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second Edition

Fundamentals of Python:
Data STRUCTURES

Kenneth A. Lambert

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Table of Contents
iii

Pref ace �������������������������������������������������� xi

CHAPTER 1 B as ic Pyt h o n Programmi ng ��������������������������� 1


Basic Program Elements ��������������������������������������������������� 2
Programs and Modules��������������������������������������������������� 2
An Example Python Program: Guessing a Number��������������� 2
Editing, Compiling, and Running Python Programs��������������� 3
Program Comments ������������������������������������������������������� 4
Lexical Elements������������������������������������������������������������ 4
Spelling and Naming Conventions ������������������������������������ 4
Syntactic Elements��������������������������������������������������������� 5
Literals ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 5
Operators and Expressions ��������������������������������������������� 6
Function Calls ��������������������������������������������������������������� 7
The print Function������������������������������������������������������� 7
The input Function ��������������������������������������������������������� 7
Type Conversion Functions and Mixed-Mode Operations ������ 7
Optional and Keyword Function Arguments ������������������������ 7
Variables and Assignment Statements ������������������������������ 8
Python Data Typing��������������������������������������������������������� 9
import Statements ������������������������������������������������������� 9
Getting Help on Program Components ������������������������������ 9
Control Statements ���������������������������������������������������������10
Conditional Statements��������������������������������������������������10
Using if __name__ == "__main__"�����������������������������11
Loop Statements�����������������������������������������������������������12
Strings and Their Operations ��������������������������������������������12
Operators��������������������������������������������������������������������13
Formatting Strings for Output�����������������������������������������14
Objects and Method Calls�����������������������������������������������15
Built-In Python Collections and Their Operations��������������������16
Lists ��������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Tuples ������������������������������������������������������������������������17

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
contents 

Loops Over Sequences��������������������������������������������������17


Dictionaries �����������������������������������������������������������������18
Searching for a Value�����������������������������������������������������18
Pattern Matching with Collections �����������������������������������18
Creating New Functions ���������������������������������������������������19
iv Function Definitions ������������������������������������������������������19
Recursive Functions������������������������������������������������������20
Nested Function Definitions��������������������������������������������22
Higher-Order Functions��������������������������������������������������23
Creating Anonymous Functions with lambda ���������������������24
Catching Exceptions ��������������������������������������������������������24
Files and Their Operations ������������������������������������������������25
Text File Output������������������������������������������������������������26
Writing Numbers to a Text File ���������������������������������������26
Reading Text from a Text File �����������������������������������������27
Reading Numbers from a File �����������������������������������������28
Reading and Writing Objects with pickle ������������������������29
Creating New Classes ������������������������������������������������������30

CHAPTER 2 An Over view o f Col l ecti ons ������������������������� 37


Collection Types��������������������������������������������������������������38
Linear Collections ��������������������������������������������������������38
Hierarchical Collections��������������������������������������������������39
Graph Collections ���������������������������������������������������������39
Unordered Collections���������������������������������������������������40
Sorted Collections��������������������������������������������������������40
A Taxonomy of Collection Types��������������������������������������40
Operations on Collections��������������������������������������������������41
Fundamental Operations on All Collection Types�����������������41
Type Conversion�����������������������������������������������������������43
Cloning and Equality �����������������������������������������������������43
Iterators and Higher-Order Functions�����������������������������������44
Implementations of Collections������������������������������������������44

CHAPTER 3 Search in g , ­S o r ti ng, and Compl ex i ty Anal y si s��� 49


Measuring the Efficiency of Algorithms��������������������������������50
Measuring the Run Time of an Algorithm ��������������������������50
Counting Instructions�����������������������������������������������������53
Measuring the Memory Used by an Algorithm��������������������55
Complexity Analysis ���������������������������������������������������������55
Orders of Complexity�����������������������������������������������������56
Big-O Notation��������������������������������������������������������������57
The Role of the Constant of Proportionality�����������������������58
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 contents

Search Algorithms �����������������������������������������������������������59


Search for the Minimum ������������������������������������������������59
Sequential Search of a List ��������������������������������������������60
Best-Case, Worst-Case, and Average-Case Performance�����60
Binary Search of a Sorted List ���������������������������������������61
Comparing Data Items ��������������������������������������������������62 v
Basic Sort Algorithms ������������������������������������������������������64
Selection Sort��������������������������������������������������������������64
Bubble Sort �����������������������������������������������������������������65
Insertion Sort ��������������������������������������������������������������67
Best-Case, Worst-Case, and Average-Case Performance
Revisited��������������������������������������������������������������������68
Faster Sorting��������������������������������������������������������������69
Overview of Quicksort ���������������������������������������������������70
Merge Sort������������������������������������������������������������������74
An Exponential Algorithm: Recursive Fibonacci ��������������������77
Converting Fibonacci to a Linear Algorithm�����������������������78

CHAPTER 4 Ar r ays an d Linked Structures ���������������������� 89


The Array Data Structure��������������������������������������������������90
Random Access and Contiguous Memory��������������������������92
Static Memory and Dynamic Memory��������������������������������93
Physical Size and Logical Size ���������������������������������������94
Operations on Arrays��������������������������������������������������������94
Increasing the Size of an Array���������������������������������������95
Decreasing the Size of an Array��������������������������������������95
Inserting an Item into an Array That Grows �����������������������96
Removing an Item from an Array��������������������������������������97
Complexity Trade-Off: Time, Space, and Arrays�����������������98
Two-Dimensional Arrays (Grids) �����������������������������������������99
Processing a Grid������������������������������������������������������� 100
Creating and Initializing a Grid��������������������������������������� 100
Defining a Grid Class��������������������������������������������������� 101
Ragged Grids and Multidimensional Arrays ��������������������� 101
Linked Structures ���������������������������������������������������������� 102
Singly Linked Structures and Doubly Linked Structures ���� 103
Noncontiguous Memory and Nodes ������������������������������� 104
Defining a Singly Linked Node Class������������������������������ 106
Using the Singly Linked Node Class ������������������������������ 106
Operations on Singly Linked Structures ���������������������������� 108
Traversal ������������������������������������������������������������������ 108
Searching������������������������������������������������������������������ 109
Replacement ������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Inserting at the Beginning��������������������������������������������� 111
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Inserting at the End ���������������������������������������������������� 111


Removing at the Beginning ������������������������������������������ 112
Removing at the End��������������������������������������������������� 113
Inserting at Any Position���������������������������������������������� 114
Removing at Any Position��������������������������������������������� 116
vi Complexity Trade-Off: Time, Space, and Singly Linked
Structures ��������������������������������������������������������������� 116
Variations on a Link ������������������������������������������������������� 118
A Circular Linked Structure with a Dummy Header Node��� 118
Doubly Linked Structures��������������������������������������������� 119

CHAPTER 5  In t er f aces , ­I m pl ementati ons,


an d Po lym o r phi sm���������������������������������� 126
Developing an Interface ������������������������������������������������� 127
Designing the Bag Interface������������������������������������������ 127
Specifying Arguments and Return Values������������������������ 129
Constructors and Implementing Classes ��������������������������� 130
Preconditions, Postconditions, Exceptions,
and Documentation ��������������������������������������������������� 131
Coding an Interface in Python��������������������������������������� 132
Developing an Array-Based Implementation������������������������ 134
Choose and Initialize the Data Structures������������������������ 134
Complete the Easy Methods First ��������������������������������� 135
Complete the Iterator ������������������������������������������������� 136
Complete the Methods That Use the Iterator ������������������ 137
The in Operator and the __contains__ Method������������ 137
Complete the remove Method��������������������������������������� 138
Developing a Link-Based Implementation��������������������������� 139
Initialize the Data Structures ���������������������������������������� 139
Complete the Iterator ������������������������������������������������� 140
Complete the Methods clear and add��������������������������� 140
Complete the Method remove��������������������������������������� 141
Run-Time Performance of the Two Bag Implementations ������ 142
Testing the Two Bag Implementations ������������������������������� 142
Diagramming the Bag Resource with UML ������������������������� 144

CHAPTER 6 In h er it an ce an d Abstract Cl asses��������������� 148


Using Inheritance to Customize an Existing Class��������������� 149
Subclassing an Existing Class��������������������������������������� 150
Revising the __init__ Method ������������������������������������ 150
Adding a New __contains__ Method ��������������������������� 152
Modifying the Existing add Method ������������������������������� 152
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Modifying the Existing __add__ Method ������������������������ 153


Run-Time Performance of ArraySortedBag ������������������ 153
A Note on Class Hierarchies in Python ��������������������������� 154
Using Abstract Classes to Eliminate Redundant Code ��������� 155
Designing an AbstractBag Class��������������������������������� 155
Redoing the __init__ Method in AbstractBag ������������ 157 vii
Modifying the Subclasses of AbstractBag��������������������� 157
Generalizing the __add__ Method in AbstractBag��������� 158
An Abstract Class for All Collections��������������������������������� 159
Integrating AbstractCollection into the Collection
Hierarchy ���������������������������������������������������������������� 159
Using Two Iterators in the __eq__ Method ��������������������� 161
A Professional-Quality Framework of Collections ���������������� 162

CHAPTER 7 St ack s ������������������������������������������������� 167


Overview of Stacks��������������������������������������������������������� 168
Using a Stack ��������������������������������������������������������������� 169
The Stack Interface ���������������������������������������������������� 169
Instantiating a Stack ��������������������������������������������������� 170
Example Application: Matching Parentheses ������������������� 171
Three Applications of Stacks������������������������������������������� 174
Evaluating Arithmetic Expressions��������������������������������� 174
Evaluating Postfix Expressions ������������������������������������� 175
Converting Infix to Postfix ������������������������������������������� 176
Backtracking ������������������������������������������������������������� 179
Memory Management��������������������������������������������������� 181
Implementations of Stacks ��������������������������������������������� 184
Test Driver ���������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Adding Stacks to the Collection Hierarchy���������������������� 185
Array Implementation��������������������������������������������������� 186
Linked Implementation ������������������������������������������������ 187
The Role of the Abstract Stack Class ���������������������������� 190
Time and Space Analysis of the Two Implementations ������ 191

C HAPTER 8 Qu eu es ������������������������������������������������� 205


Overview of Queues ������������������������������������������������������� 206
The Queue Interface and Its Use��������������������������������������� 207
Two Applications of Queues��������������������������������������������� 210
Simulations ��������������������������������������������������������������� 210
Round-Robin CPU Scheduling ��������������������������������������� 212
Implementations of Queues��������������������������������������������� 213
A Linked Implementation of Queues������������������������������� 213
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contents 

An Array Implementation ��������������������������������������������� 215


Time and Space Analysis for the Two Implementations������ 217
Priority Queues ������������������������������������������������������������� 226

CHAPTER 9 Lis t s ���������������������������������������������������� 239


viii Overview of Lists ���������������������������������������������������������� 240
Using Lists ������������������������������������������������������������������� 240
Index-Based Operations������������������������������������������������ 241
Content-Based Operations ������������������������������������������� 242
Position-Based Operations ������������������������������������������� 242
Interfaces for Lists������������������������������������������������������ 247
Applications of Lists ������������������������������������������������������ 249
Heap-Storage Management ������������������������������������������ 249
Organization of Files on a Disk ������������������������������������� 250
Implementation of Other Collections������������������������������ 252
List Implementations������������������������������������������������������ 252
The Role of the AbstractList Class ��������������������������� 252
An Array-Based Implementation ������������������������������������ 254
A Linked Implementation ��������������������������������������������� 255
Time and Space Analysis for the Two Implementations������ 258
Implementing a List Iterator��������������������������������������������� 260
Role and Responsibilities of a List Iterator ��������������������� 260
Setting Up and Instantiating a List Iterator Class������������� 261
The Navigational Methods in the List Iterator ������������������ 262
The Mutator Methods in the List Iterator ������������������������ 263
Design of a List Iterator for a Linked List������������������������ 264
Time and Space Analysis of List Iterator
Implementations ������������������������������������������������������� 265
Recursive List Processing ���������������������������������������������� 270
Basic Operations on a Lisp-Like List������������������������������ 271
Recursive Traversals of a Lisp-Like List ������������������������� 272
Building a Lisp-Like List������������������������������������������������ 273
The Internal Structure of a Lisp-Like List������������������������ 275
Printing Lisp-Like Lists in IDLE with __repr__���������������� 276
Lists and Functional Programming��������������������������������� 277

CHAPTER 10 Trees ���������������������������������������������������� 282


An Overview of Trees������������������������������������������������������ 283
Tree Terminology�������������������������������������������������������� 283
General Trees and Binary Trees ������������������������������������ 284
Recursive Definitions of Trees��������������������������������������� 285
Why Use a Tree?������������������������������������������������������������ 286
The Shape of Binary Trees ���������������������������������������������� 288

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 contents

Binary Tree Traversals ��������������������������������������������������� 291


Preorder Traversal������������������������������������������������������ 291
Inorder Traversal��������������������������������������������������������� 291
Postorder Traversal ���������������������������������������������������� 292
Level Order Traversal��������������������������������������������������� 292
Three Common Applications of Binary Trees ���������������������� 293 ix
Heaps����������������������������������������������������������������������� 293
Binary Search Trees ��������������������������������������������������� 293
Expression Trees��������������������������������������������������������� 295
Developing a Binary Search Tree ������������������������������������� 297
The Binary Search Tree Interface ���������������������������������� 297
Data Structure for the Linked Implementation������������������ 299
Complexity Analysis of Binary Search Trees ������������������� 304
Recursive Descent Parsing and Programming
Languages������������������������������������������������������������������ 304
Introduction to Grammars��������������������������������������������� 305
Recognizing, Parsing, and Interpreting Sentences
in a Language ���������������������������������������������������������� 306
Lexical Analysis and the Scanner ���������������������������������� 307
Parsing Strategies������������������������������������������������������ 307
An Array Implementation of Binary Trees��������������������������� 313
Implementing Heaps ������������������������������������������������������ 315

CHAPTER 11 Set s an d Dict ionari es������������������������������� 322


Using Sets ������������������������������������������������������������������� 323
The Python Set Class������������������������������������������������������ 324
A Sample Session with Sets������������������������������������������ 325
Applications of Sets ��������������������������������������������������� 325
Relationship Between Sets and Bags������������������������������ 325
Relationship Between Sets and Dictionaries ������������������� 326
Implementations of Sets���������������������������������������������� 326
Array-Based and Linked Implementations of Sets ��������������� 326
The AbstractSet Class ��������������������������������������������� 327
The ArraySet Class��������������������������������������������������� 328
Using Dictionaries ��������������������������������������������������������� 329
Array-Based and Linked Implementations of Dictionaries������ 330
The Entry Class��������������������������������������������������������� 330
The AbstractDict Class ������������������������������������������� 331
The ArrayDict Class������������������������������������������������� 333
Complexity Analysis of the Array-Based and Linked
Implementations of Sets and Dictionaries��������������������� 334
Hashing Strategies��������������������������������������������������������� 335

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contents 

The Relationship of Collisions to Density������������������������ 336


Hashing with Nonnumeric Keys ������������������������������������� 337
Linear Probing������������������������������������������������������������ 339
Quadratic Probing ������������������������������������������������������ 340
Chaining ������������������������������������������������������������������� 341
x Complexity Analysis ���������������������������������������������������� 342
Hashing Implementation of Sets��������������������������������������� 349
Hashing Implementation of Dictionaries ���������������������������� 352
Sorted Sets and Dictionaries ������������������������������������������ 354

CHAPTER 12 Gr aph s ������������������������������������������������� 359


Why Use Graphs? ���������������������������������������������������������� 360
Graph Terminology��������������������������������������������������������� 360
Representations of Graphs ��������������������������������������������� 364
Adjacency Matrix��������������������������������������������������������� 365
Adjacency List������������������������������������������������������������ 366
Analysis of the Two Representations������������������������������ 367
Further Run-Time Considerations ���������������������������������� 368
Graph Traversals������������������������������������������������������������ 369
A Generic Traversal Algorithm��������������������������������������� 369
Breadth-First and Depth-First Traversals������������������������� 370
Graph Components������������������������������������������������������ 372
Trees Within Graphs������������������������������������������������������� 373
Spanning Trees and Forests������������������������������������������ 373
Minimum Spanning Tree����������������������������������������������� 373
Algorithms for Minimum Spanning Trees ������������������������ 373
Topological Sort������������������������������������������������������������ 376
The Shortest-Path Problem ��������������������������������������������� 377
Dijkstra’s Algorithm ���������������������������������������������������� 377
The Initialization Step ������������������������������������������������� 377
The Computation Step ������������������������������������������������ 379
Representing and Working with Infinity��������������������������� 380
Analysis��������������������������������������������������������������������� 380
Floyd’s Algorithm ������������������������������������������������������� 380
Analysis��������������������������������������������������������������������� 382
Developing a Graph Collection ���������������������������������������� 382
Example Use of the Graph Collection����������������������������� 383
The Class LinkedDirectedGraph������������������������������� 384
The Class LinkedVertex ������������������������������������������� 388
The Class LinkedEdge������������������������������������������������ 390

Glo s s ar y �����������������������������������������������������401

In dex ���������������������������������������������������� 410


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Preface
xi

Welcome to Fundamentals of Python: Data Structures, 2nd Edition. This text is intended
for a second semester course in programming and problem solving with data structures. It
covers the material taught in a typical Computer Science 2 course (CS2) at the undergradu-
ate level. Although this book uses the Python programming language, you need only have a
basic knowledge of programming in a high-level programming language before beginning
Chapter 1.

What You’ll Learn


The book covers four major aspects of computing:
1. Programming basics—Data types, control structures, algorithm development,
and program design with functions are basic ideas that you need to master to solve
problems with computers. You’ll review these core topics in the Python program-
ming language and employ your understanding of them to solve a wide range of
problems.
2. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)—Object-Oriented Programming is the
dominant programming paradigm used to develop large software systems. You’ll
be introduced to the fundamental principles of OOP so that you can apply them
­successfully. Unlike other textbooks, this book helps you develop a professional-
quality framework of collection classes to illustrate these principles.
3. Data structures—Most useful programs rely on data structures to solve prob-
lems. At the most concrete level, data structures include arrays and various types
of linked structures. You’ll use these data structures to implement various types of
collection structures, such as stacks, queues, lists, trees, bags, sets, dictionaries, and
graphs. You’ll also learn to use complexity analysis to evaluate the space/time trade-
offs of different implementations of these collections.
4. Software development life cycle—Rather than isolate software development tech-
niques in one or two chapters, this book deals with them throughout in the context
of numerous case studies. Among other things, you’ll learn that coding a program
is often not the most difficult or challenging aspect of problem solving and software
development.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P r e fa c e Why Python?

Why Python?
Computer technology and applications have become increasingly more sophisticated over
the past three decades, and so has the computer science curriculum, especially at the intro-
ductory level. Today’s students learn a bit of programming and problem solving and are
then expected to move quickly into topics like software development, complexity analysis,
xii
and data structures that, 30 years ago, were relegated to advanced courses. In addition,
the ascent of object-oriented programming as the dominant paradigm has led instructors
and textbook authors to bring powerful, industrial-strength programming languages such
as C++ and Java into the introductory curriculum. As a result, instead of experiencing the
rewards and excitement of solving problems with computers, beginning computer science
students often become overwhelmed by the combined tasks of mastering advanced con-
cepts as well as the syntax of a programming language.
This book uses the Python programming language as a way of making the second course
in computer science more manageable and attractive for students and instructors alike.
Python has the following pedagogical benefits:
•• Python has simple, conventional syntax. Python statements are very close to those of
pseudocode algorithms, and Python expressions use the conventional notation found
in algebra. Thus, you can spend less time dealing with the syntax of a programming
­language and more time learning to solve interesting problems.
•• Python has safe semantics. Any expression or statement whose meaning violates the
definition of the language produces an error message.
•• Python scales well. It is easy for beginners to write simple programs in Python. Python
also includes all the advanced features of a modern programming language, such as
­support for data structures and object-oriented software development, for use when
they become necessary, especially in the second course in computer science
•• Python is highly interactive. You can enter expressions and statements at an interpreter’s
prompts to try out experimental code and receive immediate feedback. You can also
compose longer code segments and save them in script files to be loaded and run as
modules or stand-alone applications.
•• Python is general purpose. In today’s context, this means that the language includes
resources for contemporary applications, including media computing and web
services.
•• Python is free and is in widespread use in the industry. You can download Python to run
on a variety of devices. There is a large Python user community, and expertise in Python
programming has great resume value.
To summarize these benefits, Python is a comfortable and flexible vehicle for ­expressing
ideas about computation, both for beginners and for experts. If you learn these ideas well
in the first year, you should have no problems making a quick transition to other lan-
guages needed for courses later in the curriculum. Most importantly, you will spend less
time staring at a computer screen and more time thinking about interesting problems
to solve.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Organization of this Book P r e fa c e

Organization of this Book


The approach in this book is easygoing, with each new concept introduced only when it is
needed.
Chapter 1 provides a review of the features of Python programming that are needed to begin
a second course in programming and problem solving in Python. The content of this chapter xiii
is organized so that you can skim it quickly if you have experience in Python programming,
or you can dig a bit deeper to get up to speed in the language if you are new to Python.
Chapters 2 through 12 covers the major topics in a typical CS2 course, especially the specifica-
tion, implementation, and application of abstract data types, with the collection types as the
primary vehicle and focus. Along the way, you will be thoroughly exposed to object-oriented
programming techniques and the elements of good software design. Other important CS2 topics
include recursive processing of data, search and sort algorithms, and the tools used in software
development, such as complexity analysis and graphical notations (UML) to document designs.
Chapter 2 introduces the concept of an abstract data type (ADT) and provides an overview
of various categories of collection ADTs.
Chapters 3 and 4 explore the data structures used to implement most collections and the
tools for analyzing their performance trade-offs. Chapter 3 introduces complexity analysis
with big-O notation. Enough material is presented to enable you to perform simple analyses
of the running time and memory usage of algorithms and data structures, using search and
sort algorithms as examples. Chapter 4 covers the details of processing arrays and linear
linked structures, the concrete data structures used to implement most collections. You’ll
learn the underlying models of computer memory that support arrays and linked structures
and the time/space trade-offs that they entail.
Chapters 5 and 6 shift the focus to the principles of object-oriented design. These principles
are used to organize a professional-quality framework of collection classes that will be cov-
ered in detail in later chapters.
Chapter 5 is concerned with the critical difference between interface and implementation.
A single interface and several implementations of a bag collection are developed as a first
example. Emphasis is placed on the inclusion of conventional methods in an interface, to
allow different types of collections to collaborate in applications. For example, one such
method creates an iterator, which allows you to traverse any collection with a simple loop.
Other topics covered in this chapter include polymorphism and information hiding, which
directly stem from the difference between interface and implementation.
Chapter 6 shows how class hierarchies can reduce the amount of redundant code in an object-
oriented software system. The related concepts of inheritance, dynamic binding of method
calls, and abstract classes are introduced here and used throughout the remaining chapters.
Armed with these concepts and principles, you’ll then be ready to consider the other major
collection ADTs, which form the subject of Chapters 7 through 12.
Chapters 7 through 9 present the linear collections, stacks, queues, and lists. Each collec-
tion is viewed first from the perspective of its users, who are aware only of an interface and
a set of performance characteristics possessed by a chosen implementation. The use of each
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P r e fa c e Special Features

collection is illustrated with one or more applications, and then several implementations
are developed, and their performance trade-offs are analyzed.
Chapters 10 through 12 present advanced data structures and algorithms as a transition to
later courses in computer science. Chapter 10 discusses various tree structures, including
binary search trees, heaps, and expression trees. Chapter 11 examines the ­implementation
xiv of the unordered collections, bags, sets, and dictionaries, using hashing strategies.
­Chapter 12 introduces graphs and graph-processing algorithms.
As mentioned earlier, this book is unique in presenting a professional-quality framework of
collection types. Instead of encountering a series of apparently unrelated collections, you
will explore the place of each collection in an integrated whole. This approach allows you
to see what the collection types have in common as well as what makes each one unique.
At the same time, you will be exposed to a realistic use of inheritance and class hierarchies,
topics in object-oriented software design that are difficult to motivate and exemplify at this
level of the curriculum.

Special Features
This book explains and develops concepts carefully, using frequent examples and diagrams.
New concepts are then applied in complete programs to show how they aid in solving prob-
lems. The chapters place an early and consistent emphasis on good writing habits and neat,
readable documentation.
The book includes several other important features:
•• Case studies—These present complete Python programs ranging from the simple to the
substantial. To emphasize the importance and usefulness of the software development life
cycle, case studies are discussed in the framework of a user request, followed by analysis,
design, implementation, and suggestions for testing, with well-defined tasks performed at
each stage. Some case studies are extended in end-of-chapter programming projects.
•• Chapter summaries—Each chapter after the first one ends with a summary of the
major concepts covered in the chapter.
•• Key terms—When a new term is introduced in the text, it appears in bold face.
­Definitions of the key terms are also collected in a glossary.
•• Exercises—Most major sections of each chapter after the first one end with exercise
questions that reinforce the reading by asking basic questions about the material in the
section. After Chapter 2, each chapter ends with review questions.
•• Programming projects—Each chapter ends with a set of programming projects of
varying difficulty.

New in this Edition


The most obvious change in this edition is the addition of full color. All program examples
include the color coding used in Python’s IDLE, so students can easily identify program
elements such as keywords, comments, and function, method, and class names. Learning
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Instructor Resources P r e fa c e

objectives have been added to the beginning of each chapter. Several new figures have been
added to illustrate concepts, and many programming projects have been added or reworked.
A new section on iterators and higher-order functions has been added to Chapter 2. Finally,
a new section on Lisp-like lists, recursive list processing, and functional programming has
been added to Chapter 9.
xv
Instructor Resources
MindTap
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P r e fa c e Dedication

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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my friend, Martin Osborne, for many years of advice, friendly
­criticism, and encouragement on several of my book projects.
I would also like to thank my students in Computer Science 112 at Washington and Lee
University for classroom testing this book over several semesters.
Finally, I would like to thank Kristin McNary, Product Team Manager; Chris Shortt, Product
Manager; Maria Garguilo and Kate Mason, Learning Designers; Magesh Rajagopalan, Senior
Project Manager; Danielle Shaw, Tech Editor; and especially Michelle Ruelos Cannistraci,
Senior Content Manager, for ­handling all the details of producing this edition of the book.

About the Author


Kenneth A. Lambert is a professor of computer science and the chair of that department
at Washington and Lee University. He has taught introductory programming courses for
over 30 years and has been an active researcher in computer science education. Lambert
has authored or coauthored a total of 28 textbooks, including a series of introductory C++
­textbooks with Douglas Nance and Thomas Naps, a series of introductory Java textbooks
with Martin Osborne, and a series of introductory Python textbooks.

Dedication
To Brenda Wilson, with love and admiration.
Kenneth A.­Lambert
Lexington, VA
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Chapter 1
Basic Python
Programming

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Write a simple Python program using its basic structure


Perform simple input and output operations
Perform operations with numbers such as arithmetic and
comparisons
Perform operations with Boolean values
Implement an algorithm using the basic constructs of
sequences of statements, selection statements, and loops
Define functions to structure code
Use built-in data structures such as strings, files, lists,
tuples, and dictionaries
Define classes to represent new types of objects
Structure programs in terms of cooperating functions,
data structures, classes, and modules

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Chapter 1 Basic Python Programming

This chapter gives a quick overview of Python programming. It is intended to bring those
new to or rusty in Python up to speed, but it does not pretend to be a thorough introduc-
tion to computer science or the Python programming language. For a more detailed treat-
ment of programming in Python, see my book Fundamentals of Python: First Programs,
Second Edition (Cengage Learning, 2019). For documentation on the Python programming
2
language, visit www.python.org.
If your computer already has Python, check the version number by running the python
or python3 command at a terminal prompt. (Linux and Mac users first open a terminal
­window, and Windows users first open a DOS window.) You are best off using the most
current version of Python available. Check for that at www.python.org, and download and
install the latest version if necessary. You will need Python 3.0 or higher to run the pro-
grams presented in this book.

Basic Program Elements


Like all contemporary programming languages, Python has a vast array of features and
constructs. However, Python is among the few languages whose basic program ele-
ments are quite simple. This section discusses the essentials to get you started in Python
programming.

Programs and Modules


A Python program consists of one or more modules. A module is just a file of Python code,
which can include statements, function definitions, and class definitions. A short Python
program, also called a script, can be contained in one module. Longer, more complex pro-
grams typically include one main module and one or more supporting modules. The main
module contains the starting point of program execution. Supporting modules contain
function and class definitions.

An Example Python Program: Guessing a Number


Next, you’ll see a complete Python program that plays a game of guess-the-number with
the user. The computer asks the user to enter the lower and upper bounds of a range of
numbers. The computer then “thinks” of a random number in that range and repeatedly
asks the user to guess this number until the user enters a correct guess. The computer gives
a hint to the user after each guess and displays the total number of guesses at the end of the
process. The program includes several of the types of Python statements to be discussed
later in this chapter, such as input statements, output statements, assignment statements,
loops, and conditional statements. The program also includes a single function definition.
Here is the code for the program, in the file numberguess.py:
"""
Author: Ken Lambert
Plays a game of guess the number with the user.
"""

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Basic Program Elements

import random

def main():
"""Inputs the bounds of the range of numbers
and lets the user guess the computer’s number until
the guess is correct."""
smaller = int(input("Enter the smaller number: ")) 3
larger = int(input("Enter the larger number: "))
myNumber = random.randint(smaller, larger)
count = 0
while True:
count += 1
userNumber = int(input("Enter your guess: "))
if userNumber < myNumber:
print("Too small")
elif userNumber > myNumber:
print("Too large")
else:
print("You’ve got it in", count, "tries!")
break

if __name__ == "__main__":
main()

Here is a trace of a user’s interaction with the program:


Enter the smaller number: 1
Enter the larger number: 32
Enter your guess: 16
Too small
Enter your guess: 24
Too large
Enter your guess: 20
You’ve got it in 3 tries!

Note that the code and its trace appear in the colors black, blue, orange, and green. Python’s
IDLE uses color coding to help the reader recognize various types of program elements.
The role of each color will be explained shortly.

Editing, Compiling, and Running Python Programs


You can run complete Python programs, including most of the examples presented, by
entering a command in a terminal window. For example, to run the program contained in
the file numberguess.py, enter the following command in most terminal windows:
python3 numberguess.py

To create or edit a Python module, try using Python’s IDLE (short for Integrated
­DeveLopment Environment). To start IDLE, enter the idle or idle3 command at a terminal
prompt or launch its icon if it is available. You can also launch IDLE by double-clicking on
a Python source code file (any file with a .py extension) or by right-clicking on the file and

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Chapter 1 Basic Python Programming

selecting Open or Edit with IDLE. Make sure that your system is set to open IDLE when
files of this type are launched (this is the default on macOS but not on Windows).
IDLE gives you a shell window for interactively running Python expressions and statements.
Using IDLE, you can move back and forth between editor windows and the shell window to
develop and run complete programs. IDLE also formats your code and color-codes it.
4
When you open an existing Python file with IDLE, the file appears in an editor window, and
the shell pops up in a separate window. To run a program, move the cursor into the editor
window and press the F5 (function-5) key. Python compiles the code in the editor window
and runs it in the shell window.
If a Python program appears to hang or not quit normally, you can exit by pressing Ctrl+C
or closing the shell window.

Program Comments
A program comment is text ignored by the Python compiler but valuable to the reader as
documentation. An end-of-line comment in Python begins with a # symbol and extends to
the end of the current line. It is color-coded in red. For example:
# This is an end-of-line comment.

A multiline comment is a string enclosed in triple single quotes or triple double quotes.
Such comments, which are colored green, are also called docstrings, to indicate that they
can document major constructs within a program. The numberguess program shown
­earlier includes two doc strings. The first one, at the top of the program file, serves as a
comment for the entire numberguess module. The second one, just below the header of the
main function, describes what this function does. As we shall see shortly, docstrings play a
critical role in giving help to a programmer within the Python shell.

Lexical Elements
The lexical elements in a language are the types of words or symbols used to construct
­sentences. As in all high-level programming languages, some of Python’s basic symbols are
keywords, such as if, while, and def, which are colored orange. Also included among lexical
items are identifiers (names), literals (numbers, strings, and other built-in data structures),
operators, and delimiters (quotation marks, commas, parentheses, square brackets, and
braces). Among the identifiers are the names of built-in functions, which are colored purple.

Spelling and Naming Conventions


Python keywords and names are case-sensitive. Thus, while is a keyword, whereas While
is a programmer-defined name. Python keywords are spelled in lowercase letters and are
color-coded in orange in an IDLE window.

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Basic Program Elements

All Python names, other than those of built-in functions, are color-coded in black, except
when they are introduced as function, class, or method names, in which case they appear
in blue. A name can begin with a letter or an underscore (_), followed by any number of
­letters, underscores, or digits.
In this book, the names of modules, variables, functions, and methods are spelled in lower-
case letters. With the exception of modules, when one of these names contains one or more 5
embedded words, the embedded words are capitalized. The names of classes follow the
same conventions but begin with a capital letter. When a variable names a constant, all the
letters are uppercase, and an underscore separates any embedded words. Table 1-1 shows
examples of these naming conventions.

Type of Name Examples


Variable salary, hoursWorked, isAbsent

Constant ABSOLUTE_ZERO, INTEREST_RATE

Function or method printResults, cubeRoot, input

Class BankAccount, SortedSet

Table 1-1 Examples of Python Naming Conventions

Use names that describe their role in a program. In general, variable names should
be nouns or adjectives (if they denote Boolean values), whereas function and method
names should be verbs if they denote actions, or nouns or adjectives if they denote values
returned.

Syntactic Elements
The syntactic elements in a language are the types of sentences (expressions, statements,
definitions, and other constructs) composed from the lexical elements. Unlike most high-
level languages, Python uses white space (spaces, tabs, or line breaks) to mark the syntax
of many types of sentences. This means that indentation and line breaks are significant in
Python code. A smart editor like Python’s IDLE can help indent code correctly. The pro-
grammer need not worry about separating sentences with semicolons and marking blocks
of sentences with braces. In this book, I use an indentation width of four spaces in all
Python code.

Literals
Numbers (integers or floating-point numbers) are written as they are in other program-
ming languages. The Boolean values True and False are keywords. Some data structures,
such as strings, tuples, lists, and dictionaries, also have literals, as you will see shortly.

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Chapter 1 Basic Python Programming

String Literals
You can enclose strings in single quotes, double quotes, or sets of three double quotes or
three single quotes. The last notation is useful for a string containing multiple lines of text.
Character values are single-character strings. The \ character is used to escape nongraphic
characters such as the newline (\n) and the tab (\t), or the \ character itself. The next code
6 segment, followed by the output, illustrates the possibilities.
print("Using double quotes")
print('Using single quotes')
print("Mentioning the word ‘Python’ by quoting it")
print("Embedding a\nline break with \\n")
print("""Embedding a
line break with triple quotes""")

Output:
Using double quotes
Using single quotes
Mentioning the word 'Python' by quoting it
Embedding a
line break with \n
Embedding a
line break with triple quotes

Operators and Expressions


Arithmetic expressions use the standard operators (+, –, *, /, %) and infix notation. The
/ operator produces a floating-point result with any numeric operands, whereas the //
­operator produces an integer quotient. The + operator means concatenation when used
with collections, such as strings and lists. The ** operator is used for exponentiation.
The comparison operators <, <=, >, >=, ==, and != work with numbers and strings.
The == operator compares the internal contents of data structures, such as two lists, for
structural equivalence, whereas the is operator compares two values for object identity.
Comparisons return True or False.
The logical operators and, or, and not treat several values, such as 0, None, the empty string,
and the empty list, as False. In contrast, most other Python values count as True.
The subscript operator, [], used with collection objects, will be examined shortly.
The selector operator, ‘ ’, is used to refer to a named item in a module, class, or object.

The operators have the standard precedence (selector, function call, subscript, arithmetic,
comparison, logical, assignment). Parentheses are used in the usual manner, to group sub-
expressions for earlier evaluation.
The ** and = operators are right associative, whereas the others are left associative.

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Basic Program Elements

Function Calls
Functions are called in the usual manner, with the function’s name followed by a parenthe-
sized list of arguments. For example:
min(5, 2) # Returns 2

Python includes a few standard functions, such as abs and round. Many other functions are 7
available by import from modules, as you will see shortly.

The print Function


The standard output function print displays its arguments on the console. This function
allows a variable number of arguments. Python automatically runs the str function on each
argument to obtain its string representation and separates each string with a space before
output. By default, print terminates its output with a newline.

The input Function


The standard input function input waits for the user to enter text at the keyboard. When the
user presses the Enter key, the function returns a string containing the characters entered.
This function takes an optional string as an argument and prints this string, ­without a line
break, to prompt the user for the input.

Type Conversion Functions and Mixed-Mode Operations


You can use some data type names as type conversion functions. For example, when the
user enters a number at the keyboard, the input function returns a string of digits, not a
numeric value. The program must convert this string to an int or a float before numeric
processing. The next code segment inputs the radius of a circle, converts this string to a
float, and computes and outputs the circle’s area:

radius = float(input("Radius: "))


print("The area is", 3.14 * radius ** 2)

Like most other languages, Python allows operands of different numeric types in arithmetic
expressions. In those cases, the result type is the same type as the most general operand
type. For example, the addition of an int and a float produces a float as the result.

Optional and Keyword Function Arguments


Functions may allow optional arguments, which can be named with keywords when the
function is called. For example, the print function by default outputs a newline after

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Chapter 1 Basic Python Programming

its arguments are displayed. To prevent this from happening, you can give the optional
­argument end a value of the empty string, as follows:
print("The cursor will stay on this line, at the end", end = "")

Required arguments have no default values. Optional arguments have default values and
can appear in any order when their keywords are used, as long as they come after the
8
required arguments.
For example, the standard function round expects one required argument, a rounded num-
ber, and a second, optional argument, the number of figures of precision. When the second
argument is omitted, the function returns the nearest whole number (an int). When the
second argument is included, the function returns a float. Here are some examples:
>>> round(3.15)
3

>>> round(3.15, 1)
3.2

In general, the number of arguments passed to a function when it is called must be at least
the same number as its required arguments.
Standard functions and Python’s library functions check the types of their arguments when
the function is called. Programmer-defined functions can receive arguments of any type,
including functions and types themselves.

Variables and Assignment Statements


A Python variable is introduced with an assignment statement. For example:
PI = 3.1416

sets PI to the value 3.1416. The syntax of a simple assignment statement is:
<identifier> = <expression>

Several variables can be introduced in the same assignment statement, as follows:


minValue, maxValue = 1, 100

To swap the values of the variables a and b, you write:


a, b = b, a

Assignment statements must appear on a single line of code, unless the line is broken after
a comma, parenthesis, curly brace, or square bracket. When these options are unavailable,
another means of breaking a line within a statement is to end it with the escape symbol \.
You typically place this symbol before or after an operator in an expression. Here are some
admittedly unrealistic examples:
minValue = min(100,
200)
product = max(100, 200) \
* 30
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Basic Program Elements

When you press Enter after a comma or the escape symbol, IDLE automatically indents the
next line of code.

Python Data Typing


9
In Python, any variable can name a value of any type. Variables are not declared to have a
type, as they are in many other languages; they are simply assigned a value.
Consequently, data type names almost never appear in Python programs. However, all
­values or objects have types. The types of operands in expressions are checked at run time,
so type errors do not go undetected; however, the programmer does not have to worry
about mentioning data types when writing code.

import Statements
The import statement makes visible to a program the identifiers from another module.
These identifiers might name objects, functions, or classes. There are several ways to
express an import statement. The simplest is to import the module name, as in:
import math

This makes any name defined in the math module available to the current module, by using
the syntax math.<name>. Thus, math.sqrt(2) would return the square root of 2.
A second style of importing brings in a name itself, which you can use directly without the
module name as a prefix:
from math import sqrt
print(sqrt(2))

You can import several individual names by listing them:


from math import pi, sqrt
print(sqrt(2) * pi)

You can import all names from a module using the * operator, but that is not usually
­considered good programming practice.

Getting Help on Program Components


Although the Python website at www.python.org has complete documentation for the
Python language, help on most language components is also readily available within
the Python shell. To access such help, just enter the function call help(<component>) at the
shell prompt, where <component> is the name of a module, data type, function, or method.
For example, help(abs) and help(math.sqrt) display documentation for the abs and
math.sqrt functions, respectively. Calls of dir(int) and dir(math) list all the operations
in the int type and math module, respectively. You can then run help to get help on one of
these operations.
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Chapter 1 Basic Python Programming

Note that if a module is not the built-in module that Python loads when the shell starts, the
programmer must first import that module before asking for help on it. For example, the
following session with the shell displays the documentation for the numberguess program
discussed earlier in this chapter:
>>> import numberguess
10 >>> help(numberguess)
Help on module numberguess:
NAME
numberguess
DESCRIPTION
Author: Ken Lambert
Plays a game of guess the number with the user.
FUNCTIONS
main()
Inputs the bounds of the range of numbers,
and lets the user guess the computer’s number until
the guess is correct.
FILE
/Users/ken/Documents/CS2Python/Chapters/Chapter1/numberguess.py

Control Statements
Python includes the usual array of control statements for sequencing, conditional execu-
tion, and iteration. A sequence of statements is a set of statements written one after the
other. Each statement in a sequence must begin in the same column. This section examines
the control statements for conditional execution and iteration.

Conditional Statements
The structure of Python’s conditional statements is similar to that of other languages. The
keywords if, elif, and else are significant, as is the colon character and indentation.
The syntax of the one-way if statement is:
if <Boolean expression>:
<sequence of statements>

A Boolean expression is any Python value; as mentioned earlier, some of these count as
False, and the others count as True. If the Boolean expression is True, the sequence of
statements is run; otherwise, nothing happens. The sequence of (one or more) statements
must be indented and aligned at least one space or tab (typically four spaces). The colon
character is the only separator; if there is only one statement in the sequence, it may imme-
diately follow the colon on the same line.
The syntax of the two-way if statement is:
if <Boolean expression>:
<sequence of statements>
else:
<sequence of statements>
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Control Statements

Note the indentation and the colon following the keyword else. Exactly one of these two
sequences of statements will be run. The first sequence is run if the Boolean expression is
True; the second sequence is run if the Boolean expression is False.

The syntax of the multiway if statement is:


if <Boolean expression>:
<sequence of statements>
11
elif <Boolean expression>:
<sequence of statements>
...
else:
<sequence of statements>

A multiway if statement runs exactly one sequence of statements. The multiway if


s­ tatement includes one or more alternative Boolean expressions, each of which follows the
keyword elif. You can omit the trailing else: clause.
The next example outputs the appropriate answer to a question about the relative sizes of
two numbers:
if x > y:
print("x is greater than y")
elif x < y:
print("x is less than y")
else:
print("x is equal to y")

Using if __name__ == "__main__"


The numberguess program discussed earlier includes the definition of a main function and
the following if statement:
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()

The purpose of this if statement is to allow the programmer either to run the module as a
standalone program or to import it from the shell or another module. Here is how this works:
every Python module includes a set of built-in module variables, to which the Python vir-
tual machine automatically assigns values when the module is loaded. If the module is being
loaded as a standalone program (either by running it from a terminal prompt or by loading it
from an IDLE window), the module’s __name__ variable is set to the string "__main__".
Otherwise, this variable is set to the module’s name—in this case, "numberguess". Either
assignment is accomplished before any of the code within the module is loaded. Thus, when
control reaches the if statement at the end of the module, the module’s main function will be
called only if the module has been launched as a standalone program.
The if __name__ == "__main__" idiom is useful when developing standalone program
modules, because it allows the programmer to view help on the module just by importing it
into the shell. Likewise, the programmer can use this idiom in supporting modules to run a
test bed function during module development within IDLE.
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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Die Sonne liegt im Sterben

Die Sonne liegt im Sterben, da kommen allzumal


In langen, weißen Kleidern die Wolken in den Saal.

Als alle sich versammelt an ihres Bettes Rand,


Vermacht sie jeder Wolke ein feuerrotes Band.

Und mit den roten Bändern, wie prahlen sie so sehr!


Und wenn die Sterne kommen, so hat es keine mehr.

Hermann von Gilm


Mailied

Ich sah dem Glanz der Sonne nach,


Sie brückte ganz mit Gold den Bach.

Und als ihr Bild ich sah nicht mehr,


Da glänzt’ es mild vom Rücken her.

Um wandt ich mich, der Mond ging auf.


Die Sonn entwich; nun komm im Lauf!

Der Sonne Gold zerschmolz im Bach;


Nun streu ihm hold dein Silber nach!

So zwischen Gold und Silberglanz,


O flösse hold mein Leben ganz!

Friedrich Rückert
Sonnenuntergang

Wo bist du? Trunken dämmert die Seele mir


Von aller deiner Wonne; denn eben ist’s,
Daß ich gelauscht, wie, goldner Töne
Voll, der entzückende Sonnenjüngling
Sein Abendlied auf himmlischer Leier spielt’;
Es tönten rings die Wälder und Hügel nach,
Doch fern ist er zu frommen Völkern,
Die ihn noch ehren, hinweggegangen.

Chr. Friedr. Hölderlin


Die Großmutter

Großmutter, wie wir noch Kinder waren,


War selbst schon ein Kind mit schneeweißen Haaren,
Nun hatte sie gar keine Freude mehr,
Und bloß ihre Lampe liebte sie sehr.

Mit der hat sie immerfort was gesprochen.


Und war kaum die Dämmrung angebrochen,
Saß sie beim Tisch im Lampenlicht
Und wackelte mit dem Runzelgesicht.

Und wollten wir Schlimmen sie abends erschrecken,


Mußten bloß die Köpfe zur Türe reinstecken.
Dann weinte sie: »Macht doch die Türe zu,
Laßt doch die arme Lampe in Ruh!« –

Und hob die kleinen, verschrumpelten Hände


Und hielt sie vors Lämplein wie eine Blende
Und weinte: »Aber, aber! Ihr Schlimmen! Nein, nein!
Macht doch zu! Ihr laßt ja das Dunkel herein!«

Aber einmal, da sind wir’s nicht gewesen,


Und die Lampe war doch erloschen gewesen,
Und die Tür stand auf und der Tag war schon licht,
Und Großmutter saß und rührte sich nicht …

Hugo Salus
Mondaufgang

Seltsam in den Büschen Schatten und fahles Licht –


Sie stehen rings um mich herum mit fragendem Gesicht,

Sehn alle ernst zum Monde hin – der steigt aus der Erd empor,
Steigt wie eines toten Königs Geist aus seiner Gruft hervor

Blickt groß und traurig um sich her – da wandelt’s bleich übers Feld,
Wird alles eine andere, wird wieder seine Welt.

Ferdinand Avenarius
Feierabend

In einen brennenden Abendhimmel


aus Staub und Dunkel
steigt der Dom.
Seine Glocken läuten.
Die kleinen Linden stehen schwarz,
vor ihren Türen sitzen die alten Leute.
Feierabend!
Die Gassen schweigen.
Die Glut erlischt,
am Himmel
leise
ziehn die ewigen Sterne auf.

Arno Holz
Abendlied

Der Mond ist aufgegangen,


Die goldnen Sternlein prangen
Am Himmel hell und klar;
Der Wald steht schwarz und schweiget,
Und aus den Wiesen steiget
Der weiße Nebel wunderbar.

Wie ist die Welt so stille


Und in der Dämmrung Hülle
So traulich und so hold!
Als eine stille Kammer,
Wo ihr des Tages Jammer
Verschlafen und vergessen sollt.

Seht ihr den Mond dort stehen? –


Er ist nur halb zu sehen
Und ist doch rund und schön!
So sind wohl manche Sachen,
Die wir getrost belachen,
Weil unsre Augen sie nicht sehn.

Wir stolze Menschenkinder


Sind eitel arme Sünder
Und wissen gar nicht viel;
Wir spinnen Luftgespinste
Und suchen viele Künste
Und kommen weiter von dem Ziel.

Gott, laß uns dein Heil schauen,


Auf nichts Vergänglichs trauen,
Nicht Eitelkeit uns freun!
Laß uns einfältig werden
Und vor dir hier auf Erden
Wie Kinder fromm und fröhlich sein!

Mathias Claudius
Der Abendfriede
Es saßen zwei alte Leute, Mann und Frau, auf der Steinbank vor
ihrem Häuschen; zwei steinalte Leute. Sie waren schon so lange
miteinander verheiratet, daß sie sogar die goldene Hochzeit gefeiert
hatten, und das will schon etwas sagen.
Recht würdige alte Menschen geben immer ein rührendes Bild ab!
Sie gleichen ein wenig jenen hohen, einsamen, schneeweißen
Alpengipfeln, die man auch nie ohne tiefe Rührung sehen kann: so
spärlich und einsam stehen sie unter den zahlreichen Häuptern
jüngerer Geschlechter, so still und ernst und groß muten sie an, so
weit vermag ihr Blick in die Ferne zu schweifen; und wie jene
entbehren sie den Schmuck blühender, schwellender Lebenskraft:
weiß liegt es auf ihrem Scheitel, und runzlig ist ihre Haut wie der
zerrissene und zerklüftete Fels der Firnen. Besonders rührend aber
ist ein altes Ehepaar, welches durch ein ganzes Leben mit Leid und
Lust wie zu einem einzigen Menschen zusammengeschmiedet
worden ist, so daß Mann und Frau gar nicht mehr fühlen, wie sie
sich lieb haben.
Sie saßen beide ganz still; denn die Stunde war nahe, wo der
Abendfriede durch die Luft zieht, und da wird es in jedem Herzen
still, am meisten aber bei alten Leuten.
Sie dachten an dies und das, an die Vergangenheit und an die
Zukunft.
Die laue Sommerabendluft strich um das Häuschen so weich wie
Kinderatem. Über die Wiesen und Äcker mit dem grünen Sammet
und dem gilbenden Ährensegen zog sich der Widerschein der
Abendröte; die Grillen zirpten, die letzten Lerchen wirbelten im
Trichterfluge zu ihren Nestern nieder, und ferne begannen die
Geisterrufe des Wachtelkönigs.
Im Dorfe scholl munterer Kinderlärm und über allem Irdischen in
hoher Luft Glockenläuten, das Läuten der Feierabendglocken.
Immer stiller ward es; die Glocken verklangen, das Abendrot
verglühte, und jetzt tauchte blitzend an dem dämmernden Himmel
der erste Stern auf.
Da kam er, der Abendfriede. Von dem Stern flog er her, schnell
wie das Licht fliegt, ganz etwas Unsichtbares. Wenn einmal einen
Augenblick gar nichts weiter zu hören war, selbst nicht das leise
Wehen des Windes, dann spürte man im Ohr ein Flügelrauschen,
aber ganz schwach; das kam von ihm. Er war eine Art Engel und der
blinkende Stern droben seine Wohnung.
Er blieb heute lange bei den zwei alten Leuten; er schwebte um
sie, und so oft er über sie hinstrich, schüttelte er ein wenig die
Flügel, da rieselte es auf sie nieder, wunderbare Tropfen der
Erquickung, daß ihnen das Herz freudiger schlug als sonst.
»Es ist doch schön auf Gottes Welt, Gertrud,« sagte der alte
Mann; »es will mir gar nicht recht zu Kopf, daß wir nun bald fort
müssen. Ich glaube, ich könnte dreimal so alt werden, wie ich bin,
und ich würde mir nicht wünschen, meines Leibes ledig zu werden.«
»Red nicht so, Heinrich,« antwortete das alte Mütterchen und
hüstelte ein wenig; »das ist doch dein Ernst nicht. Wir haben beide
allerlei Gebresten, die uns quälen, wenn auch gerade nicht auf diese
Stunde. Ich weiß wohl, was ich mir alle Nächte wünsch, wenn der
Husten kommt, daß man nicht schlafen kann und denkt: Hüter, ist
die Nacht schier hin? Oder wenn mir die Hand zu zittern anfängt,
daß die Arbeit hinausfällt auf den Estrich. Ein älter Mensch ist so
mürbe und zerrieben, daß er froh sein muß, wenn er
auseinandergeht und die müde Seele Frieden findet.«
»Nein,« sprach der Greis wieder, »ich fühl’s nimmer, daß mir so
zumute wäre. Der Tod ist alleweg ein bitteres Kraut, da wollen wir
uns nichts einreden. Vielleicht wenn ich meine Kräfte nicht mehr
hätte, daß mir das Auge trübe oder das Ohr taub wäre oder mir kein
Essen mehr schmecken möchte: daß ich dann lieber stürbe als jetzt.
Aber so weiß ich schon, ich werd ein schweres Sterben haben, wenn
ich denke, daß ich nachher Gottes Sonne nicht mehr sehe und das
liebe Gewächs, mit dem ich mich mein Lebtag abgegeben habe, und
alles das nicht mehr höre, was mich immer gefreut hat, die Vögel,
die Kinder im Dorf, die Orgel und die Glocken.«
So redeten sie eine Weile hin und her, und über ihnen auf der
Laube saß unsichtbar der Abendfriede und lächelte so lieb, wie
Engel lächeln.
Er hörte jedem Wort zu, das sie sprachen, und endlich wurde er
nachdenklich.
Er dachte sich etwas aus, etwas recht, recht Schönes. Und
endlich hatte er das Richtige. Aber er konnte es nicht ausführen, wie
er wollte. Ohne den lieben Gott, der erst ja dazu sagte, ging das
nicht.
Die beiden alten Leute begaben sich in das Häuschen, und er flog
weiter und schüttelte seine Schwingen recht oft; denn er war jetzt
ganz besonders froh. Reichlicher als sonst lag die Welt voll von dem
Wundertau der Erquickung, als er zum Himmel aufstieg.
Er schwebte diesesmal bei seinem Stern vorüber, zu Gott hin. Und
als er dort gesagt, was er sich ausgedacht hatte, da lächelte ihm der
himmlische Vater zu und nickte.
Und nun war der Abendfriede erst recht glücklich.
Einmal des Abends blieb er bei dem Häuschen und wartete, bis
die beiden alten Leute schliefen. Da huschte er in die Schlafstube
hinein und erlöste die Seele des alten Mütterchens von ihrem Leibe,
ganz in der Stille.
Wie ward die so froh und jung! Sie sah den Abendfrieden an und
sagte: »Dich kenne ich, du mußt des Abends manchesmal um uns
gewesen sein.«
»Ja,« nickte der ihr zu. »Ich bin der Abendfriede. Ich will dich mit
zu meinem Stern hinaufnehmen. Er hat das allersanfteste Licht, und
sanft und friedlich wie sein Licht ist alles auf ihm.«
»Ach,« sagte die Seele des alten Mütterchens, »willst du mich
allein erlösen und ihn dort nicht?«
Und sie zeigte nach dem Bett, in dem der alte Mann schlief,
welcher keine Lust hatte, von der Erde zu scheiden.
»Noch nicht,« nickte der Abendfriede zu dem Bett hinüber. »Aber
bald!« Und er lächelte wie in Gedanken.
Das sah die Seele der alten Frau, und es überkam sie so friedlich
und freudig; und die beiden schwebten himmelauf, zu dem Stern hin.
Acht Tage lang ließ sich der Abendfriede nicht bei dem Häuschen
spüren; nur im weiten Bogen flog er um dasselbe herum. Dann kam
er wieder zu der Steinbank.
Aber der alte Mann war nicht auf der Steinbank.
Er guckte in das Fenster, und da sah er ihn drinnen auf der
Ofenbank sitzen und schlüpfte zu ihm in das Stübchen.
Der arme alte Mann war ganz allein. So wehmütig sah es aus, wie
er ganz versunken dasaß, die braunen, schwieligen Hände zwischen
den Knien zusammengelegt. Er weinte nicht; aber seine Augen
waren rot, und er hatte das weiße Haupt gesenkt und rührte sich
nicht. Die Kuckucksuhr an der Wand tickte so eilig, als ob sie etwas
versäumt hätte, und das Herz des Greises tickte auch, aber so
müde, so langsam!
Neben ihm lagen das Gesangbuch und die Brille; und in dem
aufgeschlagenen Gesangbuch war ein Lied zu sehen, das fing an:

»Jerusalem, du hochgebaute Stadt,


Wollt Gott, ich wär in dir:
Mein sehnlich Herz so groß Verlangen hat
Und ist nicht mehr bei mir.
Weit über Berg und Tale
Und über blaches Feld
Schwingt es sich über alle
Und eilt aus dieser Welt.«

Der Abendfriede las das und hatte wieder ein Engelslächeln auf
den Lippen.
Nun fing der alte Mann an, vor sich hin zu sprechen.
»Sonst saßen wir um diese Zeit auf der Bank draußen. Aber
nunmehr bringe ich es nicht über das Herz, hinauszugehen. Es ist
mir alles vergällt. Das Licht tut meinen Augen weh, von dem
Vogelgepiep und Kinderschreien schmerzen mir die Ohren, und
wenn ich die Glocken so läuten höre, quält es mich da drinnen, wo
das Herz sitzt. Die Glocken haben auch geläutet, als wir mein altes
Mütterchen Gertrud begraben haben.
Was soll ich auch noch auf der Welt? Das möchte ich wissen. Ich
ginge je eher je lieber hinaus. Aber da läßt mich’s nicht, als ob die
Welt ohne mich nicht bestehen könnte. Jeder kann froh sein, der
erlöst ist.
Ach, lieber Tod, komme bald!
Ich glaube, daß er wirklich kommt; denn ich weiß nicht, wovon mir
jetzt so wohl wird.«
Er konnte es nicht merken, daß der Abendfriede über ihm flog und
seine Flügel schüttelte. Der Wundertau rieselte über ihn, das war es,
was ihm so wohl tat.
Der Tod kam nicht; aber erlöst wurde er doch in der Nacht, so
sanft wie das alte Mütterchen, und es war wieder der Abendfriede,
der ihn erlöste. Der Tod mit der Sense schneidet bloß in ein Leben,
das anders nicht zerreißen will.
»Ach, das ist schön,« sagte die Seele des alten Mannes zu dem
Engel. »Nun führe mich zu meinem lieben alten Mütterchen!«
Und der Abendfrieden nickte.
»Weißt du noch,« sprach er unterwegs, »wie du die Erde so schön
fandest und gar nicht begreifen mochtest, daß man sie gern
verlassen könnte?«
Die Seele dachte nach.
»Das muß wohl gewesen sein, ehe Gertrud starb.«
»Freilich,« meinte der Abendfriede; »ich habe sie dir eben
genommen, damit du anderen Sinnes würdest; denn ich wußte,
alsdann würdest du dich bekehren. Und soll ich dir sagen, warum ich
das wünschte?«
»Nun?«
»Die da widerwillig sterben, mäht der Tod, und sie kommen an
einen anderen Ort als die, welche den ewigen Frieden ersehnten.
Ich aber wollte euch beide gern zusammen und bei mir haben: das
war’s.«
Wie das Antlitz des Abendfriedens leuchtete! Hast du schon eines
Menschen Gesicht glänzen gesehen, der eben eine gute Tat getan?
So ungefähr, aber viel verklärter.
Victor Blüthgen
Abendsegen
I.

Das ist des Abends Segen


Und seine stille Tat,
Daß Sturm und Kampf sich legen,
Wenn seine feuchten Schwingen
Hinschatten übern Pfad.

Das hat er vor dem Tage,


Daß er des Herzens Drang,
Daß Sorgen er und Plage
Besänftigt still mit mildem,
Mit süßem Schlafgesang, –

Daß er mit dichtem Schleier


Des Landmanns Pflug umhüllt,
Mit stiller Dankesfeier
Die Hütten und die Herzen
Allüberall erfüllt …

Hans Benzmann

II.

Die Abendglocken ferne


Läuten den Tag zur Ruh,
Die Augen tun auf die Sterne,
Die Blumen die Augen zu.

Die Vöglein in den Bäumen,


Sie schweigen alle still:
Ein jedes heimlich träumen
Vom goldnen Morgen will.

Die Schiffe ruhn im Hafen,


Keine Welle regt sich mehr,
So geh auch du nun schlafen
Und bange nicht so sehr.

Und laß den Vater sorgen,


Der über den Sternen wacht:
Er segnet mit Freuden den Morgen,
Er segnet mit Frieden die Nacht.
Friedrich Güll
Heimgang

Der Mond steigt überm Hügel her,


Mein Weg erglänzt in seinem Licht,
Der Wind hebt kaum die Flügel mehr,
Legt sich ins Korn und rührt sich nicht.

Vom Tal herauf rauscht leis ein Gruß,


Ist es durch Wiesen hin der Bach?
Was zögerst du und sinnst, mein Fuß
Geh nur der lieben Stimme nach.

Da drängt sich Hütt an Hütte traut


Ums Kirchlein hin. Ein Glöcklein geht,
Und friedeselig übertaut
Spricht still mein Herz sein Nachtgebet.

Gustav Falke
Abendwolke

So stille ruht im Hafen


Das tiefe Wasser dort.
Die Ruder sind entschlafen,
Die Schifflein sind im Port.

Nur oben in dem Äther


Der lauen Maiennacht,
Dort segelt noch ein später,
Friedfert’ger Ferge sacht.

Die Barke still und dunkel


Fährt hin in Dämmerschein
Und leisem Sterngefunkel
Am Himmel und hinein.

C. F. Meyer
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