Week 3: Speech Acts and Pragmatics

Introduction to Speech Act Theory (Austin & Searle)

Speech Act Theory was developed by the philosopher J.L. Austin and further refined by John
Searle. This theory focuses on how language is not just used to convey information (as with
sentences that merely describe reality), but also to perform actions. Austin argued that when we
speak, we often do something beyond stating facts, such as making promises, giving orders, or
apologizing.

 Austin’s Contributions: In his book How to Do Things with Words (1962), Austin
introduced the concept of performative utterances—sentences that perform an action
rather than simply describing it. For example, when someone says, "I now pronounce you
husband and wife" during a wedding ceremony, the speaker is performing the act of
marrying the couple.
 Searle’s Contributions: Building on Austin’s work, John Searle proposed a more
detailed framework for understanding speech acts, focusing on illocutionary acts—the
function of the utterance in communication. He classified speech acts into five main
categories:
1. Assertives (stating facts or claims)
2. Directives (requesting or commanding)
3. Commissives (promising or offering)
4. Expressives (apologizing, congratulating)
5. Declarations (pronouncing, naming, or declaring something officially)

Example: When someone says, "I promise to call you later," the speaker is performing the act of
making a promise. The sentence is not just descriptive—it does something.

Illocutionary Acts and Perlocutionary Effects

In Speech Act Theory, illocutionary acts and perlocutionary effects are crucial components
that help explain how we use language to influence others.

1. Illocutionary Acts:
o This refers to the intended function of an utterance—the speaker's goal in saying
something. It answers the question: What is the speaker doing by saying this?
o Examples include making a statement, giving a command, asking a question, or
making a request.

Example: If someone says, "Can you pass me the salt?" the illocutionary act is a request
for the salt.
 2. Perlocutionary Effects:
o These refer to the effect the utterance has on the listener or the audience. It
answers the question: What is the outcome or result of the speaker's words on the
hearer?
o Perlocutionary effects are often unintended or unpredictable and depend on how
the listener interprets the speech.

Example: The perlocutionary effect of "Can you pass me the salt?" may be that the
listener passes the salt. Alternatively, the listener may ignore the request or respond with
a joke, depending on the context.

Differences:

 Illocutionary acts involve the speaker's intention, while perlocutionary effects relate to
the response or reaction of the listener.
 Illocutionary acts are under the control of the speaker, whereas perlocutionary effects
depend on the interpretation of the audience.

Pragmatic Aspects of Discourse

Pragmatics deals with how context influences the interpretation of meaning. Unlike semantics,
which focuses on the literal meaning of words and sentences, pragmatics examines how
meaning is shaped by context, speaker intentions, and social norms.

 Speech Acts and Context: Pragmatics plays a vital role in understanding how the same
speech act can have different meanings in different contexts. For example, the statement,
"It's cold in here," can be a simple observation or a request to close the window,
depending on the situation.
 Deixis: Deictic expressions (or deixis) are words whose meaning depends on the context.
These include pronouns like "I" or "you," time expressions like "now" or "then," and
spatial terms like "here" or "there." Understanding these requires knowledge of who is
speaking, when, and where.

Example: The sentence "I'll meet you there tomorrow" depends on knowing who "I" and
"you" are, where "there" is, and when "tomorrow" occurs.

 Implicature: Introduced by philosopher H.P. Grice, implicature refers to the meaning

that is implied, rather than explicitly stated, by the speaker. It relies on the listener’s
ability to infer meaning based on context and social norms.

Example: If someone asks, "Is Alice coming to the party?" and the response is, "Alice
has been really busy lately," the implicature is that Alice may not attend the party, even
though it wasn’t directly stated.
  Politeness Strategies: Politeness theory, developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen
Levinson, examines how people maintain social harmony during interactions. Speakers
often soften their language (e.g., through hedging, indirect requests) to avoid offending or
imposing on others.

Example: Instead of directly saying, "Give me your book," a polite speaker might say,
"Could I borrow your book for a bit?"

Examples of Key Concepts in Speech Acts and Pragmatics

1. Speech Act Theory:

o Example: "I hereby declare the meeting open."
 Illocutionary Act: The speaker is making an official declaration.
 Perlocutionary Effect: The audience now recognizes that the meeting has
started.
2. Illocutionary Acts and Perlocutionary Effects:
o Example: "You really should see a doctor."
 Illocutionary Act: The speaker is giving advice.
 Perlocutionary Effect: The listener might feel concerned about their
health and may decide to visit a doctor.
3. Pragmatic Aspects:
o Deixis Example: "We’ll go there tomorrow."
 Who is "we"? Where is "there"? When is "tomorrow"?
Understanding this sentence relies on knowing the context.
o Implicature Example: "I’m not sure if I can make it to your party."
 While the speaker does not explicitly say no, the listener can infer that the
speaker probably won’t attend.
o Politeness Example: "Could you perhaps lower the volume a bit?"
 Instead of demanding, the speaker softens the request to be polite,
respecting the listener’s autonomy.

Conclusion

Speech Act Theory (Austin & Searle) emphasizes that language is more than just a tool for
conveying information—it is used to perform actions. The key concepts of illocutionary acts
(what the speaker intends to do) and perlocutionary effects (how the listener responds) are
central to understanding how speech works. In pragmatics, we go beyond the literal meaning of
words to see how context, social norms, and speaker intention shape the interpretation of
language. Understanding speech acts and pragmatics is essential for analyzing how meaning is
created and communicated in discourse.