I.

Origins and Nature of Evidence in Empirical and Non-Empirical Research:

Empirical Research:

 Evidence in empirical research typically originates from the controlled

manipulation of independent variables and the observation of their effects on
dependent variables.
 The nature of this evidence is quantitative, often measured in numbers,
statistics, and data analysis. The goal is to establish causal relationships
between variables.
 Empirical research often aims to maximize the impact of independent
variables on dependent variables while minimizing the effects of extraneous
and random variables. This is known as the "maxmincon" principle
(maximize-minimize-control variance).

Non-Empirical Research:

 The origin of evidence in non-empirical research often comes from

observations, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and content
analysis.
 The nature of this evidence is qualitative, typically consisting of detailed
descriptions, perspectives, experiences, and subjective meanings. The goal is
to gain a deep understanding of a phenomenon rather than establish causal
relationships.
 Non-empirical research focuses on understanding people's perceptions,
experiences, emotions, and beliefs. Evidence is evaluated based on
credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

II. Comparison of Differences Between Evidence in Empirical and Non-

Empirical Research:

Characteristics Empirical Research Non-Empirical Research

Manipulation of variables, Observation, interviews, discussions,
Origin
quantitative measurement content analysis
Qualitative (descriptions,
Nature Quantitative (data, statistics)
perspectives, meanings)
Deeply understand the phenomenon,
Goal Establish causal relationships
explore subjective meaning
Credibility, transferability,
Evaluation Validity, reliability
dependability, confirmability
Characteristics Empirical Research Non-Empirical Research
Control, measurement,
Method Flexible, interpretive
statistics

III.Types of Empirical and Non-empirical with examples of each type

1. Classification of Empirical Research:

Based on Objectives:

 Descriptive Research: The main goal is to describe the characteristics of a

phenomenon or a group of subjects. This research may use empirical
methods to measure and collect data on variables, but it does not focus on
establishing causal relationships.

Example: A study measuring the incidence rate of a specific disease in a

community.

 Correlational Research: This research aims to determine the degree of

relationship between variables. Empirical methods can be used to measure
variables and analyze correlations, but causal relationships cannot be
established.

Example: A study on the correlation between study time and test scores.

 Explanatory/Hypothesis-testing Research: The goal is to test hypotheses

and establish causal relationships between variables. This research typically
involves manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring
their effects on dependent variables, while controlling for extraneous
variables.

Example: A study on the effectiveness of a new intervention method

compared to a traditional method.

Based on Design:

 True Experimental Research: This research has all the elements of an

empirical study, including a control group, random assignment, and
manipulation of independent variables. This allows for a definitive
establishment of causal relationships. Example: A randomized clinical trial
with a control group.
  Quasi-Experimental Research: Lacking one or more elements of true
experimental research, usually the random assignment. This may limit the
ability to establish causal relationships, but still has value when studying
real-world conditions. Example: A study on the impact of an intervention
program in pre-existing classrooms that are not randomly assigned.
 Pre-test/Post-test Research: Measures the dependent variable before and
after an intervention to assess its impact. There may or may not be a control
group.
 Cohort Study: Studies a group of people with similar characteristics over a
long period of time to observe the development of a phenomenon.

2. Classification of Non-Empirical Research:

Based on Purpose:

 Exploratory Research: The main purpose is to explore and investigate a

new or under-researched phenomenon. This research often uses qualitative
methods to collect preliminary data and develop hypotheses for further
studies.

Example: A study on factors influencing customer satisfaction with a new

service.

 Descriptive Research: The purpose is to provide detailed descriptions of the

characteristics of a phenomenon or a group of subjects. This research
typically uses methods such as in-depth interviews, observation, and content
analysis to collect rich, detailed data.

Example: Describing the experiences of survivors of a disaster.

 Interpretive Research: Focuses on interpreting and understanding the

meaning of the collected data. The goal is to clarify subjective meanings and
different perspectives related to a phenomenon.

Example: A study on the significance of traditional rituals within a

community.

 Evaluative Research: Assesses the effectiveness, impact, or value of a

program, intervention, or policy. The research may gather data from various
sources, including interviews, observations, and document analysis.
 Example: A study evaluating the effectiveness of a new educational
program.

Based on Data Collection Methods:

 In-depth Interviews: Collect detailed information from individuals through

structured or unstructured interviews.
 Focus Groups: Gather information from a group of people through
coordinated discussions.
 Observation: Observe the behavior and interactions of subjects in their
natural environment. This can be participant or non-participant observation.
 Content Analysis: Analyze documents or other forms of information to
identify themes, patterns, and meanings.
 Case Study: Conduct an in-depth study of a specific case to gain a deeper
understanding of a complex phenomenon.
 Narrative Research: Study and analyze the stories of an individual or a
group of people.
 Oral History: Collect information from people who have experienced a
historical event through interviews.

V.When to Use Empirical and Non-Empirical Research:

Empirical Research:

 Should be used when you want to establish clear causal relationships

between variables, and when it is possible to control and measure variables
accurately.
 Often used in natural sciences, medicine, and studies aimed at hypothesis
testing.

Non-Empirical Research:

 Should be used when you want to explore and understand a complex

phenomenon, when you cannot fully control variables, or when you are
interested in subjective meaning and personal experiences.
 Common in social sciences, humanities, education, program evaluation
studies, or community service research.

Important Notes:
  In many cases, combining both quantitative and qualitative methods can
provide more comprehensive results. For example, a study might use
surveys (quantitative) to measure service usage and in-depth interviews
(qualitative) to better understand users' reasons and experiences.
 The research objective must be clearly defined to select the appropriate
method.
 The choice of research methods and evidence collection should be based on
the nature of the research problem and available resources.
 The evidence collected must be valuable and reliable, presented clearly and
objectively.
 In qualitative research, attention must be paid to verifying and cross-
checking information to ensure the credibility of the evidence.
Source:

● Kumar, R. (2011). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (3rd ed.). SAGE
Publications.

● Patten, M. L. (n.d.). Understanding research methods. (n.d).

● Lester, J. D., & Lester, J. D., Jr. (2015). Writing research papers: A complete guide (15th
ed.). Pearson.