SOIL REVIEWER

UNIT 1: What is the Prognosis for Our Water Future?

Some Alarming Water Stats

• More than one billion people lack access to a safe supply of drinking water.
• Water-related diseases are the leading cause of death in the world, killing 10,000-20,000 people per day.
Kills 1.4 million children/year. Responsible for 80% of sickness.
• More than 200 million hours are spent each day by women and female children to collect water from
distant, often-polluted sources.
• By 2025 it is estimated that at least 40% of the world’s 7.2 billion people will live in countries with
insufficient water to meet their agricultural, industrial, ecological, and human health needs.
• By the middle of the century that number could climb to 7 billion in 60 countries – more people than
live in the world today.
• Half of the world’s wetlands have disappeared over the last century, with some rivers now no longer
reaching the sea, and over 20% of the estimated 10,000 freshwater fish species are now endangered or
extinct.

Two Primary Water Issues

1. QUANTITY
● Too little
● Too much
2. QUALITY
● “Fresh”
● Potable or not, saline.

What Are the Impacts of Civilization on Water?

People to Water: Human activities like agriculture, industry, and pollution reduce water quality and
deplete freshwater resources.
Water to People: Clean water is essential for drinking, agriculture, and industry, but scarcity or
contamination can lead to health issues, food shortages, and economic challenges.

What Are Human Water Requirements?

• Minimum Drinking Water Requirement – 5 liters per person per day
• Basic Requirements for Sanitation– 20 liters per person per day
• Basic Water Requirements for Bathing– 15 liters per person per day
• Basic Requirement for Food Preparation– 10 liters per person per day
• 50 liters per person per day (18.3 m3/yr)

Water Stress
Freshwater availability < 1,700 m3/person/yr
Water Scarcity
Freshwater availability < 1,000 m3/person/yr
UNIT II: HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface:
Evaporation: Water turns into vapor from oceans, lakes, and rivers due to heat from the sun.
Condensation: Water vapor cools and forms clouds in the atmosphere.
Precipitation: Water falls from clouds as rain, snow, or other forms.
Runoff: Water flows over the land into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Infiltration: Water seeps into the ground to become groundwater.
Transpiration: Water is absorbed by plants and released into the air as
vapor.

WATER CYCLE

Does the volume of the world’s oceans ever change?

Last glacial period: Sea level 400 ft lower than today
Last inter-glacial period: Sea level 18 ft higher than today
3M years B.P.: Sea level 165 ft higher

What two processes change liquid water into vapor that can ascend into the atmosphere?
EVAPORATION: 90% || TRANSPIRATION:10%

How many gallons of water fall when 1 inch of rain falls on 1 acre of land?
About 27,154 gallons (102,800 liters) of water.
On average, the 48 continental United States receives enough precipitation in one year to cover the
land to a depth of 30 inches.

Meteorological factors affecting surface (over soil) runoff

- Type of precipitation
- Rainfall intensity
- Rainfall amount
- Rainfall duration
- Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin
- Direction of storm movement
- Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil moisture
- Meteorological conditions that affect evapotranspiration

Physical characteristics affecting surface runoff

- Land use
- Vegetation
- Soil type
- Drainage area
- Basin shape
- Elevation
- Topography, especially the slope of the land
- Drainage network patterns
- Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, sinks, etc. in the basin, which prevent or delay runoff from
continuing downstream

Human factors affecting surface runoff

• Urbanization -- more impervious surfaces reduce infiltration and accelerate water motion
• Removal of vegetation and soil -- surface grading, artificial drainage networks increases volume
of runoff and shortens runoff time to streams from rainfall and snowmelt

Most runoff…
• Drains to a creek
• To a stream
• To a river
• To an ocean
• Rarely runoff drains to a closed lake
• May be diverted for human uses

Factors affecting infiltration

• Precipitation (greatest factor)
• Magnitude, intensity, duration
• Characteristics (rain, snow)
• Soil Characteristics
• Clay absorbs less water at a slower rate than sand
• Soil Saturation
• Higher saturation leads to more runoff instead
• Land Cover
• Slope of the Land
• Hills enhance runoff velocity
• Evapotranspiration
• Plants use soil moisture to grow and transpire

UNIT III:Meteorological Instruments

● Standard Raingauge: Rainfall

● Automatic Raingauge: Continuous record of rainfall, storm
● Aneroid/Mercury Barometer: Atmospheric Pressure
● Cup‐counter Anemometer: Wind‐run, Wind Speed
● Campbell‐Stokes Sunshine Recorder: Sunshine hours
● Evaporation Pan: Evaporation
● Stephenson Screen: Housing for instruments
● Dry & Wet bulb Thermometer: Dry & Wet bulb temperature
● Thermo‐hygrograph: Temperature & Humidity
 ● Wind Vane: Wind Direction

Precipitation
Precipitation is water falling from the sky as rain, snow, or hail when clouds get heavy.

Atmospheric Pressure
Air pressure is the force of air pushing down on us, causing wind to blow.

Wind
Wind is moving air, caused by differences in air pressure.

UNIT IV: INTRODUCTION TO IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

IRRIGATION is the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture
essential for plant growth.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION:
1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts.
3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it a more favorable environment for plant growth.
4. To soften tillage pans & clods.
5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.
6. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling.
7. To reduce the hazard of frost.
8. To reduce the hazard of soil piping.

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS’ USE

1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet)
2. Surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas)
3. Groundwater
4. Irrigation water
5. Atmospheric water other than precipitation

2 TYPES OF DAM
1. Diversion Dam: This type of dam directs water from rivers into canals without storing it,
providing a continuous flow, especially during the rainy season.
2. Reservoir Dam: This dam stores water during rainy periods, allowing it to be used during
dry months, enabling multiple crop seasons like in Pantabangan and Magat dams.

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM

1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater)
2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main canal, lateral
canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches)
3. Control Structures (Dam, culvert, check, gates, turnout)
4. Protective Structures (drop, chute, baffles, rip-rap, etc.)Diversion or main canal is the
biggest sized canal. It is connected to the upstream portion of a diversion dam, or
to the main outlet of a reservoir dam. It supplies water to
the lateral canals.

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM

1. Diversion or main canal is the biggest sized canal. It is connected to the upstream portion of
a diversion dam, or to the main outlet of a reservoir dam. It supplies water to the lateral
canals.
2. Lateral canals are connected to the diversion or main canal and supplies water to the main
farm ditches.
3. Main farm ditches are connected to the lateral canals and supplies water to the
supplementary farm ditches.
4. Supplementary farm ditches are the smallest sized canals found inside a farmer’s field.
They are normally temporary in nature and are constructed every now and then by the
farmers themselves.

IRRIGATION IMPLEMENTS & STRUCTURES

IRRIGATION TOOLS
1. Plows: Tools used to dig and turn over the soil to prepare it for planting.
2. Harrows: Tools that break up and smooth the soil after plowing to make it ready for seeds.
3. Scrapers: Tools that remove and level the soil to fix uneven areas and help with water flow.
4. Levelers: Equipment that makes the ground flat so water can spread evenly
when irrigating.
5. Furrowers: Tools that create narrow trenches in the soil for watering crops.

STRUCTURES
CONVEYANCE STRUCTURES:
1. Flumes – used for crossing depressions or narrow canyons & for conveying irrigation water
along very steep sidehills.
2. Tunnels – used to shorten the length of a diversion canal to avoid difficult &
expensive construction on steep, rocky hillsides & to convey water through mountains.
3. Drops & Chutes-for places where natural slopes down which canals must flow are so high as
to cause excessive water velocities & erosion of the canal banks & bed.
4. Inverted siphons-for crossing wide deep hollows, depressions, or canyons through them
under pressure
5. Siphon tubes – to convey water over the ditch bank into the furrow
6. Culvert- to convey water underneath roads or other obstructions

STRUCTURES
CONTROL STRUCTURES:
1. Check gate – placed across a stream from which it is desired to divert water.
2. Dam-same - function as a check gate but on a bigger scale
3. Take out gate – to regulate the quantity of water flowing into small lateral, field ditch or furrow.
4. Head gate – same as take out gate but installed at the main diversion works on the river system.
5. Radial gate-same as head gate or take out gate but installed in big-sized canals like the main
canal
6. Turnout gate- same as take out gate but installed in main farm ditches

UNIT V: SOIL PROPERTIES

IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil for meeting crop water requirement

BENEFITS OF IRREGATION
● Leaching of salts
● Wind erosion control
● Multiple cropping during an year
● Provides jobs
● Reduces risk of crop failures
● Improves socioeconomic conditions

DISADVANTAGE OF IRREGATION
● Excessive irrigation
● Decrease in crop yield
● Leaching/transport of chemicals
● Yield reduction-deficit irrigation
● Water logging and salinity

TYPES OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS

● MAJOR - 10,000 has
● MEDIUM - 2,000-10,000 has
● MINOR - 2,000 has

SOIL
Three phase system
Solid phase: mineral, organic matter and various chemical compounds
Liquid phase: Soil moisture
Gaseous phase: Soil air
A TYPICAL SOIL PROFILE
“OABCR”

O - ORGANIC
A - SURFACE
B - SUB-SOIL
C-
SUBSTRATUM R
- BEDROCK

SOIL PROPERTIES

SOIL TEXTURE
The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil, determining its physical properties.
TYPES OF SOIL TEXTURE
● COARSE SAND
● VERY CAORSE SAND
● FINE SAD
● VERY FINE SAND
● MEDIUM SAND
● SILT
● CLAY
● GRAVAL

SOIL STRUCTURE
The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates or clumps, influencing water movement and root
growth.
Micropores - helpful in retention of water and solute
Macropores - helpful in infiltration, drainage and aeration

TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURES

1. GRANULAR
2. PLATY
3. BLOCKY
4. PRISMATIC
5. COLUMNAR
6. MASSIVE

ANSWER KEY TO THE CANCELLED QUIZ

A. Definitions:
Irrigation: The artificial application of water to soil to support plant growth when natural rainfall
is insufficient.
Bulk Density: The mass of dry soil per unit volume, including the air spaces in the soil.
Soil Texture: The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil, determining its physical
properties.
Apparent Specific Gravity: The ratio of the weight of a volume of soil to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
Soil Structure: The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates or clumps, influencing water
movement and root growth.

B. Five (5) Sources of Water for Plant’s Use:

1. PRECIPITATION
2. SURFACE WATER
3. GROUND WATER
4. IRRIGATION WATER
5. ATMOSPHERIC WATER

C . Five (5)Purposes of Irrigation:

1. To reduce the hazard of frost.
2. To soften tillage pans & clods.
3. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.
4. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
5. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts

D. Two (2) Types of Dam:

Diversion Dam
Reservoir Dam

E. Two (2) Components of an Irrigation System:

Water source (e.g., reservoir, well)
Conveyance structure (e.g., pipes, canals)

F. IDENTIFICATION

1. Most Important Part of an Irrigation System:

- The distribution system is the most important part as it ensures efficient water
delivery to crops.
2. Is all precipitation available to crops?
- No. Some water is lost to evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation. Only the water
that stays in the root zone is usable by crops.
3. Does groundwater contribute to plant water needs? When? When is it harmful?
- Yes, when the water table is near the root zone. It’s harmful if it causes
waterlogging or if the groundwater is saline.
4. How does irrigation need differ in humid vs. arid areas?
- Humid areas need supplemental irrigation during dry spells, while arid areas
require consistent irrigation throughout the growing season.
5. Advantages of small ponds and reservoirs for irrigation?
- They store water, provide easy access, help recharge groundwater, control soil
erosion, and support local biodiversity.