer strip of legumes, grasses and
strip cropping layout. good protection and
correction strips. Buffer strips provide very
between the contour strips as

erosion.
effective control of soil

3. MULCHING

reduce
minimize rain splash, reduce evaporation, control weeds,
Mulches are used to
to a level conducive to
of soil in hot climates, and moderate the temperature
temperature
and
in breaking the energy of raindrops, prevent splash
microbial activity. Mulches help
and prevent sheet
obstruct the flow of runoff to reduce their velocity
dissipation of soil structure,
Page No. 2
also helpP in improving
the infiltration capacity by maintaining a

and rill erosion (Fig. 3). They

land.
conductive soil structure at the top surface of

field
Fig. 3. Mulching of cropped
of materials
the land from erosion different types
material: To protect
3.1 Types of mulching

are used as listed below.

1. Cul grasses or foliage

2. Straw malerials

3. Wood clhips
4. Saw dusts

5. Papers
6. Stones

7. Glass wools

8. Metal foils

9. Cellophanes
10. Plustics

classified into the following five types:

be broadly
The mulches may
sprayed on the soil
that are

organic and inorganic liquids

mulch: It includes the
. Synthetic agents acting on

for controlling the various atmospheric

thin film
surlace to form a
 synthetic mulching materials are: resins, asphalt emulsions
soil surface. The different
etc.
latex and cul back asphalt, canvas

mulches are easier to apply and also less expeysive.

2. Petroleum mulch: The petroleum
available in the form of emulsions of asphalt in water, which can be
These mulches are

to form a thin film in continuous form

sprayed on the soil surface at ambient temperature
inside the soil. The mulch film promotes
thal clings to soil, but does not penetrate decp

seed germination and also plays a significant role for vigorous growth
unilormand rapid
porous to
An ideal surface film is also
stable against erosion, sufficiently
of seedling.
resistant enough to the forces of
into the soil, yet insoluble in water and
allow waler
established.
for vegetation to become
weather. causing it to last as long as necessary
more effective than the
or straw are
Conventional mulch: The
mulches such as hay
3. reduce the
the moisture and
mulches. These mulches not only conserve

petroleunm and hold

but also protect the soil from rain drop impacts
fluctuation of soii temperature, raie and
so as to
increase the infiltration
water in contact with the soil,
the e x c e s s surface mulches
erosion. In addition, during day hours these
runoff and soil
thereby reduce the conducted downward.
bare soil does, but little energy is
insolation as
also absorb as much soil to remain
mulch to become hot and the underlying
surface of the
This c a u s e s the the soil to
the mulch cools down permitting
cool. On the other hand,
during night hours, to
conventional mulch are reported
also counted under
mulches
remain w a r m . The paper soil temperature,
are observed
to increase the
remarkable results. Paper mulches
produce show that paper
There are several evidences to
surface soil layers.
especially of the soil condition,
besides promoting
in improvement of
better performance toxic
mulching gives caution has to be
taken against the
time,
But at the s a m e
the earthworm activity. The bituminized
treated papers, have
out of the paper.
chemicals leached
elemcnts of

the plants. surface to conserve

toxic effects on
on the ground
stone pieces
It the spreading of
involves followed in arid
muleh:
4. Stone
It is a very old
practice,
erosion.
reduce the wind of that
and also to but the temperature
the moisture moist condition,
tends to be in
stones animals and
Soil under the harbor small
below the stones,
zones.

The soils lying dew,

slightly higher. trapping the
soil becomes
is also used for
stone mulching
nitrification. The Central arid
zone

involve high dew fall takes place.

signif+cant
locations where
particularly
in those
Page No.
mulch, which is simae
has reported the use of rubble mply
institute Jodhpur,
rescarch h This mulch provides better results
bricks.
of stones and
combination of
snmall fragnments
stone mulching, synthetic mulching and
conservation compared to the
on
moisture
s t r a w materials.
mulching
made by weeds etc. are used
branches, twigs, leaves, leaf litter, grasses,
mulch:The tree the
5. Organi The organic
mulches are found superior to

mulch to cover the soil surface.

as organic reduction in evaporation and
conservation of moisture,
in respect of when
artilicial mulches effectively, particularly
more
controls the evaporation
this mulch when the numbers of
runoT. Use of effective
intervals, but it is
not very
place at frequent c o n s e r v e the
mofsture
rainall takes mulch does not
organic
scattered. In other words, be quite
rains are few and these mulches may
showers. but
rains and small
due to infrequent surface with the
available in a wet
which results
for several days
effective for large rains lasting Further, the light
mulches are
percolation.
surface water for deep
availability of
excess
moisture conserving efficiency
because
the evaporation,
almost
ineffective for controlling
to extract it from the soil
to absorb water o r
related to their capacity time. As a

of u l c h is
inversely but last for a long
mulches do not decay shortly
action. Resistant
by capillary moisture.
the soil
effective for conserving
are more
result they
EROSION
WATER
CONTROLLING

MEASURES OF
MECIHANICAL

land
erosion from sloppingt
used to control
of runoff
measures

engineering
practices are
retention and safe disposal
Mechanical
modification is done for
surface
and thus
land
surfaces is:
the basic approach
of such practices, time for
water. In the design the
infiltration
increase
water in order to
of runoff
increase the time of stay
to
(i) the slope at
intercepting
waler runoff velocity by
on
of land slope and
decrease the effect critical velocity,
to than the
(ii) is less
so that
the velocity
several points
water.

caused by
the runoff
erosion
from
the soil water.

(ii) to protect soil caused by

erosion of
for controlling
are adopted
measures

mechanical
four
Mainly

These are
age NoNo.

1. Diversion Drains

2. Terracing

3. Bunding

4. Waterways

1. DIVERSION DRAINS

the slope to conduct water to a safe

"a channel constructed across
A diversion nay be viewed
as

the which would otherwise flow down from higher

outlet". The diversion intercepts diverts
water

hillside to level
constructed either to divert runoff from a a
elevation to the arable land. It is
active gullies into a safe outlet.
bottom field or for diverting water out of

channel, diversion terrace or

as storm drain, storm water
In the literalure. it is also termed
most vital to the
the first line of defence and, therefore, are
diversion ditch. Diversions serve as

in the channel, they should nöt be

systen. Since diversions deposit the sediment
protection
measures are taken to
control erosion and sediment load
below the cropped area unless adequate
in the channel.

2. TERRACING

channels across the

method of erosion control accomplished by constructing broad
Terracing is a
less level, usually
either raised or more or
of the rolling land. A horizontal strip of length,
slope decrease the length of
is called the terrace. This is meant to
nearly on a contour
constructecd on or

soil erosion and retaining runoff.

the slope, tlhereby reducing

water and facilitates tillage operations on slopPy lands. Telaces

conserve rain
Terracing lhelps to
and bench terraces.
broad base terraces
classificd roughly into two principal types such as
are
e No..

Terrace types

Broad base Bench

Cirided
Level Levelled and Sloping Sloping Puertorican
(absorption table top outward inward
(dianagec
or ridge type)
channel ty*)

Without proper
With profer
channel
channe

Fig. Types of terraces

of these is given below:

A brief deseription

(1) Broad Base T'erraces:

terrace or broad-base
bunds. A broad base
Broad base terrace are also called as ridge
land
or embankment
constructed across the slope of the rolling
terrace is a broad surface channel
moisture
runoff erosion and for
base terraces are useful for reducing
Broad
(Fig. 4). broad-base
constructed on lands up to 10% slopes only. The
terraces are
conservation. These
terrace.
terrace or levelled (ridge type)
terrace is classified as graded (channel type)

Terrace:
(a) Grade (Channel Type)
way as to minimize
excess water in such a
terrace is meant to remove
This type of because erosion losss are
terrace
also known as drainage
terraces are
erosion. These types of outlet at a non-
runoff water to a safe
lengths and renoving the
reduced by decreasing the slope 3-10% and
on areas where
the slope is between
These terraces are
constructed
erosive velocity.
is slow.
the soil pernieability
Page No. 2
6% Slope Cut
Fill

potn India 15m

30m

Rainat (a) 8roaddase

2 . Slop Lovel

Deadon PUiod
60m 90m

linnon (o-kb) (b) Conservaton bench

M.monsuon (moch 25% Slopo

Souh web mo0nsn Lovel oreope AVAUK

(June B pl) 7 Sm
15m

Bench
o
)Nohrat ( od-Du of t e r r a c e s
Fig. 4 Type

Terrace:
Level (Ridge¥ype) also known as
(b) Therefore, it is
conservation.
moisture
meant for
primarily where' rainfall is
low and the
This terrace is soils
terraces are
suited to permeable
terrace. Absorption
absorption
less than 6%.
slope is
from both sides of
constructed of soil taken
is usually
for this type of
terrace

The embankment
embankment is constructed by cutting a
the
type of
terraces
or channel closed at both
wlile in grade sometimes
the ridge. level and is
The channel is
on the uphill side (Fig. 4).
shallow chaimel
retention of water.
maximum
ensure
ends to
and in having
terrace in being level along its length,
terrace
differs from drainage width on the
The absorption should be 1: 6 to
1: 8. Ridge
and ridge slopes
The clhannel be 0.45 m
a longer
cross-section.
to be used.
The ridge should
if machinery is
slhould not be
less than 4 m,
upper
side
higher than channel.

(2) Bench Terrace

Tle hench terraces are built by constructing a series of
steps, with horizontal or
nearly horizontal
ridge, and vertical or almost vertical wall beteen two
ledges which converts a slope of
20-30%
to a series of nearly level benclhes (Fig. 5).

Only intensive farming can be adapted with bench terracing on

sloping and undulating unds.
Bench terrcing is most common in
hilly where cultivable land is
areas
scanty and the labour is
cheap. Beneli terracing is practiced where slope is between 16 and 33% because such
high slopes
are not suitalble for bunding.

Runott

Storod moisuro
(a) Lovel lerrace. closed ends
C

Runo
A

Siored mosute

Conservavon bench tertace

Fig. 5 Bench Terrace

Three types of bench terraces are most common based on their construction and purpese:

(i) LevelTerrace:

In this type of terraces the steps are levelled (Fig. 5). These types of terraces are suitable for
average rainíall areas where rainfall distribution is more or less even and soil is quite permeable.

Level terraces are used for uniform impounding of water in paddy fields. These are also reerred
to as paddy ierraces or table top terraces conveying the sense that such a bench is as level as top

of the table

Inward Terrace:
(ii) Reverse Slope or Sloping
These terrices have their slopes inward to drain oft excess water as quickly as possible. hese
ese
terraces have a drain on inner side which has grade along its length to convey the excess water to
one side fiom where it is disposed off by well-established waterways, however, these terraces

pOse erosion problems if waterways are not established and runoff water is allowed to
concentrate.

These terraees are widely used in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu State as well as on steep Himalayan
slopes in limachal Pradesh and north-castern hill regions.

ii) Sloping or Sloping Oulward Bench Terrace:

These terraces have their slopes outward, i.e. down the hill. In places of low rainfall or shJllow
soils. the ourward sloping bench terraces are used to reduce the existing steep slope to mild slope
(say from S% to 4%). This type of terraces is constructed on soils not having good penmeability.
Provision ofa graded channel at lower end has to be kept to safely dispose off surplus water to
some wateriway.

In very permeable soils, a strong bund with spill way arrangement may take care of most of the
rainfall events, while during heavy rainfall storm the excess water may flow from one terrace to

another. Ailempt is usually made to dispose off this to some waterway at an earliest possible

spol.

3. BUNDING

Bund is a: engineering measure of soil conservation, used tor creating obstruction across the

of surtace runoff to reduce the velocity of flowing water. It retains the running off water in
path
control soil erosion. Bunds simply embankment like
the watershed and thus to helps to are

structures. constructed across the land slope. Different types of bunds are used for erosion

control and moisture conservation in the watersheds.

When the bunds are constructed along the contours with some minor deviation to adapt to
known as contour bunds. If the bunds are constructed with some
practical siluation. they are

slope. they are known as graded bunds. No farming is done on bunds expects at some places
ury
1where some types of stabilization grasses are planted to protect the bund. The choice
s
f hund is dependent on land slope, rainfall, soil type and the
purpose of the bund in the
area
The contour bunds are recommended for areas with low annual rainfall (< 600
mm) agricultural
fields with permeable soils and having a land slope of less than 6%, while graded bunds are used
for safe disposal of excess runoff in areas with high rainfall and relatively impervious soil.

In India. cuntour and graded bunding have been practiced for a long time and the Indian fabmers

have very good knowledge about it. From the experience, it has been found that bunds could
stand well in shallow, medium and medium deep soils. In deep black soil, due to cracks in dry
condition. the bunds fail. Through these cracks, water continues to flow and big breaches are
usually created. This results in severe damage to the fields. Although various erosion problems
exist in black cotton soils, contour bunding cannot be taken up in such soils successfully.

1. Contour Bunds

Contour bunds are laid out in those areas which have less rainfall and permeable soils. The major

such prevention of soil erosion and conservation of rain water in the

requirements in areas are

soil for crop use. To maximize the conservation of rainwater in the soil,
no longitudinal slipe is
designed to be laid out on
provided to the field strip. In such a system of bunding, the bunds are

wherever necessary.
contours with minor adjustments,

The main functions of contour bunds

are:

in turn reduces the soil erosion.

1. It reduces the length of slope which
is impounded for some time and gets recharged into the soil which helps in
2. The water

crop cultivation.

bunds are:
The limitations of contour

which receive the annual rainfall

les&than
contour bunds are suitable for those areas,
1. The

600 mn
not suitable for clayey soils
2. It is
the land slopes greater than 6%.
not suitable on
3. Cointour bunding is
2. G r a d e d B u n d s

arcas where the land is susceptible to water erosion.

the sott
less
buinds are laid out
l
Graded
water 10ESing probleims.
A graded bund system is desiened to
area has
and the
nerneable
rorm agricultural fields. A graded bund is laid out with aa

excess
runotr sarety
dispose ol be either uniform or variable. The
to outlet. The gradient can

lonoitudinzl slope gradient leading

lengths and the
are suitable for areas where the bunds need shorter
bunds
uniformly-yraded
bunds need longer lengths, owing
to
bunds are required where
runoffis low. The variable-graded variations in
increases towards the outlets.
In these types of bunds,
runoff
which the cumulative within the
bund to keep the runoff velocity
at different sections of the
the grade are provided
so as not to cause any soil erosion.
desired limits

The limitalions of the system

are:

disturbed and sone soil is lost.

Duc lo crossing of farm implements, the bunds are

interval.
maintenance is required at regular
Proper

Construetion of Bunds

valley. This will

the ridge and continue down the
Construction of bunds should start from
construction. The base width area of the
of the bunds if rains occur during
ensure prolection distributed
should also be slightly
vegetation and the soil in this
area
bund should be cleared of
over it. The burrow pits
for the
be achieved when the bund is formed
so that goud binding
can

bund. It should have a uniform depth

of 30
the upstream side of the
soil are generally located on

burrow pits should be continuous ald

no

width be varied as per necessity. The

cm and the can
When the
be left. The burrow pits should not be located in a gully or depression.
breaks are to
time. The earth should be put in layers of
the clods should not be put on the bund at a
soil is dug. for
The templates of the specified dimensions are used
15 cm and consolidated by trampling.
trimmed and slightly
The bund section should be finally shaped,
checking the bund section.
the bund formation, it is desirable to plough
the field and
the and the sides. After
rammed on top

the burrow pit.

4. WATERWAYS
 ury eeould
gaterways coul be natural or man-made.
Man-made wateriways are
most widely conservation

volume of runoff. Waterways

can carry specified
with large
high rainfall
areas
in
meas
sures
outlets for terraces, diversions and
of serious erosion and serve as
with danger
ouunt of water
a natural draw.
usually in
amou

location for waterways is

rows. The best
colnlour
usually least. Man-
high and slopes are

find the place where depth of soil is

Natural waterways as the
not work satisfactorily
be made but they do
the field boundaries
can
runoff from the
near
made channels all the volume of
sufficient enough to carry
locations. lt should be
natural
storm.
without overflow during heavy
watershed. they serve

used, are
Three shapes of waterways commonly
their shape is very important.
In this context,
recommended because it approaches
Parabolic channel is
and trapezoidal.
triangular: parabolic
the shape of the natural waterways.
more nearly