Prepared by: Vaun Jason L.

Salvador, RRT, MSRT

Reference: Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
First-Generation Scanners

• Hounsfield (1973) introduced

parallel beam geometry.
• First EMI brain scanner
• Data acquisition follows the
translate-rotate principle with a
highly collimated x-ray beam.
• Rectilinear pencil beam scanning
• Tube and detector translate, rotate
by 1 degree, and repeat for 180
degrees.
• 4.5 to 5.5 minutes Image
reconstruction
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Second-Generation Scanners
(Rectilinear Multiple Pencil Beam Scanning)
• Translate-rotate principle with
differences from first-generation.
• Linear detector array (about 30
detectors) coupled to x-ray tube.
• Fan beam geometry - small fan with
divergent rays.
• New Image reconstruction algorithm
• translation and rotation for 180
degrees, semicircular path.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Second-Generation Scanners
(Rectilinear Multiple Pencil Beam Scanning)
• Larger rotational increments and
increased detectors lead to
shorter scan times (20 seconds
to 3.5 minutes).
• Scan time inversely proportional
to the number of detectors;
more detectors result in shorter
total scan time.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Third-Generation Scanners
• Fan beam geometry rotating
continuously (360 degrees).
• X-ray tube coupled to a curved
detector array (30 to 40 degrees arc)
for image acquisition.
• Continuously rotating fan beam
scanning
• Path traced by the tube forms a circle,
distinguishing it from earlier CT
scanner generations.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Third-Generation Scanners
• Faster data collection
(within a few seconds) in
third-generation scanners.
• reduced scan time.
• Reduction in artifacts
caused by respiratory
motion.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
FOURTH GENERATION
• Rotating Fan Beam Within
a Circular Detector Array
• Rotating Fan Beam
Outside a Nutating
Detector Ring

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Fourth generation: Rotating Fan Beam
Within a Circular Detector Array
• X-ray tube positioned within a
stationary, circular detector array.
• Wide fan beam geometry with the
apex originating at each detector.
• Single rays sequentially strike the
detector as the tube moves within the
circle.
• Very short scan times varying
between scanners, dependent on the
manufacturer.
• circular path
• fan beam geometry Image
reconstruction algorithm
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Fourth generation: Rotating Fan Beam
Outside a Nutating Detector Ring
• X-ray tube rotates outside the
detector ring
• Detector ring tilts during rotation,
allowing the fan beam to strike
detectors at the far side of the x-ray
tube.
• Detectors closest to the x-ray tube
move out of the path of the x-ray
beam during the tilting action.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Fourth generation: Rotating Fan Beam
Outside a Nutating Detector Ring
• Nutating describes the tilting action
of the detector ring during data
collection.
• Scanners with this scanning motion
eliminate poor geometry seen in
other schemes where the tube
rotates inside its detector ring near
the object.
• Nutate-rotate systems are not
currently manufactured.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multislice CT Scanners: CT Scanning in
Spiral-Helical Geometry

4th Generation
3rd Generation
2nd Generation
1st Generation

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multislice CT Scanners: CT Scanning in
Spiral-Helical Geometry
• Recent development in CT data
acquisition.
• Continuous rotation scanners, also
known as volume scanners, collect
data in volumes rather than
individual slices.
• Slip-ring technology is utilized to
allow continuous rotation of the
gantry.
• X-ray tube path in spiral/helical
geometry describes a spiral or
helix during scanning.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multislice CT Scanners: CT Scanning in Spiral-
Helical Geometry
Terms:
• Spiral geometry
(Siemens)
• Helical geometry
(Toshiba)
• Patient is transported through the
gantry aperture during the scanning
process.
• Volume CT is a term used to
describe the scanning of a patient
volume during a single breath-hold.
• Motivated by the need for faster
scan times and improvements in 3D
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Spiral/Helical Geometry Scanners
• Evolution of spiral/helical
geometry scanners from two to
eight slices per revolution to 16,
32, 40, 64, and 320 slices per
360-degree rotation.
• Prototype scanner in 2007 with
256 slices per 360-degree
rotation, developed by Toshiba
Medical Systems for imaging
moving structures like the
heart and lungs.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Spiral/Helical Geometry Scanners
• Unique feature: Covers the entire
heart in a single rotation.
• Lessons learned from this prototype
led to the development of the
Aquilion family of CT scanners,
including the popular Aquilion ONE
and Aquilion PRIME scanners with
320 slices per revolution. – Now
Cannon
• 16 or more slices per 360-degree
rotation Cone-beam algorithm
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Fifth Generation: Electron-Beam CT (EBCT)
and Dynamic Spatial Reconstructor (DSR)
• Classified as high-speed CT
scanners acquiring data in
milliseconds.
• Fan beam of x-rays produced by an
electron beam scanning tungsten
target rings.
• Designed for high-resolution imaging
of moving organs (e.g., heart) with
minimal motion artifacts.
• No x-ray tube, X-rays produced when
the electron beam collides with
tungsten target. Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
 Electron-Beam CT (EBCT):
EBCT scanner lacks moving physical parts
and is primarily suited for high-speed
imaging of moving organs.
Limitations of EBCT:
• EBCT principle considered inadequate
for state-of-the-art cardiac imaging or
general radiology applications

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Sixth-Generation Scanners: The Dual-Source CT
Scanner
• MSCT Scanners' Overall Goal:
• Improve volume coverage speed.
• Provide enhanced spatial and temporal
resolution compared to older four-slice
scanners.
• 64-Slice Volume Scanners:
• Offer better spatial and temporal
resolution
• Encounter challenges in handling
artifacts in CT angiography (CTA) and
addressing mechanical forces during
attempts to reduce rotation time.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Sixth-Generation Scanners: The Dual-Source CT
Scanner
• Introduction of DSCT Scanner:
• Consists of two x-ray tubes and two
sets of detectors offset by 90 degrees
• Specifically designed for cardiac CT
imaging.
• Provides the necessary temporal
resolution to image moving structures
like the heart.
• Represents a new generation of
scanners aimed at solving problems
related to artifacts and mechanical
forces in CT angiography.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Seventh-Generation Scanners: Flat-Panel
CT Scanners
Flat-Panel Digital Detectors in CT:
• Similar to those used in digital
radiography.
• Currently in prototype development for
CT; not yet available for clinical imaging.
• Consideration for categorization as
seventh-generation CT scanners.
Flat-Panel CT Scanner Prototype:
• X-ray tube and detectors are coupled
and positioned in the CT gantry.
• Detector includes cesium iodide (CsI)
scintillator coupled to an amorphous
silicon thin-film transistor array.
• Flat-panel detectors provide excellent
spatial resolution but lack good contrast
resolution.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Seventh-Generation Scanners: Flat-Panel
CT Scanners
Potential Advancements:
• Combination of area detectors with
fast gantry rotation speed deemed
promising for medical CT systems
Anticipated to bring about a
significant leap in the evolution of
medical CT imaging.
Applications Beyond Prototype
Development:
• Flat-panel detectors also under
investigation for breast CT.
• Several dedicated breast CT
prototypes currently being
developed.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY
Spiral-Helical CT and Slip-Ring Technology:
• Enables continuous gantry rotation, a key
component of spiral-helical CT.
• Slip rings are electromechanical devices with
circular conductive rings and brushes
transmitting electrical energy across a
rotating interface.
• CT scanners with slip-ring design are referred
to as continuous rotation, volume CT, or slip-
ring scanners.
Definition of Slip Rings:
• "Electromechanical devices consisting of
circular electrical conductive rings and
brushes that transmit electrical energy across
a rotating interface”

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY
History of Slip-Ring Technology in CT:
• Slip-ring technology is not a new concept
and has been utilized in CT scanners.
• For example, the Varian V-360-3 CT
scanner, an older model, employed slip-
ring design for continuous gantry
rotation.
Advantages of Slip-Ring Technology:
• Facilitates very fast data collection, crucial
for dynamic CT scanning and CT
angiography (CTA).
• Provides electrical power for x-ray tube
operation and transfers signals from
detectors.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Design and Power Supply
Slip-Ring Designs:
• Two designs: disk or pancake type and cylinder.
• Disk design has concentric circles in the plane of rotation.
• Cylinder design has conductive rings along the axis
forming a cylinder
• Brushes transmitting electrical power glide in contact
grooves on the stationary slip ring.
Contactless Slip Ring:
• Latest advance in slip-ring design Enables transfer of
electrical energy across a rotating interface without using
electrical contacts.
Advantages of Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Provide continuous gantry rotation by eliminating long
high-tension cables to the x-ray tube.
• Eliminate the need for unwinding cables after a complete
rotation.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Design and Power Supply
• Advantages of Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Provide continuous gantry rotation by eliminating
long high-tension cables to the x-ray tube.
• Eliminate the need for unwinding cables after a
complete rotation.
• Gantry Location of High-Voltage Generators:
• In slip-ring scanners, high-voltage generators are
located in the gantry.
• In conventional start-stop scanners, cables originate
from the high-voltage generator, usually located in
the x-ray room.
• Power Supply Variation in Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Scanners have either low-voltage or high-voltage slip
rings based on the power supply to the slip ring.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Low-Voltage Slip Ring System
• Signals transmitted to slip rings via low-voltage brushes.
• Brushes glide in contact grooves on the stationary slip ring.
• Slip ring supplies power to the high-voltage transformer High-voltage
transformer then transmits high voltage to the x-ray tube.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
High-Voltage Slip Ring System
• Delivers power to the high-
voltage generator
• High-voltage generator supplies
high voltage to the slip ring.
• Slip ring transfers high voltage to
the x-ray tube.
• High-voltage generator does not
rotate with the x-ray tube in this
system.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Advantages of Slip-ring Technology

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
X-RAY SYSTEM

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
X-Ray Generator
• CT scanners use three-
phase power for efficient
x-ray production
• These generators, located
inside the CT gantry,
convert low-voltage
current, to high-
frequency current

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
 X-Ray Tubes
X-ray Tube Components:
• Disk-shaped rotating anode
Rhenium, tungsten, and
molybdenum (RTM) alloy
• Small target angle (usually 12
degrees)
• high rotation speed (3600 to
10,000 rpm).
• Ceramic insulators for
electrical isolation.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
X-Ray Tubes
Working Life of Tubes:
• Working life ranges from
about 10,000 to 40,000
hours, compared with 1000
hours for conventional tubes
with conventional bearing
technology.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Straton X-Ray Tube Features
• Introduced for use with MSCT scanners.
• Designed by Siemens Medical Solutions.
• Addresses heat dissipation and slow
cooling rates.
• Compact design for fast gantry rotation
(0.37 seconds).
• High cooling rates
• Enables high-speed volume scanning
with high milliamperes and long
exposure times.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
 Filtration
CT Beam Filtration: Initial CT experiments used monochromatic radiation, but clinical CT
employs polychromatic beams.
Filtration serves a dual purpose in CT:
Removal of long-wavelength x rays:
don't contribute to CT image formation but increase patient dose.
Shaping the energy distribution:
uniform beam hardening when x rays pass through filters and the object.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
 Collimation
Removal of long-wavelength x rays,
Beam Hardening:
• Results in increased penetration due to differences in attenuation.
• Solved by introducing additional filtration into the beam.
Shaped Filters (e.g., "Bowtie" Filter):
• Positioned between the x-ray tube and the patient.
• Made of Teflon, low atomic number, high density.
• Compensate for beam path length differences, ensuring more uniform
fluence to the detector.
• Reduce dynamic range of electronics for improved image quality.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
CT DETECTOR TECHNOLOGY
• Ability to capture, absorb, and convert x-ray
photons to electrical signals.
• High capture, absorption, and conversion
efficiency are essential.
• Capture efficiency influenced by detector area
and distance between detectors.
• Absorption efficiency depends on atomic
number, density, size, and thickness of the
detector face.
Require frequent calibrations.
• Influenced by detector element size, focal spot
size, and sampling size (detector pitch).

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Gas-Ionization Detectors
• Third-generation CT scanners, consist of
gas chambers with tungsten plates
• Ionization of xenon gas occurs upon
exposure to x-rays, generating a signal
current proportional to absorbed
photons.
• Quantum detection efficiency is lower
(50%-60%) compared to solid-state
detectors.
• Not utilized in MSCT scanners with
multirow detector arrays, as these
scanners typically opt for third-
generation beam geometry and solid-
state detector arrays.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Scintillation Detectors
• Solid-state detectors consisting of
scintillation crystal coupled to a photodiode
tube.
• X-rays produce scintillations (flashes of
light) in the crystal.
• Light directed to a photomultiplier (PM)
tube for signal conversion.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Scintillation Detectors
• Light from the crystal
strikes the photocathode
of the PM tube, releasing
electrons.
• Electrons cascade through
dynodes, resulting in a
small output signal.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Scintillation Detectors
• Single crystals and polycrystalline
ceramics commonly used.
• Scintillation materials include
cadmium tungstate (CdWO4) and
rare earth oxides.
• GE Gemstone, a garnet scintillator,
introduced for use in CT by GE
Healthcare.
• Photodiode - often made of silicon,
converts light to current as fast as
0.5 to 250 nanoseconds

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
The Stellar Detector
• Siemens Healthcare Stellar
Detector
• First third-generation CT
detectors
• nanotechnology for electronics
miniaturization, fully
integrating them into the
photodiode through Siemens
TrueSignal Technology

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
NanoPanel Prism Detector
• Dual-layer detector by Philips
Healthcare
• Rooted in a 1978 proposal by Brooks
and Di Chiro.
• Designed for spectral CT imaging, it
features a 3D tile-patterned
arrangement.
• Efficient photon conversion, geometric
efficiency, dynamic range, stability,
linearity, uniformity, and low noise.
• Developed based on Philips Healthcare
researchers' work, it absorbs both low-
and high-energy x-rays for optimal CT
imaging.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Detector-Based Spectral CT
• Dual-energy methods in CT include
DSCT by Siemens Healthcare and Fast-
kV switching CT by GE Healthcare.
• DSCT and Fast-kV switching CT
represent primary methods for
spectral information extraction.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Detector-Based Spectral CT
• Two main approaches to dual-energy
CT: Energy Weighting, requiring a
photon-counting energy-resolving
detector, and Material Decomposition,
characterizing materials based on
energy-dependent linear attenuation
coefficients.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multirow/Multislice
Detectors

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Dual-Row/Dual-Slice Detectors (1992)
• Introduced the first dual-slice volume CT
scanner
• Featuring a dual-row, solid-state detector
array and a special x-ray tube with a
double-dynamic focus system.
• The Twin-Beam Technology allows
simultaneous scanning of two contiguous
slices, effectively doubling fan beam ray
density and detector sampling twice for
improved resolution.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multirow/Multislice Detectors

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multirow/ Multislice Detectors
• Increase volume coverage
speed performance of single-
slice and dual-slice CT
scanners.
• Consists of one detector with
rows of detector elements.
• Ranges from 4 to 64 to 320
slices per 360-degree rotation.
• Detector design can influence
the thickness of the slices.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
Multirow/Multislice Detectors

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
 Area Detectors in CT Imaging
• 256-Slice CT Prototype (Toshiba Aquilion):
• Wide area multirow array detector.
• Enables scanning larger volumes, e.g., the entire heart in a
single rotation.
• Flat-Panel Detectors:
• Similar to those used in digital radiography.
• Prototypes:
• Developed and evaluated for CT imaging for breast CT.
• Several prototypes undergoing clinical testing.

Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:

Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016
z-Sharp
Technology

•
A recent innovation, the z-flying focal spot technique (z-Sharp technology),
utilizes the Straton x-ray tube to achieve double sampling with overlapping slices
during a 360-degree rotation. The Siemens Somatom 64 CT scanner, for instance,
provides 64 slices for a 32 × 0.6 mm detector array, resulting in enhanced image
sharpness compared to traditional sampling techniques.
Prepared by: Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT Reference:
Computed Tomography, Euclid Seeram, 4th Ed. 2016